Razlika između verzija stranice "Civilizacija"

Pregled historije

[pregledana izmjena]

← Starija izmjena Novija izmjena →

Uklonjeni sadržaj Dodani sadržaj

VizualnoWikitekst

U redovima

Verzija na dan 27 decembar 2024 u 11:23

Drevni Egipat je primjer civilizacije rane kulture.[1].^[1]

Civilizacija je svako složeno društvo koje karakteriše razvoj države, društvena stratifikacija, urbanizacija i simbolički sistemi komunikacije izvan znakovnih ili govornih jezika (naime, sistemi pisanja i grafičke umjetnosti).^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]

Civilizacije uključuju karakteristike kao što su poljoprivreda, arhitektura, infrastruktura, tehnološki napredak, valuta, oporezivanje, regulativa i specijalizacija rada.^[5]^[6]^[7]

Historijski gledano, civilizacija se često shvatala kao veća i "naprednija" kultura, za razliku od manjih, navodno manje naprednih kultura.^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11] U ovom širem smislu, civilizacija je u suprotnosti sa necentralizovanim plemenskim društvima, uključujući kulture nomadskih stočara, neolitskih društava ili lovaca-sakupljača; međutim, ponekad je u suprotnosti sa kulturama koje se nalaze u samim civilizacijama. Civilizacije su organizovana gusto naseljena naselja podeljena na hijerarhijske društvene klase sa vladajućom elitom i podređenim gradskim i ruralnim stanovništvom, koje se intenzivno bave poljoprivredom, rudarstvom, malom proizvodnjom i trgovinom. Civilizacija koncentriše moć, proširujući ljudsku kontrolu nad ostatkom prirode, uključujući i druga ljudska bića.^[12]

Riječ civilizacija se odnosi na latinski civitas ili 'grad'. Kako je to objasnilo National Geographic Society: "Zbog toga je najosnovnija definicija riječi civilizacija 'društvo sastavljeno od gradova'."^[13] Najranija pojava civilizacija općenito je povezana sa završnim fazama neolita. Revolucija u zapadnoj Aziji, koja je kulminirala u relativno brzom procesu urbane revolucije i formiranja države, politički razvoj povezan s pojavom vladajuće elite.

Pojam civilizacija su uveli francuski prosvjetitelji u 18. vijeku, kao antitezu neprosvijećenog doba feudalizma. U prvobitnom značenju pojam se vezuje uz nauku i napredak. Korijen riječi obuhvata grad (lat. civis) ili gradnju. Blisko pojmu civilizacija je i kultura (lat. obrađivanje zemljišta). Početkom 19. vijeka postaje sinonim za najviši stepen razvoja materijalne i duhovne kulture, a u 20. vijeku pod uticajem sociološko-antropoloških istraživanja počinje se govoriti o posebnim civilizacijama (predistorijska, plemenska, antička, helenska, stara meksička civilizacija i dr.).

U najširem smislu većina naučnika smatra da se počeci civilizacije podudaraju s osnivanjem prvih država u jugozapadnoj Aziji i sjev. Africi, tj. s pojavom pisma i pismenosti. Civilizacija je takav oblik ljudske kulture u kojem mnogo ljudi živi u urbanim središtima, svladali su umijeće metalurgije, razvili su pismo i metodu pisanja.

Pojam civilizacija izražava jednu višu fazu društva i u društveno-evolutivnom razvoju, fazu koja nastaje poslije divljaštva i varvarstva, kada nastaju pismenost, zanati, trgovina, klase, država itd. U užem smislu pojama civilizacije se suprotstavlja pojmu duhovne kulture i njime se obilježava samo materijalna kultura. Najuže značenje pojma civilizacija nalazimo u slučajevima neopravdanog izjednačavanja pojma civilizacije i tehnike. Pojam civilizacija se upotrebljava kao skup svih društvenih tekovina, materijalnih i duhovnih, koje su zajedničke jednom društvu. Civilizacija označava razne faze i nivoe ukupnog materijalnog, duhovnog i društvenog razvoja ljudske zajednice.

Historija koncepta

Riječ civilizacija dolazi od francuske riječi civilisé ('civiliziran), od latinskog: civilis ('građanski'), vezano za civis ('građanin') i civitas ('grad').^[14] Temeljni traktat je O procesu civilizacije Norberta Eliasa (1939.), koji prati društvene običaje od srednjovjekovnog dvorskog društva do ranog modernog perioda.^[a] U Filozofiji civilizacije (1923.), Albert Schweitzer iznosi dva mišljenja: jedno čisto materijalno i drugo materijalno i etičko. On je rekao da je svjetska kriza nastala zbog toga što je čovječanstvo izgubilo etičku ideju civilizacije, "zbir cjelokupnog napretka koji je čovjek napravio u svakoj sferi djelovanja i sa svake tačke gledišta u onoj mjeri u kojoj napredak pomaže duhovnom usavršavanju pojedinaca kao napredak svakog napretka".^[16]

Apstraktna imenica "civilizacija", što znači "civilizovano stanje", došla je 1760-ih, ponovo iz francuskog. Prva poznata upotreba na francuskom je 1757. od strane Victora de Riquetija, markiza de Mirabeaua, a prva upotreba na engleskom pripisuje se Adamu Fergusonu, koji je u svom Eseju o historiji građanskog društva iz 1767. napisao: "Ne samo individualni napredak od djetinjstva do muškosti, ali sama vrsta od grubosti do civilizacije."^[17] Riječ je stoga bila suprotstavljena barbarstvu ili grubosti, u aktivnoj potrazi za napretkom karakterističnom za doba prosvjetiteljstva.

Kasnih 1700-ih i ranih 1800-ih, tokom Francuske revolucije, "civilizacija" se koristila u jednini, nikada u množini, i značila je napredak čovječanstva u cjelini. To je još uvijek slučaj u francuskom.^[18] Upotreba "civilizacija" kao brojive imenice bila je u povremenoj upotrebi u 19. vijeku,^[b] ali je postala mnogo češća u kasnijem 20. vijeku, ponekad samo u značenju kulture (sama po porjeklu nebrojiva imenica, koja je postala prebrojiva u kontekst etnografije).^[19] Samo u ovom generalizovanom smislu postaje moguće govoriti o "srednjovekovnoj civilizaciji", koja bi u Eliasovom smislu bila oksimoron. Korištenje pojmova "civilizacija" i "kultura" kao ekvivalenata je kontroverzno i općenito odbačeno, tako da se na primjer neke vrste kulture obično ne opisuju kao civilizacije.^[20]

Već u 18. vijeku na civilizaciju se nije uvek gledalo kao na poboljšanje. Jedna historijski važna razlika između kulture i civilizacije potiče iz Rousseauovih spisa, posebno iz njegovog djela o obrazovanju Emile. Ovdje civilizacija, budući da je racionalnija i društveno vođena, nije u potpunosti u skladu s ljudskom prirodom, i "ljudska cjelovitost se može postići samo kroz oporavak ili približavanje izvornom diskurzivnom ili pred-racionalnom prirodnom jedinstvu" (vidi plemeniti divljak). Iz ovoga je razvijen novi pristup, posebno u Njemačkoj, prvo od Johanna Gottfrieda Herdera, a kasnije od strane filozofa kao što su Kierkegaard i Nietzsche. Ovo vidi kulture kao prirodne organizme, koji nisu definisani "svjesnim, racionalnim, deliberativnim aktima", već kao neka vrsta predracionalnog "narodnog duha". Civilizacija, nasuprot tome, iako je racionalnija i uspješnija u materijalnom napretku, neprirodna je i vodi do "poroka društvenog života" kao što su lukavstvo, licemjerje, zavist i srebroljublje.^[18] U Drugom svjetskom ratu, Leo Strauss je, nakon što je pobjegao iz Njemačke, u New Yorku tvrdio da ovakvo mišljenje o civilizaciji stoji iza nacizma i njemačkog militarizma i nihilizma.^[21]

Bilješke

^ It remains the most influential sociological study of the topic, spawning its own body of secondary literature. Notably, Hans Peter Duerr attacked it in a major work (3,500 pages in five volumes, published 1988–2002). Elias, at the time a nonagenarian, was still able to respond to the criticism the year before his death. In 2002, Duerr was himself criticized by Michael Hinz's Der Zivilisationsprozeß: Mythos oder Realität (2002), saying that his criticism amounted to hateful defamation of Elias, through excessive standards of political correctness.^[15]
^ For example, in the title A narrative of the loss of the Winterton East Indiaman wrecked on the coast of Madagascar in 1792; and of the sufferings connected with that event. To which is subjoined a short account of the natives of Madagascar, with suggestions as to their civilizations by J. Hatchard, L.B. Seeley and T. Hamilton, London, 1820.

Reference

^ "Chronology". Digital Egypt for Universities. University College London. 2000. Arhivirano s originala, 16 March 2008.
^ Haviland, William; et al. (2013). Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge. Cengage Learning. str. 250. ISBN 978-1-285-67530-5. Arhivirano s originala, 13 July 2019. Pristupljeno 20 June 2015.
^ Fernández-Armesto, Felipe (2001). Civilizations: Culture, Ambition, and the Transformation of Nature. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-1650-0. Arhivirano s originala, 1 April 2021. Pristupljeno 20 June 2015.
^ Boyden, Stephen Vickers (2004). The Biology of Civilisation. UNSW Press. str. 7–8. ISBN 978-0-86840-766-1. Arhivirano s originala, 30 December 2016. Pristupljeno 20 June 2015.
^ ^a ^b Solms-Laubach, Franz (2007). Nietzsche and Early German and Austrian Sociology. Walter de Gruyter. str. 115, 117, 212. ISBN 978-3-11-018109-8. Arhivirano s originala, 30 December 2016. Pristupljeno 20 June 2015.
^ ^a ^b AbdelRahim, Layla (2015). Children's literature, domestication and social foundation: Narratives of civilization and wilderness. New York: Routledge. str. 8. ISBN 978-0-415-66110-2. OCLC 897810261.
^ Morris, Ian (2013). The Measure of Civilization: How Social Development Decides the Fate of Nations. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15568-5. Arhivirano s originala, 29 May 2023. Pristupljeno 29 May 2023.
^ Adams, Robert McCormick (1966). The Evolution of Urban Society. Transaction Publishers. str. 13. ISBN 978-0-202-36594-7. Arhivirano s originala, 30 December 2016. Pristupljeno 20 June 2015.
^ Wright, Ronald (2004). A Short History anthropological. House of Anansi Press. ISBN 978-0-88784-706-6.
^ Llobera, Josep (2003). An Invitation to Anthropology. Berghahn Books. str. 136–137. ISBN 978-1-57181-597-2. Arhivirano s originala, 30 December 2016. Pristupljeno 20 June 2015.
^ Bolesti, Maria (2013). Barbarism and Its Discontents. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-8537-2. Arhivirano s originala, 21 November 2023. Pristupljeno 20 June 2015.
^ Mann, Michael (1986). The Sources of Social Power. 1. Cambridge University Press. str. 34–41.
^ "Civilizations". National Geographic Education (jezik: engleski). National Geographic Society. 20 May 2022. Arhivirano s originala, 29 May 2023. Pristupljeno 29 May 2023.
^ Sullivan, Larry E. (2009). The SAGE Glossary of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (jezik: engleski). SAGE Publications. str. 73. ISBN 978-1-4129-5143-2. Arhivirano s originala, 30 December 2016. Pristupljeno 20 June 2015.
^ "Denker: Entlarvende Briefe". Der Spiegel (jezik: njemački). Vol. 2002 no. 40. 30 September 2002. Arhivirano s originala, 28 February 2019. Pristupljeno 16 October 2014.
^ Albert Schweitzer. The Philosophy of Civilization, translated by C. T. Campion (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1987), p. 91.
^ Cited after Émile Benveniste, Civilisation. Contribution à l'histoire du mot [Civilisation. Contribution to the history of the word], 1954, published in Problèmes de linguistique générale, Éditions Gallimard, 1966, pp. 336–345 (translated by Mary Elizabeth Meek as Problems in general linguistics, 2 vols., 1971).
^ ^a ^b Velkley, Richard (2002). "The Tension in the Beautiful: On Culture and Civilization in Rousseau and German Philosophy". Being after Rousseau: Philosophy and Culture in Question. The University of Chicago Press. str. 11–30.
^ "Civilization" (1974), Encyclopædia Britannica 15th ed. Vol. II, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 956. Retrieved 25 August 2007.
^ Lottick, Kenneth V. (1950). "Some Distinctions between Culture and Civilization as Displayed in Sociological Literature". Social Forces. 28 (3): 240–250. doi:10.2307/2572007. ISSN 0037-7732. JSTOR 2572007. Arhivirano s originala, 24 October 2023. Pristupljeno 19 September 2023.
^ "On German Nihilism" (1999, originally a 1941 lecture), Interpretation 26, no. 3 edited by David Janssens and Daniel Tanguay.

Izvori

Ankerl, Guy (2000) [2000]. Global communication without universal civilization. INU societal research. 1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 978-2-88155-004-1.
Brinton, Crane; et al. (1984). A History of Civilization: Prehistory to 1715 (6th izd.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-389866-8.
Casson, Lionel (1994). Ships and Seafaring in Ancient Times. London: British Museum Press. ISBN 978-0-7141-1735-5.
Chisholm, Jane; Anne Millard (1991). Early Civilization. illus. Ian Jackson. London: Usborne. ISBN 978-1-58086-022-2.
Collcutt, Martin; Marius Jansen; Isao Kumakura (1988). Cultural Atlas of Japan. New York: Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-1927-4.
Drews, Robert (1993). The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe ca. 1200 B.C. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-04811-6.
Edey, Maitland A. (1974). The Sea Traders. New York: Time-Life Books. ISBN 978-0-7054-0060-2.
J. Currie Elles (1908), The influence of commerce on civilization: the Joseph Fisher lecture on commerce delivered at the University of Adelaide by J. Currie Elles esq., April 23rd, 1908 (jezik: engleski) (1st izd.), Adelaide: W. K. Thomas & Co., Wikipodaci Q106369892
Fairservis, Walter A. Jr. (1975). The Threshold of Civilization: An Experiment in Prehistory. New York: Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-12775-0.
Fernández-Armesto, Felipe (2000). Civilizations. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-90171-7.
Ferrill, Arther (1985). The Origins of War: From the Stone Age to Alexander the Great. New York: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-25093-8.
Fitzgerald, C.P. (1969). The Horizon History of China. New York: American Heritage. ISBN 978-0-8281-0005-2.
Fuller, J.F.C. (1954–1957). A Military History of the Western World. 3 vols. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
1. From the Earliest Times to the Battle of Lepanto. ISBN 0-306-80304-6 (1987 reprint).
2. From the Defeat of the Spanish Armada to the Battle of Waterloo. ISBN 0-306-80305-4 (1987 reprint).
3. From the American Civil War to the End of World War II. ISBN 0-306-80306-2 (1987 reprint).
Gowlett, John (1984). Ascent to Civilization. London: Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-217090-1.
Hawkes, Jacquetta (1968). Dawn of the Gods. London: Chatto & Windus. ISBN 978-0-7011-1332-2.
Hawkes, Jacquetta; David Trump (1993) [1976]. The Atlas of Early Man. London: Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 978-0-312-09746-2.
Hicks, Jim (1974). The Empire Builders. New York: Time-Life Books.
Hicks, Jim (1975). The Persians. New York: Time-Life Books.
Johnson, Paul (1987). A History of the Jews. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-79091-4.
Jensen, Derrick (2006). Endgame. New York: Seven Stories Press. ISBN 978-1-58322-730-5.
Keppie, Lawrence (1984). The Making of the Roman Army: From Republic to Empire. Totowa, N.J.: Barnes & Noble. ISBN 978-0-389-20447-3.
Korotayev, Andrey, World Religions and Social Evolution of the Old World Oikumene Civilizations: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 2004. ISBN 0-7734-6310-0
Kradin, Nikolay. Archaeological Criteria of Civilization. Social Evolution & History, Vol. 5, No 1 (2006): 89–108. ISSN 1681-4363.
Lansing, Elizabeth (1971). The Sumerians: Inventors and Builders. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-036357-1.
Lee, Ki-Baik (1984). A New History of Korea. trans. Edward W. Wagner, with Edward J. Shultz. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-61575-5.
Morris, Ian (2013). The Measure of Civilization: how Social Development Decides the Fate of Nations. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15568-5.
Nahm, Andrew C. (1983). A Panorama of 5000 Years: Korean History. Elizabeth, N.J.: Hollym International. ISBN 978-0-930878-23-8.
Oliphant, Margaret (1992). The Atlas of the Ancient World: Charting the Great Civilizations of the Past. London: Ebury. ISBN 978-0-09-177040-2.
Rogerson, John (1985). Atlas of the Bible. New York: Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-1206-0.
Sandall, Roger (2001). The Culture Cult: Designer Tribalism and Other Essays. Boulder, Colo.: Westview. ISBN 978-0-8133-3863-7.
Sansom, George (1958). A History of Japan: To 1334. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-0523-3.
Southworth, John Van Duyn (1968). The Ancient Fleets: The Story of Naval Warfare Under Oars, 2600 B.C.–1597 A.D. New York: Twayne.
Thomas, Hugh (1981). An Unfinished History of the World (rev. izd.). London: Pan. ISBN 978-0-330-26458-7.
Cotterell, Yong Yap; Cotterell, Arthur (1975). The Early Civilization of China. New York: Putnam. ISBN 978-0-399-11595-0.
Yurdusev, A. Nuri (2003). International Relations and the Philosophy of History. doi:10.1057/9781403938404. ISBN 978-1-349-40304-2.

Dodatna literatura

Gribbin, John, "Alone in the Milky Way: Why We Are Probably the Only Intelligent Life in the Galaxy", Scientific American, vol. 319, no. 3 (September 2018), pp. 94–99. "Is life likely to exist elsewhere in the [Milky Way] galaxy? Almost certainly yes, given the speed with which it appeared on Earth. Is another technological civilization likely to exist today? Almost certainly no, given the chain of circumstances that led to our existence. These considerations suggest that we are unique not just on our planet but in the whole Milky Way. And if our planet is so special, it becomes all the more important to preserve this unique world for ourselves, our descendants and the many creatures that call Earth home." (p. 99.)

Vanjski linkovi

Commons logo

Commons ima datoteke na temu: Civilizacija

Paradoxofintensity

[16] It remains the most influential sociological study of the topic, spawning its own body of secondary literature. Notably, Hans Peter Duerr attacked it in a major work (3,500 pages in five volumes, published 1988–2002). Elias, at the time a nonagenarian, was still able to respond to the criticism the year before his death. In 2002, Duerr was himself criticized by Michael Hinz's Der Zivilisationsprozeß: Mythos oder Realität (2002), saying that his criticism amounted to hateful defamation of Elias, through excessive standards of political correctness.^[15]

[20] For example, in the title A narrative of the loss of the Winterton East Indiaman wrecked on the coast of Madagascar in 1792; and of the sufferings connected with that event. To which is subjoined a short account of the natives of Madagascar, with suggestions as to their civilizations by J. Hatchard, L.B. Seeley and T. Hamilton, London, 1820.

[ucl-1] "Chronology". Digital Egypt for Universities. University College London. 2000. Arhivirano s originala, 16 March 2008.

[Haviland_2013-2] Haviland, William; et al. (2013). Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge. Cengage Learning. str. 250. ISBN 978-1-285-67530-5. Arhivirano s originala, 13 July 2019. Pristupljeno 20 June 2015.

[Fernández-Armesto_2001-3] Fernández-Armesto, Felipe (2001). Civilizations: Culture, Ambition, and the Transformation of Nature. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-1650-0. Arhivirano s originala, 1 April 2021. Pristupljeno 20 June 2015.

[Boyden_2004-4] Boyden, Stephen Vickers (2004). The Biology of Civilisation. UNSW Press. str. 7–8. ISBN 978-0-86840-766-1. Arhivirano s originala, 30 December 2016. Pristupljeno 20 June 2015.

[Solms-Laubach_2007-5] Solms-Laubach, Franz (2007). Nietzsche and Early German and Austrian Sociology. Walter de Gruyter. str. 115, 117, 212. ISBN 978-3-11-018109-8. Arhivirano s originala, 30 December 2016. Pristupljeno 20 June 2015.

[AbdelRahim-6] AbdelRahim, Layla (2015). Children's literature, domestication and social foundation: Narratives of civilization and wilderness. New York: Routledge. str. 8. ISBN 978-0-415-66110-2. OCLC 897810261.

[7] Morris, Ian (2013). The Measure of Civilization: How Social Development Decides the Fate of Nations. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15568-5. Arhivirano s originala, 29 May 2023. Pristupljeno 29 May 2023.

[Adams_1966-8] Adams, Robert McCormick (1966). The Evolution of Urban Society. Transaction Publishers. str. 13. ISBN 978-0-202-36594-7. Arhivirano s originala, 30 December 2016. Pristupljeno 20 June 2015.

[Wright_2004-9] Wright, Ronald (2004). A Short History anthropological. House of Anansi Press. ISBN 978-0-88784-706-6.

[Llobera_2003-10] Llobera, Josep (2003). An Invitation to Anthropology. Berghahn Books. str. 136–137. ISBN 978-1-57181-597-2. Arhivirano s originala, 30 December 2016. Pristupljeno 20 June 2015.

[:4-11] Bolesti, Maria (2013). Barbarism and Its Discontents. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-8537-2. Arhivirano s originala, 21 November 2023. Pristupljeno 20 June 2015.

[:5-12] Mann, Michael (1986). The Sources of Social Power. 1. Cambridge University Press. str. 34–41.

[13] "Civilizations". National Geographic Education (jezik: engleski). National Geographic Society. 20 May 2022. Arhivirano s originala, 29 May 2023. Pristupljeno 29 May 2023.

[:6-14] Sullivan, Larry E. (2009). The SAGE Glossary of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (jezik: engleski). SAGE Publications. str. 73. ISBN 978-1-4129-5143-2. Arhivirano s originala, 30 December 2016. Pristupljeno 20 June 2015.

[15] "Denker: Entlarvende Briefe". Der Spiegel (jezik: njemački). Vol. 2002 no. 40. 30 September 2002. Arhivirano s originala, 28 February 2019. Pristupljeno 16 October 2014.

[:8-17] Albert Schweitzer. The Philosophy of Civilization, translated by C. T. Campion (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1987), p. 91.

[Benveniste-18] Cited after Émile Benveniste, Civilisation. Contribution à l'histoire du mot [Civilisation. Contribution to the history of the word], 1954, published in Problèmes de linguistique générale, Éditions Gallimard, 1966, pp. 336–345 (translated by Mary Elizabeth Meek as Problems in general linguistics, 2 vols., 1971).

[velkley-19] Velkley, Richard (2002). "The Tension in the Beautiful: On Culture and Civilization in Rousseau and German Philosophy". Being after Rousseau: Philosophy and Culture in Question. The University of Chicago Press. str. 11–30.

[:10-21] "Civilization" (1974), Encyclopædia Britannica 15th ed. Vol. II, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 956. Retrieved 25 August 2007.

[22] Lottick, Kenneth V. (1950). "Some Distinctions between Culture and Civilization as Displayed in Sociological Literature". Social Forces. 28 (3): 240–250. doi:10.2307/2572007. ISSN 0037-7732. JSTOR 2572007. Arhivirano s originala, 24 October 2023. Pristupljeno 19 September 2023.

[:11-23] "On German Nihilism" (1999, originally a 1941 lecture), Interpretation 26, no. 3 edited by David Janssens and Daniel Tanguay.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[a]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[b]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[15]

@@ Red 1: / Red 1: @@
+[[Datoteka:Mohenjodaro_Sindh.jpeg|mini|desno|200px|Grad Mohenjo-daro, je bio izgrađen oko 2600. p. n. e, u okviru civilizacije u dolini Inda]]
-Pojam '''civilizacija''' su uveli [[Francuska|francuski]] [[prosvjetiteljstvo|prosvjetitelji]] u 18. vijeku., kao antitezu neprosvijećenog doba [[feudalizam|feudalizma]]. U prvobitnom značenju pojam se vezuje uz [[nauka|nauku]] i napredak. Korijen [[riječ]]i obuhvaća [[Grad (čvor)|grad]] (lat. civis) ili gradnju. Blisko [[pojam|pojmu]] civilizacija je i [[kultura]] (lat. obrađivanje zemljišta). Početkom 19. [[vijek]]a postaje sinonim za najviši [[Stepen (čvor)|stepen]] razvoja materijalne i duhovne kulture, a u 20. vijeku pod uticajem [[Sociološke discipline|sociološko-antropoloških]] istraživanja počinje se govoriti o posebnim civilizacijama ([[historija|predistorijska]], [[Pleme (čvor)|plemenska]], [[antika|antička]], [[Helenizam|helenska]], [[Meksiko|stara meksička civilizacija]] i dr.).
+[[Datoteka:standard of Ur - Peace Panel - Sumer.jpg|thumb|Drevni [[Sumer|Sumerani]] iz [[Mezopotamija|Mezopotamije]] bili su najstarija civilizacija na svijetu, počevši oko 4000. p. n. e.]]
+[[Datoteka:Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.02.jpg|thumb|upright=1|[[Stari Egipat|Drevni Egipat]] je primjer civilizacije [[Bronzano doba|rane kulture]].[1].<ref name="ucl">{{cite web |url=http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/chronology/index.html|title=Chronology|year=2000|website=Digital Egypt for Universities |publisher=University College London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316015559/http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/chronology/index.html |archive-date=16 March 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref>]]
+'''Civilizacija''' je svako složeno [[društvo]] koje karakteriše razvoj [[Država|države]], [[Društveno raslojavanje|društvena stratifikacija]], [[urbanizacija]] i simbolički sistemi komunikacije izvan znakovnih ili govornih jezika (naime, [[Pismo (jezik)|sistemi pisanja]] i grafičke umjetnosti).<ref name="Haviland 2013">{{cite book|last=Haviland |first=William|title=Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge |publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2013|page=250|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DfEWAAAAQBAJ&q=%22civilization+refers+to+societies%22 |display-authors=etal|isbn=978-1-285-67530-5 |access-date=20 June 2015|archive-date=13 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713215613/https://books.google.com/books?id=DfEWAAAAQBAJ&q=%22civilization+refers+to+societies%22 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Fernández-Armesto 2001">{{cite book|last=Fernández-Armesto|first=Felipe|title=Civilizations: Culture, Ambition, and the Transformation of Nature|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3MNzi698aXwC|isbn=978-0-7432-1650-0|access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=1 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401104653/https://books.google.com/books?id=3MNzi698aXwC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Boyden 2004">{{cite book|last=Boyden|first=Stephen Vickers|title=The Biology of Civilisation|year=2004|pages=7–8|publisher=UNSW Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TX78DfVbM7kC&q=%22the+essential+precondition%22|isbn=978-0-86840-766-1|access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=30 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161230072508/https://books.google.com/books?id=TX78DfVbM7kC&q=%22the+essential+precondition%22|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Solms-Laubach 2007">{{cite book|first=Franz|last=Solms-Laubach|title=Nietzsche and Early German and Austrian Sociology |publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2007|pages=115, 117, 212 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TxTITNduFc4C|isbn=978-3-11-018109-8|access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=30 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161230074441/https://books.google.com/books?id=TxTITNduFc4C&dq |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="AbdelRahim">{{Cite book|title=Children's literature, domestication and social foundation: Narratives of civilization and wilderness|last=AbdelRahim |first=Layla|year=2015|isbn=978-0-415-66110-2|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|page=8|oclc=897810261}}</ref>
+Civilizacije uključuju karakteristike kao što su [[poljoprivreda]], [[arhitektura]], [[infrastruktura]], [[tehnološki napredak]], [[valuta]], [[Porez|oporezivanje]], [[regulativa]] i [[Podjela rada|specijalizacija rada]].<ref name="Solms-Laubach 2007"/><ref name="AbdelRahim" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Morris |first1=Ian |title=The Measure of Civilization: How Social Development Decides the Fate of Nations |url=https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691155685/the-measure-of-civilization |date=2013 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=978-0-691-15568-5 |access-date=29 May 2023 |archive-date=29 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529174320/https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691155685/the-measure-of-civilization |url-status=live }}</ref>
+Historijski gledano, civilizacija se često shvatala kao veća i "naprednija" [[kultura]], za razliku od manjih, navodno manje naprednih kultura.<ref name="Adams 1966">{{cite book |author=Adams, Robert McCormick|title=The Evolution of Urban Society |year=1966 |page=13 |publisher=Transaction Publishers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JrZOwKU0TlsC&q=%22civilizations+are+associated%22|isbn=978-0-202-36594-7|access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=30 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161230073713/https://books.google.com/books?id=JrZOwKU0TlsC&q=%22civilizations+are+associated%22|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Wright 2004">{{cite book|first=Ronald|last=Wright|title=A Short History anthropological. |year=2004 |publisher=House of Anansi Press |isbn=978-0-88784-706-6}}</ref><ref name="Llobera 2003">{{cite book|first=Josep |last=Llobera |title=An Invitation to Anthropology|publisher=Berghahn Books|year=2003|pages=136–137 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_-LDyWxODjAC&q=%22best-known+definition%22 |isbn=978-1-57181-597-2 |access-date=20 June 2015|archive-date=30 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161230074407/https://books.google.com/books?id=_-LDyWxODjAC&q=%22best-known+definition%22|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{cite book|last=Bolesti|first=Maria|title=Barbarism and Its Discontents|year=2013|publisher=Stanford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cpZZKabXvWAC|isbn=978-0-8047-8537-2|access-date=20 June 2015|archive-date=21 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231121220741/https://books.google.com/books?id=cpZZKabXvWAC|url-status=live}}</ref> U ovom širem smislu, civilizacija je u suprotnosti sa necentralizovanim plemenskim društvima, uključujući kulture [[Nomadi|nomadskih stočara]], neolitskih društava ili [[Lovci-sakupljači|lovaca-sakupljača]]; međutim, ponekad je u suprotnosti sa kulturama koje se nalaze u samim civilizacijama. Civilizacije su organizovana gusto naseljena naselja podeljena na hijerarhijske društvene klase sa vladajućom elitom i podređenim gradskim i ruralnim stanovništvom, koje se intenzivno bave poljoprivredom, rudarstvom, malom proizvodnjom i trgovinom. Civilizacija koncentriše moć, proširujući ljudsku kontrolu nad ostatkom prirode, uključujući i druga ljudska bića.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |title=The Sources of Social Power |last=Mann |first=Michael |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1986 |volume=1 |pages=34–41 |author-link=Michael Mann (sociologist)}}
+</ref>
+Riječ civilizacija se odnosi na latinski civitas ili 'grad'. Kako je to objasnilo National Geographic Society: "Zbog toga je najosnovnija definicija riječi civilizacija 'društvo sastavljeno od gradova'."<ref>{{cite web |title=Civilizations |date=20 May 2022 |access-date=29 May 2023 |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/civilizations/ |website=National Geographic Education |publisher=[[National Geographic Society]] |language=en |archive-date=29 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529174213/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/civilizations/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Najranija pojava civilizacija općenito je povezana sa završnim fazama [[Neolit|neolita]]. Revolucija u zapadnoj Aziji, koja je kulminirala u relativno brzom procesu urbane revolucije i formiranja države, politički razvoj povezan s pojavom vladajuće elite.
+Pojam '''civilizacija''' su uveli [[Francuska|francuski]] [[prosvjetiteljstvo|prosvjetitelji]] u 18. vijeku, kao antitezu neprosvijećenog doba [[feudalizam|feudalizma]]. U prvobitnom značenju pojam se vezuje uz [[nauka|nauku]] i napredak. Korijen [[riječ]]i obuhvata [[grad]] (lat. civis) ili gradnju. Blisko [[pojam|pojmu]] civilizacija je i [[kultura]] (lat. obrađivanje zemljišta). Početkom 19. [[vijek]]a postaje sinonim za najviši [[Stepen (čvor)|stepen]] razvoja materijalne i duhovne kulture, a u 20. vijeku pod uticajem [[Sociološke discipline|sociološko-antropoloških]] istraživanja počinje se govoriti o posebnim civilizacijama ([[historija|predistorijska]], [[Pleme (čvor)|plemenska]], [[antika|antička]], [[Helenizam|helenska]], [[Meksiko|stara meksička civilizacija]] i dr.).
 U najširem smislu većina [[nauka|naučnika]] smatra da se počeci civilizacije podudaraju s osnivanjem prvih [[država]] u jugozapadnoj [[Azija|Aziji]] i sjev. [[Afrika|Africi]], tj. s pojavom [[Pismo (jezik)|pisma]] i pismenosti. Civilizacija je takav oblik ljudske kulture u kojem mnogo ljudi živi u [[Urbanizacija|urbanim]] središtima, svladali su umijeće [[metalurgija|metalurgije]], razvili su pismo i [[Metod (čvor)|metodu]] pisanja.
 Pojam civilizacija izražava jednu višu fazu društva i u [[društvo|društveno]]-evolutivnom razvoju, fazu koja nastaje poslije divljaštva i varvarstva, kada nastaju pismenost, [[zanat]]i, [[trgovina]], [[Klasa (čvor)|klase]], [[država]] itd. U užem smislu pojama civilizacije se suprotstavlja [[pojam|pojmu]] duhovne kulture i njime se obilježava samo materijalna kultura. Najuže značenje pojma civilizacija nalazimo u slučajevima neopravdanog izjednačavanja pojma civilizacije i [[tehnika|tehnike]]. Pojam civilizacija se upotrebljava kao skup svih društvenih tekovina, materijalnih i duhovnih, koje su zajedničke jednom društvu. Civilizacija označava razne faze i nivoe ukupnog materijalnog, duhovnog i društvenog razvoja ljudske zajednice.
+== Historija koncepta ==
-Civilizacija je nešto umjetno, nešto što je stvorio [[čovjek]], ona je posljedica izrade sve složenijih oruđa da bi se odgovorilo sve većem ljudskom saznanju o potrebi života u zajednici.
+[[Datoteka:Grün - The End of Dinner.jpg|thumb|''Kraj večere'', [[Jules-Alexandre Grün]] (1913). Norbert Elias u svojoj knjizi ''Civilizacijski proces'' (1939) predstavlja pojavu ponašanja za stolom i drugih oblika ponašanja i samoograničavanja kao karakteristike civiliziranog društva.]]
+Riječ civilizacija dolazi od francuske riječi ''civilisé'' ('civiliziran), od latinskog: ''civilis'' ('građanski'), vezano za ''civis'' ('građanin') i ''civitas'' ('grad').<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3041K2Zv76AC&pg=PT73 |title=The SAGE Glossary of the Social and Behavioral Sciences |last=Sullivan |first=Larry E. |year=2009 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-4129-5143-2 |page=73 |language=en |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=30 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161230003359/https://books.google.com/books?id=3041K2Zv76AC&pg=PT73 |url-status=live }}</ref> Temeljni traktat je ''[[O procesu civilizacije]]'' [[Norbert Elias|Norberta Eliasa]] (1939.), koji prati društvene običaje od srednjovjekovnog dvorskog društva do ranog modernog perioda.{{efn|It remains the most influential sociological study of the topic, spawning its own body of secondary literature. Notably, [[Hans Peter Duerr]] attacked it in a major work (3,500 pages in five volumes, published 1988–2002). Elias, at the time a nonagenarian, was still able to respond to the criticism the year before his death. In 2002, Duerr was himself criticized by Michael Hinz's {{lang|de|Der Zivilisationsprozeß: Mythos oder Realität}} (2002), saying that his criticism amounted to hateful defamation of Elias, through excessive standards of [[political correctness]].<ref>{{cite magazine |magazine=[[Der Spiegel]] |url=http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-25327104.html |issue=40 |volume=2002 |date=30 September 2002 |title=Denker: Entlarvende Briefe |language=de |access-date=16 October 2014 |archive-date=28 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228225831/http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-25327104.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>}} U ''Filozofiji civilizacije'' (1923.), [[Albert Schweitzer]] iznosi dva mišljenja: jedno čisto materijalno i drugo materijalno i etičko. On je rekao da je svjetska kriza nastala zbog toga što je čovječanstvo izgubilo etičku ideju civilizacije, "zbir cjelokupnog napretka koji je čovjek napravio u svakoj sferi djelovanja i sa svake tačke gledišta u onoj mjeri u kojoj napredak pomaže duhovnom usavršavanju pojedinaca kao napredak svakog napretka".<ref name=":8">Albert Schweitzer. ''The Philosophy of Civilization'', translated by C. T. Campion (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1987), p. 91.</ref>
+Apstraktna imenica "civilizacija", što znači "civilizovano stanje", došla je 1760-ih, ponovo iz francuskog. Prva poznata upotreba na francuskom je 1757. od strane [[Victor de Riqueti|Victora de Riquetija]], [[Markiz de Mirabeau|markiza de Mirabeaua]], a prva upotreba na engleskom pripisuje se [[Adam Ferguson|Adamu Fergusonu]], koji je u svom ''Eseju o historiji građanskog društva'' iz 1767. napisao: "Ne samo individualni napredak od djetinjstva do muškosti, ali sama vrsta od grubosti do civilizacije."<ref name="Benveniste">Cited after [[Émile Benveniste]], {{lang|fr|Civilisation. Contribution à l'histoire du mot}} [''Civilisation. Contribution to the history of the word''], 1954, published in {{lang|fr|Problèmes de linguistique générale}}, [[Éditions Gallimard]], 1966, pp. 336–345 (translated by Mary Elizabeth Meek as ''Problems in general linguistics'', 2 vols., 1971).</ref> Riječ je stoga bila suprotstavljena barbarstvu ili grubosti, u aktivnoj potrazi za napretkom karakterističnom za doba prosvjetiteljstva.
+Kasnih 1700-ih i ranih 1800-ih, tokom [[Francuska revolucija|Francuske revolucije]], "civilizacija" se koristila u jednini, nikada u množini, i značila je napredak čovječanstva u cjelini. To je još uvijek slučaj u [[Francuski jezik|francuskom]].<ref name=velkley/> Upotreba "civilizacija" kao brojive imenice bila je u povremenoj upotrebi u 19. vijeku,{{efn|For example, in the title ''A narrative of the loss of the Winterton East Indiaman wrecked on the coast of Madagascar in 1792; and of the sufferings connected with that event. To which is subjoined a short account of the natives of Madagascar, with suggestions as to their civilizations'' by J. Hatchard, L.B. Seeley and T. Hamilton, London, 1820.}} ali je postala mnogo češća u kasnijem 20. vijeku, ponekad samo u značenju kulture (sama po porjeklu nebrojiva imenica, koja je postala prebrojiva u kontekst etnografije).<ref name=":10">"Civilization" (1974), ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' 15th ed. Vol. II, ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', Inc., 956. Retrieved 25 August 2007.</ref> Samo u ovom generalizovanom smislu postaje moguće govoriti o "srednjovekovnoj civilizaciji", koja bi u Eliasovom smislu bila oksimoron. Korištenje pojmova "civilizacija" i "kultura" kao ekvivalenata je kontroverzno i općenito odbačeno, tako da se na primjer neke vrste kulture obično ne opisuju kao civilizacije.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lottick |first1=Kenneth V. |title=Some Distinctions between Culture and Civilization as Displayed in Sociological Literature |journal=Social Forces |year=1950 |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=240–250 |doi=10.2307/2572007 |jstor=2572007 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2572007 |issn=0037-7732 |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=24 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231024040544/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2572007 |url-status=live }}</ref>
+Već u 18. vijeku na civilizaciju se nije uvek gledalo kao na poboljšanje. Jedna historijski važna razlika između kulture i civilizacije potiče iz [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseauovih]] spisa, posebno iz njegovog djela o obrazovanju Emile. Ovdje civilizacija, budući da je racionalnija i društveno vođena, nije u potpunosti u skladu s ljudskom prirodom, i "ljudska cjelovitost se može postići samo kroz oporavak ili približavanje izvornom diskurzivnom ili pred-racionalnom prirodnom jedinstvu" (vidi [[plemeniti divljak]]). Iz ovoga je razvijen novi pristup, posebno u Njemačkoj, prvo od [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Johanna Gottfrieda Herdera]], a kasnije od strane filozofa kao što su [[Søren Kierkegaard|Kierkegaard]] i [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]. Ovo vidi kulture kao prirodne organizme, koji nisu definisani "svjesnim, racionalnim, deliberativnim aktima", već kao neka vrsta predracionalnog "narodnog duha". Civilizacija, nasuprot tome, iako je racionalnija i uspješnija u materijalnom napretku, neprirodna je i vodi do "poroka društvenog života" kao što su lukavstvo, licemjerje, zavist i srebroljublje.<ref name=velkley>{{cite book|title=Being after Rousseau: Philosophy and Culture in Question |last=Velkley |first=Richard|year=2002|chapter=The Tension in the Beautiful: On Culture and Civilization in Rousseau and German Philosophy|pages=11–30|publisher=The University of Chicago Press}}</ref> U [[Drugi svjetski rat|Drugom svjetskom ratu]], [[Leo Strauss]] je, nakon što je pobjegao iz [[Njemačka|Njemačke]], u [[New York City|New Yorku]] tvrdio da ovakvo mišljenje o civilizaciji stoji iza [[Nacizam|nacizma]] i [[Njemački militarizam|njemačkog militarizma]] i [[Nihilizam|nihilizma]].<ref name=":11">"[https://archive.org/details/LeoStraussGermanNihilismIntegral1941 On German Nihilism]" (1999, originally a 1941 lecture), ''Interpretation'' 26, no. 3 edited by David Janssens and Daniel Tanguay.</ref>
+== Bilješke ==
+{{notelist}}
+== Reference ==
+{{Refspisak}}
+=== Izvori ===
+{{Refbegin|30em}}
+* {{cite book|last= Ankerl |first= Guy |title= Global communication without universal civilization |orig-year= 2000 |series= INU societal research |volume= 1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western |publisher= INU Press |location= Geneva |isbn= 978-2-88155-004-1 |year= 2000 }}
+* {{cite book | last = Brinton | first = Crane | author-link = Crane Brinton | year = 1984 | title = A History of Civilization: Prehistory to 1715 | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofciviliz02brin | edition = 6th | publisher = [[Prentice Hall]] | location = Englewood Cliffs, N.J. | isbn = 978-0-13-389866-8|display-authors=etal}}
+* {{cite book | last = Casson | first = Lionel | year = 1994 | title = Ships and Seafaring in Ancient Times | publisher = British Museum Press | location = London | isbn = 978-0-7141-1735-5}}
+* {{cite book | last = Chisholm | first = Jane |author2=Anne Millard | year = 1991 | title = Early Civilization | others = illus. Ian Jackson | publisher = Usborne | location = London | isbn = 978-1-58086-022-2}}
+* {{cite book | last = Collcutt | first = Martin | author2 = Marius Jansen | author3 = Isao Kumakura | year = 1988 | title = Cultural Atlas of Japan | publisher = Facts on File | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-8160-1927-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/culturalatlasofj00mart | author2-link = Marius Jansen }}
+* {{cite book | last = Drews | first = Robert |author-link = Robert Drews | year = 1993 | title = The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe ca. 1200 B.C | publisher = Princeton University Press | location = Princeton | isbn = 978-0-691-04811-6}}
+* {{cite book | last = Edey | first = Maitland A. | year = 1974 | title = The Sea Traders | publisher = [[Time-Life Books]] | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-7054-0060-2 | url = https://archive.org/details/seatraders00edey }}
+* {{cite Q|Q106369892}}<!-- The influence of commerce on civilization -->
+* {{cite book | last = Fairservis | first = Walter A. Jr. | year = 1975 | title = The Threshold of Civilization: An Experiment in Prehistory | publisher = [[Charles Scribner's Sons|Scribner]] | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-684-12775-0 | url = https://archive.org/details/thresholdofcivil00fair }}
+* {{cite book | last = Fernández-Armesto | first = Felipe | author-link = Felipe Fernández-Armesto | year = 2000 | title = Civilizations | publisher = [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]] | location = London | isbn = 978-0-333-90171-7}}
+* {{cite book | last = Ferrill | first = Arther | year = 1985 | title = The Origins of War: From the Stone Age to Alexander the Great | publisher = [[Thames and Hudson]] | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-500-25093-8}}
+* {{cite book | last = Fitzgerald | first = C.P. | year = 1969 | title = The Horizon History of China | publisher = American Heritage | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-8281-0005-2 | url = https://archive.org/details/horizonhistoryof00fitz }}
+* {{cite book | last = Fuller | first = J.F.C. | author-link = J.F.C. Fuller | year = 1954–1957 | title = A Military History of the Western World | url = https://archive.org/details/militaryhistoryo01full | url-access = registration | others = 3 vols. | publisher = [[Funk & Wagnalls]] | location = New York}}
+*# ''From the Earliest Times to the Battle of Lepanto''. {{ISBN|0-306-80304-6}} (1987 reprint).
+*# ''From the Defeat of the Spanish Armada to the Battle of Waterloo''. {{ISBN|0-306-80305-4}} (1987 reprint).
+*# ''From the American Civil War to the End of World War II''. {{ISBN|0-306-80306-2}} (1987 reprint).
+* {{cite book | last = Gowlett | first = John | year = 1984 | title = Ascent to Civilization | publisher = Collins | location = London | isbn = 978-0-00-217090-1}}
+* {{cite book | last = Hawkes | first = Jacquetta | author-link = Jacquetta Hawkes | year = 1968 | title = Dawn of the Gods | publisher = [[Chatto & Windus]] | location = London | isbn = 978-0-7011-1332-2}}
+* {{cite book | last = Hawkes | first = Jacquetta | author2 = David Trump | orig-year = 1976 | year = 1993 | title = The Atlas of Early Man | publisher = [[Dorling Kindersley]] | location = London | isbn = 978-0-312-09746-2 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/atlasofearlyman0000hawk }}
+* {{cite book | last = Hicks | first = Jim | year = 1974 | title = The Empire Builders | url = https://archive.org/details/empirebuilders00hick | url-access = registration | publisher = Time-Life Books | location = New York}}
+* {{cite book | last = Hicks | first = Jim | year = 1975 | title = The Persians | publisher = Time-Life Books | location = New York}}
+* {{cite book | last = Johnson | first = Paul | author-link = Paul Johnson (writer) | year = 1987 | title = A History of the Jews | publisher = [[Weidenfeld and Nicolson]] | location = London | isbn = 978-0-297-79091-4}}
+* {{cite book | last = Jensen | first = Derrick | author-link = Derrick Jensen | year = 2006 | title = Endgame | publisher = [[Seven Stories Press]] | location = New York | isbn = 978-1-58322-730-5| title-link = Endgame (Derrick Jensen books) }}
+* {{cite book | last = Keppie | first = Lawrence | year = 1984 | title = The Making of the Roman Army: From Republic to Empire | publisher = Barnes & Noble | location = Totowa, N.J. | isbn = 978-0-389-20447-3}}
+* [[Andrey Korotayev|Korotayev, Andrey]], ''World Religions and Social Evolution of the Old World Oikumene Civilizations: A Cross-Cultural Perspective''. [[Lewiston, New York]]: [[Edwin Mellen Press]], 2004. {{ISBN|0-7734-6310-0}}
+* [[Nikolay Kradin|Kradin, Nikolay]]. Archaeological Criteria of Civilization. ''[[Social Evolution & History]]'', Vol. 5, No 1 (2006): 89–108. {{ISSN|1681-4363}}.
+* {{cite book | last = Lansing | first = Elizabeth | year = 1971 | title = The Sumerians: Inventors and Builders | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-07-036357-1 | url = https://archive.org/details/sumeriansinvento00lans }}
+* {{cite book | last = Lee | first = Ki-Baik | year = 1984 | title = A New History of Korea | others = trans. Edward W. Wagner, with Edward J. Shultz | publisher = [[Harvard University Press]] | location = Cambridge | isbn = 978-0-674-61575-5 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/newhistoryofkore0000leek }}
+* {{cite book |last1=Morris |first1=Ian |title=The Measure of Civilization: how Social Development Decides the Fate of Nations |date=2013 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=978-0-691-15568-5}}
+* {{cite book | last = Nahm | first = Andrew C. | year = 1983 | title = A Panorama of 5000 Years: Korean History | publisher = Hollym International | location = Elizabeth, N.J. | isbn = 978-0-930878-23-8}}
+* {{cite book | last = Oliphant | first = Margaret | year = 1992 | title = The Atlas of the Ancient World: Charting the Great Civilizations of the Past | publisher = Ebury | location = London | isbn = 978-0-09-177040-2}}
+* {{cite book | last = Rogerson | first = John | year = 1985 | title = Atlas of the Bible | publisher = [[Infobase Publishing]] | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-8160-1206-0 | url = https://archive.org/details/warmovies00garl }}
+* {{cite book | last = Sandall | first = Roger | author-link = Roger Sandall | year = 2001 | title = The Culture Cult: Designer Tribalism and Other Essays | publisher = Westview | location = Boulder, Colo. | isbn = 978-0-8133-3863-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/culturecultdesig00sand_0 }}
+* {{cite book | last = Sansom | first = George | year = 1958 | title = A History of Japan: To 1334 | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofjapanto00sans | url-access = registration | publisher = Stanford University Press | location = Stanford | isbn = 978-0-8047-0523-3}}
+* {{cite book | last = Southworth | first = John Van Duyn | year = 1968 | title = The Ancient Fleets: The Story of Naval Warfare Under Oars, 2600 B.C.–1597 A.D. | publisher = [[Twayne]] | location = New York}}
+* {{cite book | last = Thomas | first = Hugh | author-link = Hugh Thomas (historian) | year = 1981 | title = An Unfinished History of the World | edition = rev. | publisher = Pan | location = London | isbn = 978-0-330-26458-7}}
+* {{cite book | last1 =Cotterell | first1 =Yong Yap|first2=Arthur|last2=Cotterell | year = 1975 | title = The Early Civilization of China| publisher = Putnam | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-399-11595-0}}
+* {{cite book|doi=10.1057/9781403938404|title=International Relations and the Philosophy of History|year=2003|last1=Yurdusev|first1=A. Nuri|isbn=978-1-349-40304-2}}
+{{Refend}}
+== Dodatna literatura ==
+* [[John Gribbin|Gribbin, John]], [https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/are-humans-alone-in-the-milky-way/ "Alone in the Milky Way: Why We Are Probably the Only Intelligent Life in the Galaxy"], ''[[Scientific American]]'', vol. 319, no. 3 (September 2018), pp.&nbsp;94–99. "Is life likely to exist elsewhere in the [Milky Way] galaxy? Almost certainly yes, given the speed with which it appeared on Earth. Is another technological civilization likely to exist today? Almost certainly no, given the chain of circumstances that led to our existence. These considerations suggest that we are unique not just on our planet but in the whole Milky Way. And if our planet is so special, it becomes all the more important to preserve this unique world for ourselves, our descendants and the many creatures that call Earth home." (p.&nbsp;99.)
+== Vanjski linkovi ==
+{{Commonscat|Civilizations}}
+* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121114065037/http://paradoxofintensity.wordpress.com/about/ Paradoxofintensity]
 [[Kategorija:Sociologija]]
 [[Kategorija:Civilizacije]]
+[[Kategorija:Antropološke kategorije ljudi]]
+[[Kategorija:Kulturološka antropologija]]
-[[an:Civilización]]
+[[Kategorija:Historija kulture]]
-[[ar:حضارة]]
+[[Kategorija:Kultura]]
-[[arz:حضاره]]
+[[Kategorija:Teorija historije]]
-[[az:Sivilizasiya]]
-[[bat-smg:Cėvėlėzacėjė]]
-[[be:Цывілізацыя]]
-[[be-x-old:Цывілізацыя]]
-[[bg:Цивилизация]]
-[[ca:Civilització]]
-[[cs:Civilizace]]
-[[cy:Gwareiddiad]]
-[[da:Civilisation]]
-[[de:Zivilisation]]
-[[el:Πολιτισμός]]
-[[en:Civilization]]
-[[eo:Civilizo]]
-[[es:Civilización]]
-[[et:Tsivilisatsioon]]
-[[eu:Zibilizazio]]
-[[fa:تمدن]]
-[[fi:Sivilisaatio]]
-[[fiu-vro:Tsivilisats'uun]]
-[[fr:Civilisation]]
-[[gan:文明]]
-[[gl:Civilización]]
-[[gu:સંસ્કૃતિ]]
-[[hak:Vùn-mìn]]
-[[he:ציוויליזציה]]
-[[hi:सभ्यता]]
-[[hif:Sabhyata]]
-[[hr:Civilizacija]]
-[[hu:Civilizáció]]
-[[id:Peradaban]]
-[[is:Siðmenning]]
-[[it:Civiltà]]
-[[ja:文明]]
-[[jv:Peradaban]]
-[[ka:ცივილიზაცია]]
-[[kk:Шағын (жергілікті) өркениеттер]]
-[[kn:ನಾಗರೀಕತೆ]]
-[[ko:문명]]
-[[krc:Цивилизация]]
-[[la:Civilizatio]]
-[[lb:Zivilisatioun]]
-[[lt:Civilizacija]]
-[[lv:Civilizācija]]
-[[map-bms:Peradaban]]
-[[mg:Haifomba]]
-[[ml:നാഗരികത]]
-[[mn:Соёл иргэншил]]
-[[ms:Tamadun]]
-[[mwl:Ceblizaçon]]
-[[nap:Civìltà]]
-[[nl:Beschaving]]
-[[nn:Sivilisasjon]]
-[[no:Sivilisasjon]]
-[[oc:Civilizacion]]
-[[pap:Sivilisashon]]
-[[pl:Cywilizacja]]
-[[pnb:رہتل]]
-[[ps:تمدن]]
-[[pt:Civilização]]
-[[qu:Hawaykawsay]]
-[[ro:Civilizație]]
-[[ru:Цивилизация]]
-[[rue:Цівілізація]]
-[[sa:सभ्यता]]
-[[sah:Цивилизация]]
-[[sh:Civilizacija]]
-[[si:ශිෂ්ටාචාරය]]
-[[simple:Civilization]]
-[[sk:Civilizácia]]
-[[sl:Civilizacija]]
-[[sq:Qytetërimi]]
-[[sr:Цивилизација]]
-[[sv:Civilisation]]
-[[sw:Ustaarabu]]
-[[ta:நாகரிகம்]]
-[[te:నాగరికత]]
-[[th:อารยธรรม]]
-[[tl:Kabihasnan]]
-[[tr:Uygarlık]]
-[[uk:Цивілізація]]
-[[ur:تہذیب]]
-[[uz:Tamaddun]]
-[[vec:Siviltà]]
-[[vi:Văn minh]]
-[[war:Sibilisasyón]]
-[[wo:Xay]]
-[[yi:ציוויליזאציע]]
-[[zh:文明]]
-[[zh-yue:文明]]