{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,6]],"date-time":"2025-12-06T04:43:49Z","timestamp":1764996229312,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,12]],"date-time":"2020-04-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1586649600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/summer-heart-0930.chufeiyun1688.workers.dev:443\/https\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Systems"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Levels of Automation (LOA) provide a method for describing authority granted to automated system elements to make individual decisions. However, these levels are technology-centric and provide little insight into overall system operation. The current research discusses an alternate classification scheme, referred to as the Level of Human Control Abstraction (LHCA). LHCA is an operator-centric framework that classifies a system\u2019s state based on the required operator inputs. The framework consists of five levels, each requiring less granularity of human control: Direct, Augmented, Parametric, Goal-Oriented, and Mission-Capable. An analysis was conducted of several existing systems. This analysis illustrates the presence of each of these levels of control, and many existing systems support system states which facilitate multiple LHCAs. It is suggested that as the granularity of human control is reduced, the level of required human attention and required cognitive resources decreases. Thus, it is suggested that designing systems that permit the user to select among LHCAs during system control may facilitate human-machine teaming and improve the flexibility of the system.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/systems8020010","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,13]],"date-time":"2020-04-13T04:45:31Z","timestamp":1586753131000},"page":"10","update-policy":"https:\/\/summer-heart-0930.chufeiyun1688.workers.dev:443\/https\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Applying Control Abstraction to the Design of Human\u2013Agent Teams"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Clifford D.","family":"Johnson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Air Force Institute of Technology; Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH 45433-7765, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/summer-heart-0930.chufeiyun1688.workers.dev:443\/https\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6306-3437","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael E.","family":"Miller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Air Force Institute of Technology; Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH 45433-7765, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christina F.","family":"Rusnock","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Air Force Institute of Technology; Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH 45433-7765, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"David R.","family":"Jacques","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Air Force Institute of Technology; Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH 45433-7765, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1109\/THFE2.1960.4503259","article-title":"Man-Computer Symbiosis","volume":"1","author":"Licklider","year":"1960","journal-title":"Ire Trans. Hum. Factors Electron."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"113","article-title":"The effects of level of automation and adaptive automation on human performance, situation awareness and workload in a dynamic control task","volume":"5","author":"Kaber","year":"2004","journal-title":"Issues Erg. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1312","DOI":"10.1080\/00140130600612788","article-title":"Measuring team situation awareness in decentralized command and control environments","volume":"49","author":"Gorman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ergonomics"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327566IJCE0501_3","article-title":"On the Design of Adaptive Automation for Complex Systems","volume":"5","author":"Kaber","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Cogn. Erg."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-20373-7_46","article-title":"How to Make the Most of Your Human: Design Considerations for Single Pilot Operations","volume":"Volume 9174","author":"Schutte","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lecture Notes in Computer Science"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1518\/001872008X312152","article-title":"Vigilance Requires Hard Mental Work and Is Stressful","volume":"50","author":"Warm","year":"2008","journal-title":"Hum. Factors: J. Hum. Factors Erg. Soc."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1145\/2830565","article-title":"The challenges of partially automated driving","volume":"59","author":"Casner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Commun. ACM"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Vlasic, B., and Boudette, N.E. (2020, April 10). Self-Driving Tesla Was Involved in Fatal Crash, U.S. Says. The New York Times. Available online: https:\/\/summer-heart-0930.chufeiyun1688.workers.dev:443\/https\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/07\/01\/business\/self-driving-tesla-fatal-crash-investigation.html."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sheridan, T.B., and VerPlank, W.L. (1978). Human and Computer Control of Undersea Teleoperators, Institute of Tech Cambridge Man-Machine Systems Lab.","DOI":"10.21236\/ADA057655"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Beevis, H., Essens, D., and Schuffel, P.J.M.D. (1995). Improving Function Allocation for Integrated Systems Design, University of Dayton Research Institute. AC\/243 (Panel 8) TP\/7."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMCA.2010.2093888","article-title":"Adaptive Automation, Level of Automation, Allocation Authority, Supervisory Control, and Adaptive Control: Distinctions and Modes of Adaptation","volume":"41","author":"Sheridan","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. ManCybern. Part. A Syst. Hum."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Fitts, P. (1951). Human Engineering for an Effective Air Navigation and Traffic Control System, American Psychological Association."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1177\/001872088502700104","article-title":"The Allocation of Functions in Systems","volume":"27","author":"Price","year":"1985","journal-title":"Hum. Factors J. Hum. Factors Erg. Soc."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clough, B. (2002). Metrics, schmetrics! How the heck do you determine a UAV\u2019s autonomy anyway. Performance Metrics for Intelligent Systems Workshop, NIST Special Publications.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2002-3499"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1002\/hfm.4530050105","article-title":"Teleoperators for advanced manufacturing: Applications and human factors challenges","volume":"5","author":"Draper","year":"1995","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum. Factors Manuf."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1388","DOI":"10.1177\/154193128703101219","article-title":"The Application of Human Factors to the Development of Expert Systems for Advanced Cockpits","volume":"31","author":"Endsley","year":"1987","journal-title":"Proc. Hum. Factors Soc. Annu. Meet."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1080\/001401399185595","article-title":"Level of automation effects on performance, situation awareness and workload in a dynamic control task","volume":"42","author":"Endsley","year":"1999","journal-title":"Ergonomics"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1518\/001872095779064555","article-title":"The Out-of-the-Loop Performance Problem and Level of Control in Automation","volume":"37","author":"Endsley","year":"1995","journal-title":"Hum. Factors J. Hum. Factors Erg. Soc."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1177\/154193120104500209","article-title":"The Effects of Level of Automation on the Out-of-the-Loop Unfamiliarity in a Complex Dynamic Fault-Management Task during Simulated Spaceflight Operations","volume":"45","author":"Lorenz","year":"2001","journal-title":"Proc. Hum. Factors Erg. Soc. Annu. Meet."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Ntuen, C., and Park, E. (1988, January 15\u201318). Human factor issues in teleoperated systems. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Ergonomics of Hybrid Automated Systems I, Louisville, KY, USA."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Proud, R.W., Hart, J.J., and Mrozinski, R.B. (2003). Methods for determining the level of autonomy to design into a human spaceflight vehicle: A function specific approach. Performance Metrics for Intelligent Systems, NIST Special Publications."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1177\/154193128903300227","article-title":"A General Model of Mixed-Initiative Human-Machine Systems","volume":"33","author":"Riley","year":"1989","journal-title":"Proc. Hum. Factors Soc. Annu. Meet."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1109\/3468.844354","article-title":"A model for types and levels of human interaction with automation","volume":"30","author":"Parasuraman","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. ManCybern. Part. A Syst. Hum."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Society of Automotive Engineers (2020, April 10). U.S. Department of Transportation\u2019s New Policy on Automated Vehicles Adopts SAE International\u2019s Levels of Automation for Defining Driving Automation in On-Road Motor Vehicles. Available online: https:\/\/summer-heart-0930.chufeiyun1688.workers.dev:443\/https\/www.newswire.com\/news\/u-s-dept-of-transportations-new-policy-on-automated-vehicles-adopts-sae-5217899."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Milgram, P., Rastogi, A., and Grodski, J. (1995, January 5\u20137). Telerobotic control using augmented reality. Proceedings of the 4th IEEE International Workshop on Robot and Human Communication, Tokyo, Japan."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2015.09.013","article-title":"A literature review on the levels of automation during the years. What are the different taxonomies that have been proposed?","volume":"53","author":"Vagia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Erg."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMCC.2007.905819","article-title":"Human Performance Issues and User Interface Design for Teleoperated Robots","volume":"37","author":"Chen","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. ManCybern. Part. C Appl. Rev."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Rasmussen, J., Pejtersen, A.M., and Goodstein, L.P. (1994). Cognitive Systems Engineering, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1006\/ijhc.1999.0288","article-title":"Principles for modelling function allocation","volume":"52","author":"Hollnagel","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1109\/MIS.2012.1","article-title":"Autonomy and interdependence in human-agent-robot teams","volume":"27","author":"Johnson","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Intell. Syst."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1109\/TEVC.2006.890274","article-title":"A Survey of Artificial Cognitive Systems: Implications for the Autonomous Development of Mental Capabilities in Computational Agents","volume":"11","author":"Vernon","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Evol. Comput."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Neisser, U. (1976). Cognition and Reality: Principles and Implications of Cognitive Psychology, W.H. Freeman and Company."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Weiss, G. (2013). Multiagent Systems, MIT Press."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johnson, C.D., Miller, M., Rusnock, C.F., and Jacques, D.R. (2017, January 5\u20138). A framework for understanding automation in terms of levels of human control abstraction. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (SMC), Banff, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/SMC.2017.8122766"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cox, L.C.A., and Szajnfarber, Z. (2017). System User Pathways to Change. Disciplinary Convergence in Systems Engineering Research, Springer Science and Business Media LLC.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-62217-0_43"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Rosenberg, N. (1982). Learning by Using. Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics, Cambridge University Press. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Woods, D.D., and Hollnagel, E. (2006). Joint Cognitive Systems, Informa UK Limited.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420005684"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McCracken, J.H., and Aldrich, T.B. (1984). Analyses of Selected LHX Mission Functions: Implications for Operator Workload and System Automation Goals, Analyses of Selected LHX Mission Functions: Implications for Operator Workload and System Automation Goals.","DOI":"10.21236\/ADA232330"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1518\/001872008X288394","article-title":"Multiple resources and mental workload","volume":"50","author":"Wickens","year":"2008","journal-title":"Hum. Factors: J. Hum. Factors Erg. Soc."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Johnson, C.D. (2017). A Framework for Analyzing and Discussing Level of Human Control Abstraction, Air Force Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Norris, G. (2020, April 10). Auto-GCAS Saves Unconscious F-16 Pilot\u2014Declassified US Air Force Video. Air Combat Safety content from Aviation Week. Aviation Week. Available online: https:\/\/summer-heart-0930.chufeiyun1688.workers.dev:443\/https\/aviationweek.com\/defense-space\/budget-policy-operations\/auto-gcas-saves-unconscious-f-16-pilot-declassified-usaf."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.3357\/ASEM.3971.2014","article-title":"Spatial Disorientation Mishap Trends in the U.S. Air Force 1993\u20132013","volume":"85","author":"Poisson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Aviat. Space. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Carpenter, F.L. (2020, April 08). Summary of Facts, B-2A, U.S. Air Force Accident Investigation, S\/N 89\u20130127. Available online: https:\/\/summer-heart-0930.chufeiyun1688.workers.dev:443\/http\/www.glennpew.com\/Special\/B2Facts.pdf."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Cox, A. (2017). Functional Gain and Change Mechanisms in Post-Production Complex Systems, The George Washington University."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1201\/9780429458330-6","article-title":"Theoretical Perspectives on Adaptive Automation","volume":"514","author":"Scerbo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hum. Perform. Autom. Auton. Syst."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327051HCI1701_1","article-title":"The Scope and Importance of Human Interruption in Human-Computer Interaction Design","volume":"17","author":"McFarlane","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hum. Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1177\/1555343417737203","article-title":"Issues in Human\u2013Automation Interaction Modeling: Presumptive Aspects of Frameworks of Types and Levels of Automation","volume":"12","author":"Kaber","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Eng. Decis. Mak."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1177\/1555343417727438","article-title":"Automation Stages & Levels, 20 Years After","volume":"12","author":"Wickens","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Eng. Decis. Mak."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1177\/1555343417732856","article-title":"Levels of Automation in Human Factors Models for Automation Design: Why We Might Consider Throwing the Baby Out With the Bathwater","volume":"12","author":"Jamieson","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Eng. Decis. Mak."}],"container-title":["Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/summer-heart-0930.chufeiyun1688.workers.dev:443\/https\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-8954\/8\/2\/10\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T13:30:37Z","timestamp":1760362237000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/summer-heart-0930.chufeiyun1688.workers.dev:443\/https\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-8954\/8\/2\/10"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,12]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6]]}},"alternative-id":["systems8020010"],"URL":"https:\/\/summer-heart-0930.chufeiyun1688.workers.dev:443\/https\/doi.org\/10.3390\/systems8020010","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-8954"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2079-8954"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,12]]}}}