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{{missing|scientific evidence as to whether GPA correlates with income, job satisfaction, or job effectiveness|date=January 2024}} (I read in Metro a 1984 review article found inconclusive evidence)
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{{Short description|Standardized measurement of academic performance}}
{{About|the measuring of academic achievement|grade levels|Educational stage|other uses|Grade (disambiguation)|and|GPA (disambiguation)}}
{{Multiple issues|{{globalize|article|date=May 2021}}
{{missing|scientific evidence as to whether GPA correlates with income, job satisfaction, or job effectiveness|date=January 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}}}
{{grading}}
 
'''Grading''' in [[education]] is the processapplication of applying standardized [[Measurement|measurements]] forto evaluate varyingdifferent levels of achievementsstudent achievement in a course. Grades can be assignedexpressed as letters (usually A to F), as a range (for example, 1 to 6), as a percentagepercentages, or as a numbernumbers out of a possible total (often out of 100). The exact system that is used varies worldwide. <ref>{{citeCite web |title=Grading Systems by Country 2024 |url=httphttps://wwwworldpopulationreview.repubblica.it/2005/j/sezioni/scuola_e_universita/servizi/studentissimicom/magagnolicountry-premiorankings/magagnoligrading-premio.html|title=Ilsystems-by-country liceale con la media del 9,93 "Sono il più bravo d'Italia"|authoraccess-date=Salvo2024-10-31 Intravaia|website=repubblicaworldpopulationreview.it|date=7 November 2009|language=itcom}}</ref>
 
== Significance ==
In some countries, grades are [[averaged]] to create a <!-- "Grade point average" redirects here - this term is bolded per MOS:BOLD -->'''grade point average''' ('''GPA'''). GPA is calculated by using the number of grade points a student earns in a given period of time.<ref>grade point average. (n.d.). WordNet2.0 Retrieved 3 October 2011, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/grade point average</ref> GPAs are often calculated for [[high school]], [[undergraduate]], and [[graduate school|graduate]] students, and can be used by potential employers or educational institutions to assess and compare applicants. A '''cumulative grade point average''' ('''CGPA'''), sometimes referred to as just GPA, is a measure of performance for all of a student's courses.
In some countries, grades are [[averaged]] to create a <!-- "Grade point average" redirects here - this term is bolded per MOS:BOLD -->'''grade point average''' ('''GPA''').<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of Grade Point Average |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/grade%20point%20average |access-date=2024-10-31 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> GPA is calculated by using the number of grade points a student earns in a given period of time. A GPA is often calculated for [[high school]], [[undergraduate]], and [[graduate school|graduate]] students. A '''cumulative grade point average''' ('''CGPA''') is the average of all the GPAs a student has achieved during their time at the institution.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |date=2023-06-07 |title=What is GPA? |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/student/advice/what-gpa |access-date=2024-10-31 |website=Student |language=en}}</ref> Students are sometimes required to maintain a certain GPA in order to be admitted to a certain academic program or to remain in that program. Grades are also used in decisions to provide a student with financial aid or a scholarship.<ref name=":6" />
 
Grades are seen as an indicator for academic success and ability, and GPA is thought to indicate future job effectiveness and success.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Al-Asmar |first1=Ayah A. |last2=Oweis |first2=Yara |last3=Ismail |first3=Noor H. |last4=Sabrah |first4=Alaa H. A. |last5=Abd-Raheam |first5=Islam M. |date=December 2021 |title=The predictive value of high school grade point average to academic achievement and career satisfaction of dental graduates |journal=BMC Oral Health |language=en |volume=21 |issue=1 |page=300 |doi=10.1186/s12903-021-01662-5 |doi-access=free |pmid=34118913 |pmc=8196503 |issn=1472-6831}}</ref> In addition, research has shown a correlation between GPA and future [[Job satisfaction]].<ref name=":7" /> Studies have also shown that a higher GPA leads to a higher income.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zou |first1=Tao |last2=Zhang |first2=Yue |last3=Zhou |first3=Bo |date=2022-04-12 |title=Does GPA matter for university graduates' wages? New evidence revisited |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=e0266981 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0266981 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=9004755 |pmid=35413073|bibcode=2022PLoSO..1766981Z }}</ref>
 
==History==
Students were given assessments as far back as 500 B.C. but no methods existed to formally measure student performance or track mastery of the subject. In the mid 1600’s Harvard University started to require exit exams to evaluate students, but they were not scored with letter grades.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=History of the letter grading system |url=https://stacker.com/education/history-letter-grading-system |access-date=2024-10-31 |website=Stacker |language=en}}</ref>
[[Yale University]] historian [[George Wilson Pierson]] writes: "According to tradition the first grades issued at Yale (and possibly the first in the country) were given out in the year 1785, when President [[Ezra Stiles]], after examining 58 Seniors, recorded in his diary that there were 'Twenty ''Optimi'', sixteen second ''Optimi'', twelve ''Inferiores'' (''Boni''), ten ''Pejores''.'"<ref>{{cite book|last=Pierson|first=George|year=1983|title=A Yale Book of Numbers. Historical Statistics of the College and University 1701–1976|chapter=C. Undergraduate Studies: Yale College|publisher=Yale Office of Institutional Research|chapter-url=http://oir.yale.edu/1701-1976-yale-book-numbers#C|place=New Haven|page=310|url-status=dead|access-date=30 March 2013|archive-date=21 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121050331/http://oir.yale.edu/1701-1976-yale-book-numbers#C}}</ref> Yale later converted these adjectives into numbers on a 4-point scale, and some historians say this is the origin of the standard modern American GPA scale.{{citation needed |date=November 2022}}▼
 
▲The first record of a grading scale for students was at Yale University. [[Yale University]] historian [[George Wilson Pierson]] writes: "According to tradition the first grades issued at Yale (and possibly the first in the country) were given out in the year 1785, when President [[Ezra Stiles]], after examining 58 Seniors, recorded in his diary that there were 'Twenty ''Optimi'', sixteen second ''Optimi'', twelve ''Inferiores'' (''Boni''), ten ''Pejores''.'"<ref>{{citeCite journal book|last=Pierson |first=George|year=1983|title=A Yale Book of NumbersW. Historical Statistics of the College and University 1701–1976|chapterdate=C.1701–1976 Undergraduate Studies: Yale College|publishertitle=Yale OfficeBook of InstitutionalNumbers Research|chapter-url=httphttps://oir.yale.edu/1701-1976-yale-book-numbers#C|place=New Haven|page=310|url-status=dead|access-date=30 March 2013|archive-date=21 January 2016|archive-url=https:sites/default/web.archive.orgfiles/web/20160121050331/http://oir.yale.edu/1701pierson_1701-1976-yale-book-numbers#C.pdf |journal=}}</ref> By 1837, Yale laterhad converted these adjectives into numbers on a 4-point scale, and some historians say this is the origin of the standard modern American GPA scale.<ref name=":4">{{citationCite neededjournal |last1=Schinske |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Tanner |first2=Kimberly |date=November2014 2022|title=Teaching More by Grading Less (or Differently) |journal=CBE: Life Sciences Education |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=159–166 |doi=10.1187/cbe.cbe-14-03-0054 |issn=1931-7913 |pmc=4041495 |pmid=26086649}}</ref><ref name=":8" />
Bob Marlin argues that the concept of grading students' work quantitatively was developed by a tutor named [[William Farish (professor)|William Farish]] and first implemented by the [[University of Cambridge]] in 1792.<ref>{{cite book|last=Postman|first=Neil|year=1992|publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]]|place=New York|page=13|title=Technopoly The Surrender of Culture to Technology}}</ref> That assertion has been questioned by Christopher Stray, who finds the evidence for Farish as the inventor of the numerical mark to be unpersuasive.<ref name = chris>Christopher Stray, "From Oral to Written Examinations: Cambridge, Oxford and Dublin 1700–1914", History of Universities 20:2 (2005), 94–95.</ref> Stray's article also explains the complex relationship between the mode of examination (oral or written) and the varying philosophies of education these modes imply to both the teacher and the student.<ref name = chris/> As a technology, grading both shapes and reflects many fundamental areas of educational theory and practice.▼
 
▲Bob Marlin argues that the concept of grading students' work quantitatively was developed by a tutor named [[William Farish (professor)|William Farish]] and first implemented by the [[University of Cambridge]] in 1792.<ref>{{cite book|last=Postman|first=Neil|year=1992|publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]]|place=New York|page=13|title=Technopoly The Surrender of Culture to Technology}}</ref> That assertion has been questioned by Christopher Stray, who finds the evidence for Farish as the inventor of the numerical mark to be unpersuasive.<ref name = "chris">Christopher Stray, "From Oral to Written Examinations: Cambridge, Oxford and Dublin 1700–1914", History of Universities 20:2 (2005), 94–95.https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199289288.003.0004</ref> Stray's article also explains the complex relationship between the mode of examination (oral or written) and the varying philosophies of education these modes imply to both the teacher and the student.<ref name ="chris" chris/> As a technology, grading both shapes and reflects many fundamental areas of educational theory and practice.
The A-D/F system was first adopted by [[Mount Holyoke College]] in 1897.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2014/03/letter-grades-deserve-an-f/284372/ |title=Letter Grades Deserve an 'F' |author=Jessica Lahey |date=March 12, 2014 |magazine=[[The Atlantic]]}}</ref>
 
The A-D/F system was first adopted by [[Mount Holyoke College]] in 1897. However, this system did not become widespread until the 1940s, and was still only used by 67% of primary and secondary schools in the United States in 1971.<ref name=":4" />
 
== Criticism ==
It ishas been criticized that grades are only short-term snapshots of how much a student has learned in a given period of time, which only partially reflect the actual performance and does not take sufficient account of the individual development of students.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Stress blockiert Kinder: Warum Noten in der Schule nicht zukunftsfähig sind|url=https://www.focus.de/familie/eltern/nicht-nur-totaler-quatsch-sondern-wirklich-fatal-warum-noten-in-der-schule-nicht-zukunftsfaehig-sind_id_9311398.html|access-date=2020-12-17|website=FOCUS Online|language=de}}</ref> Likewise, poor grades over a longer period of time would give students the impression that they would learn very little or nothing, which jeopardizes the innate intrinsic motivation of every child to learn.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Das Dilemma mit den Schulnoten|url=https://www.n-tv.de/panorama/Das-Dilemma-mit-den-Schulnoten-article20263200.html|access-date=2020-12-17|website=n-tv.de|language=de}}</ref> Children who have already lost their desire to learn and only study for their grades have no reason to continue learning after they have achieved the best possible grade.<ref name=":1" /> In addition, poor grades represent destructive feedback for students, since they do not provide any constructive assistance, but only absolute key figures.<ref name=":0" /> It is also criticized that the way of thinking, which can often be traced back to the grading system, that bad grades lead to poor future prospects, leads to perplexity, pressure, stress and depression among parents and children.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />
 
It is criticized that students often do not learn for their future life or out of interest in the material, but only for the grades and the associated status, which promotes [[bulimic learning]].<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ammel|first=Rainer|title=Gute Noten ohne Stress: Ein Lehrer verrät die besten Tipps und Tricks, um das Gymnasium erfolgreich zu bestehen|publisher=Heyne Verlag|year=2017|isbn=9783641197285}}</ref>
 
German philosopher and publicist [[Richard David Precht]] criticizes the system of school grades in his book ''[[Anna, die Schule und der liebe Gott|Anna, die Schule und der liebe Gott: Der Verrat des Bildungssystems an unseren Kindern]]''. He believes that numbers from 1 to 6 (the school grading system used in Germany) do not do justice to the personalities of the children.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Precht|first=Richard|title=Prinzipien für eine Bildungsreform: Der Besuch des Kindergartens sollte Pflicht sein.|publisher=Die Zeit|year=2013}}</ref> In his opinion, grades are neither meaningful nor differentiated and therefore not helpful.<ref name=":2" /> For example, the questions whether a student has become more motivated, is more interested in a topic, has learned to deal better with failure and whether he has developed new ideas cannot be answered with grades.<ref name=":2" /> Instead, Precht suggests a differentiated written assessment of the students' learning and development path.<ref name=":2" /> In his opinion, the grading system comes from a psychologically and [[pedagogically]] uninformed era and does not belong in the 21st century.<ref name=":2" />
 
German educational innovator [[Margret Rasfeld]] criticizes the system of grades as unhelpful and, in her opinion, the resulting competitive thinking in schools and says: "School is there to organize success and not to document failure."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Jebsen|first=Ken|date=2019-08-18|title=Positionen 18: "Akadämlich" – Freies Denken unerwünscht!|url=https://kenfm.de/positionen-18/|access-date=2020-12-17|website=KenFM.de|language=de-DE |quote=Schule ist dazu da, das Gelingen zu organisieren und nicht das Misslingen zu dokumentieren|archive-date=11 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811085254/https://kenfm.de/positionen-18/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
German neuroscientist [[Gerald Hüther]] criticizes grades for being responsible for ensuring that students cannot specialize in any topic that they are enthusiastic about and have a talent for, since otherwise their grades in other areas would deteriorate.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Rinas|first=Jutta|date=2012-09-05|title=Wie wichtig sind gute Noten?|url=https://www.haz.de/Thema/Specials/HAZ-Themenwoche-Schule/Wie-wichtig-sind-gute-Noten|access-date=2020-12-17|website=HAZ – Hannoversche Allgemeine |language=de |quote=...sich unsere Gesellschaft nicht weiter [entwickele]... Wenn wir alle Kinder [dazu] zwingen, sich an dieselben Bewertungsmaßstäbe anzupassen...}}</ref> He also believes that "our society will not develop further...if we force all children to conform to the same evaluation standards".<ref name=":3" />
 
Grading may also [[Discrimination in education#Teacher bias in grading|reflect the bias]] of the instructor thereby reinforcing systematic bias.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Snell|first1=Martin|last2=Thorpe|first2=Andy|last3=Hoskins|first3=Sherria|last4=Chevalier|first4=Arnaud|date=August 2008|title=Teachers' perceptions and A‐levelA-level performance: is there any evidence of systematic bias?|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03054980701682140|journal=Oxford Review of Education|language=en|volume=34|issue=4|pages=403–423|doi=10.1080/03054980701682140|s2cid=144851201|issn=0305-4985}}</ref>
 
As educators have begun to recognize the potential drawbacks, alternative grading methods, including competency-based assessment, specifications grading, and "ungrading" have become more popular. <ref>{{Citation |last1=Clark |first1=David |title=Specifications Grading |date=2023-06-27 |work=Grading for Growth |pages=65–81 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003445043-8 |access-date=2024-10-31 |place=New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-003-44504-3 |last2=Talbert |first2=Robert|doi=10.4324/9781003445043-8 }}</ref>
 
==Grading systems by country==
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