View source for Modern Jewish historiography

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'''Modern Jewish historiography''' is the development of the [[Jewish history|Jewish historical narrative]] into the [[modern era]]. While Jewish [[Oral Torah|oral history]] and the collection of commentaries in the [[Midrash]] and [[Talmud]] are ancient, with the rise of the [[printing press]] and [[movable type]] in the [[early modern period]], Jewish histories and [[early editions of the Hebrew Bible|early editions of the Torah/Tanakh]] were published which dealt with the history of the Jewish religion, and increasingly, [[Nationalization of history|national histories]] of the [[Jews]], [[Jewish peoplehood]] and [[Jewish identity|identity]]. This was a move from a [[manuscript culture|manuscript or scribal culture]] to a [[printing culture]]. Jewish historians wrote accounts of their collective experiences, but also increasingly used history for political, cultural, and scientific or philosophical exploration. Writers drew upon a corpus of culturally inherited text in seeking to construct a logical narrative to critique or advance the state of the art. Modern Jewish historiography intertwines with intellectual movements such as the European [[Renaissance]] and the [[Age of Enlightenment]] but drew upon earlier works in the [[Late Middle Ages]] and into diverse sources in antiquity.

==Background and context==
[[Mircea Eliade]] defined Judaism as a "historical religion;" Yerushalmi disagreed, but believed Jews practiced oriented or sacred history, such as biblical history, and were the "fathers of meaning in history." However, premodern Judaism before the Renaissance often didn't focus on history, preferring philosophy and mysticism. [[Moshe Idel]] posits a model of Jewish history distinct from the typical role of history in European nationalism, conceived as a unification with, and then a rupture from, Jewish religious tradition.<ref name="Idel-2020" /> Though not many of their works fully survive, [[Hellenistic Jewish]] historians such as [[Artapanus of Alexandria]] and [[Eupolemus]] presented an ''interpretatio Judaica'' which argued for the antiquity of their people, drawing on inherited texts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sterling |first=Gregory E. |date=September 2007 |title=The Jewish Appropriation of Hellenistic Historiography |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/9781405185110 |journal=A Companion to Greek and Roman Historiography |pages=213–224 |doi=10.1002/9781405185110.ch19|isbn=9781405102162 }}</ref>  While Hellenistic Jewish historiography was forgotten by mainstream Jewish thought for many years, it was preserved by the Church and in the [[Book of Maccabees]] from the [[Hasmonean Kingdom]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jelinčič Boeta |first=Klemen |date=2023 |title=Jewish Historiography |journal=Edinost in Dialog |volume=78 |issue=1 |doi=10.34291/edinost/78/01/jelincic |s2cid=263821644 |issn=2385-8907|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The earliest Hebrew books were printed in Rome starting in 1469, and early printers were aware of the strong [[sofer|''sofer'' tradition]] of Hebrew [[scribe|scribal]] production.<ref name="Schrijver-2017" /> The move to printing eliminated the diversity and variation exhibited in manuscripts and enabled texts to reach more people.<ref name="Chabás-2000" /> 

The major publications in Jewish history in the early modern period were influenced by the political climate of their respective times.{{sfn|Brenner|2010|p=15|ps=: "Along with periodization we can also see the differing titles of works on Jewish history that cover more than one era as indexes of their respective orientations. It is no accident that Jost’s work on the history of religion is called The History of the Israelites; that Graetz titles his already nationally oriented work History of the Jews; that Dubnow, as a convinced diasporic nationalist, chooses the title World History of the Jewish People, in which both the national character of the Jews and their dispersal over the whole world are contained; and that in his monumental work Dinur distinguishes between Israel in Its Own Land and Israel in Dispersal. In all these cases the title is already a program."}}{{sfn|Brenner|2010|p=49, 50|ps=: "At the same time, however, they shaped a scholarly discipline that used the weapons of historiography to elaborate new Jewish identities. All over Europe, during the nineteenth century historiography was part of the battle among Jews for their emancipation, their identification with their respective nation-states, and their striving for religious reform. What for Jews had earlier been one Jewish history was now transformed by historians into several Jewish histories in the respective national contexts.At the same time, during the second half of the nineteenth century a new variant of Jewish historiography developed that put passionate emphasis on the existence of a unified Jewish national history. Its begin- nings are found in the work of the most important Jewish historian of the nineteenth century, Heinrich Graetz."}}{{sfn|Meyer|2007|p=661|ps=: "A constant temptation within Jewish historiography has been and is still today its instrumentalization, whether for the sake of emancipation, religious reform, a socialist or Zionist ideology, or the resuscitation and reshaping of Jewish memory for the sake of Jewish survival - all of these standing against the [[Leopold von Ranke|Rankean]] ideal of historical writing for its own sake."}}{{sfn|Yerushalmi|1982|p=85|ps=: "It should be manifest by now that it did not derive from prior Jewish historical writing or historical thought. Nor was it the fruit of a gradual and organic evolution, as was the case with general modern historiography whose roots extend back to the Renaissance. Modern Jewish historiography began precipitously out of that assimilation from without and collapse from within which characterized the sudden emergence of Jews out of the ghetto. It originated, not as scholarly curiosity, but as ideology, one of a gamut of responses to the crisis of Jewish emancipation and the struggle to attain it."}}{{sfn|Biale|1994|p=3|ps=: "The question of Jewish politics lies at the very heart of any attempt to understand Jewish history. The dialectic between power and powerlessness that threads its way from biblical to modern times is one of the central themes in the long history of the Jews and, especially in the modern period, defines one of the key ideological issues in Jewish life. How one understands the history of Jewish politics may well determine the stance one takes on the possibility of Jewish existence in diaspora or the necessity for a Jewish state. Or conversely, perhaps the ideological position one takes on this political question may determine how one interprets Jewish history. It may therefore not be an exaggeration to say that modern Jewish historiography is the historiography of Jewish politics, even when its explicit concerns appear to lie elsewhere. Since the modern historian writes in a context in which political questions are so important, he or she brings them to bear--consciously or not--on the broad field of Jewish history. To take but one famous example, Gershom Scholem's magisterial history of Jewish mysticism cannot be separated from his commitment to Zionism, although in no sense can one speak of a crudely direct correspondence between the one and the other."}} Certain Jewish historians, acting on a desire to achieve Jewish equality, used Jewish history as a tool towards Jewish emancipation and religious reform. Regarding the Jewish historians of the 18th and 19th century, [[Michael A. Meyer]] writes that: "Envisaging Jewish identity as essentially religious, they created a Jewish past that focused on Jewish religious rationality, and stressed Jewish integration within the societies in which Jews lived."{{sfn|Meyer|2007|p=662}}

[[File:Halper 462 Genealogy of the Exilarchs to David and Adam, Cairo Geniza.jpg|left|thumb|''Genealogy of the Exilarchs to David and Adam'', Avraham ben Tamim, Cairo Geniza, 1100s ([[Katz Center for Advanced Judaic Studies|Katz Center]]/[[University of Pennsylvania|UPenn]])<ref>{{Cite web |title=[Genealogy of the Exilarchs to David and Adam]: manuscript. - Colenda Digital Repository |url=https://colenda.library.upenn.edu/catalog/81431-p30c4t39x |access-date=2023-11-28 |website=colenda.library.upenn.edu}}</ref>|alt=Genealogy of the Exilarchs to David and Adam, Avraham ben Tamim, Cairo Geniza, 1100s (Katz Center/UPenn)|243x243px]]

=== Attitudes toward historical writing ===
Talmudic authorities discouraged the writing of history in the medieval and early modern era; the extent to which this was effective in discouraging actual historical production is unclear. [[Moritz Steinschneider]] and [[Arnaldo Momigliano]] had observed that Jewish historiography appears to slow down at the end of the [[Second Temple period]], and even [[Maimonides]] (1138–1204) considered history a waste of time.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Momigliano |first=Arnaldo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Djv5ttMz-HYC&q=jewish |title=The Classical Foundations of Modern Historiography |date=1990 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-07870-3 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Tropper-2004" /> Officially, secular philosophy was seen as a [[gentile]] activity and forbidden. Higher-class Jewish scholars were encouraged to study [[medicine]]. Astrology was also permitted.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Veltri |first=Giuseppe |date=1998 |title=On the Influence of "Greek Wisdom": Theoretical and Empirical Sciences in Rabbinic Judaism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40753221 |journal=Jewish Studies Quarterly |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=300–317 |jstor=40753221 |issn=0944-5706}}</ref> Medicine, astronomy and cosmography were an acceptable blending of religion and science, drawing on the Babylonians.<ref>{{Citation |last=Yoshiko Reed |first=Annette |title=8. "Ancient Jewish Sciences" and the Historiography of Judaism |date=2020-12-31 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9781479823048.003.0008 |work=Ancient Jewish Sciences and the History of Knowledge in Second Temple Literature |pages=195–254 |access-date=2023-12-20 |publisher=New York University Press|doi=10.18574/nyu/9781479823048.003.0008 |isbn=9781479873975 }}</ref> History was read at times but considered an activity pursued by other groups; however, medieval Jewish authorities in the Arab world treated the practice of secular philosophy with [[salutary neglect]], though banned, a blind eye was turned to its practice. In fact, as [[David Berger (historian)|David Berger]] notes, Spanish Jewry was clearly hospitable to philosophy, literary arts and the sciences.<ref name="Berger-2011">{{Citation |last=Berger |first=David |title=Judaism and General Culture in Medieval and Early Modern Times |date=2011 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt21h4xrd.5 |work=Cultures in Collision and Conversation |pages=21–116 |access-date=2023-11-04 |series=Essays in the Intellectual History of the Jews |publisher=Academic Studies Press |doi=10.2307/j.ctt21h4xrd.5 |jstor=j.ctt21h4xrd.5 |isbn=978-1-936235-24-7}}</ref> [[Joseph Caro]] called history books "books of wars," which he prohibited the reading of as the "sitting in the gathering of thoughtless people," and the [[Geonim]], such as [[Saadia Gaon]], implied the roots of heresy or simply lack of education.<ref name="Bonfil-1997" /> Some early attempts at writing history were met with controversy or imposed sanctions or prohibitions, such as bans, selective or general, or ordered burnings, or boycotts and effective sabotage of the publication's success.<ref name="Whitfield-2002" /><ref name="Weinberg-1978" /> The conventional wisdom in Jewish historiography, as epitomized by [[Salo Wittmayer Baron]] and [[Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi]], is that [[halakha|halakhic]] attitudes severely limited the output of medieval Jewish historians, though this has been challenged in part by [[Robert Bonfil]], [[Amos Funkenstein]], and Berger, the former considering the Renaissance to be the "swan song" of earlier work, forming an important Yerushalmi-Bonfil debate in Jewish historiography according to Yerushalmi's student [[David N. Myers]].<ref name="Funkenstein-1989" /><ref name="Bonfil-1988" /><ref name="Bonfil-1997" /><ref name="Berger-2011" /><ref name="Myers-2014" />

[[File:Cairo Genizah Fragment.jpg|thumb|letter from [[Abraham Maimonides]] (1186-1237), in the Cairo Geniza, reprinted 1906 Brockhaus & Efron Jewish Encyclopedia|alt=letter from Abraham Maimonides (1186-1237), in the Cairo Geniza, reprinted 1906 Brockhaus & Efron Jewish Encyclopedia|269x269px]]

[[Amram Tropper]] has explained that intellectual elites used classicist literature and scholasticism to construct identity in the Roman Empire after failed Jewish revolts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stern |first=Sacha |date=2006 |title=Review of Wisdom, Politics, and Historiography. Tractate Avot in the Context of the Graeco-Roman Near East (Oxford Oriental Monographs) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42614660 |journal=Biblica |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=140–143 |jstor=42614660 |issn=0006-0887}}</ref> Explaining through the example of Maimonides, [[Joseph ha-Cohen|ha-Cohen]]'s, and [[Elijah Capsali]] (1485-1550)'s attitude toward history, Bonfil shows there is nonetheless a medieval historiography inherited by later writers, though he acknowledges the paucity of Jewish medieval historiography and the impact of the negative halakhic stance that should not be underestimated.<ref name="Bonfil-1997">{{Cite journal |last=Bonfil |first=Robert |date=1997 |title=Jewish Attitudes toward History and Historical Writing in Pre-Modern Times |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20101283 |journal=Jewish History |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=7–40 |doi=10.1007/BF02335351 |jstor=20101283 |s2cid=161957265 |issn=0334-701X}}</ref> Capsali, an important historian of Muslim and Ottoman history, has a medieval historical approach, with early modern subject matter.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jacobs |first=Martin |date=April 2005 |title=Exposed to All the Currents of the Mediterranean—A Sixteenth-Century Venetian Rabbi on Muslim History |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0364009405000024 |journal=AJS Review |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=33–60 |doi=10.1017/s0364009405000024 |s2cid=162151514 |issn=0364-0094}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shmuelevitz |first=Aryeh |date=August 1978 |title=Capsali as a Source for Ottoman History, 1450–1523 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020743800033614 |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=339–344 |doi=10.1017/s0020743800033614 |s2cid=162799564 |issn=0020-7438}}</ref> Capsali's chronicle may be the first example of a diasporic Jew writing a history of their own location (Venice).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Corazzol |first=Giacomo |date=December 2012 |title=On the sources of Elijah Capsali's Chronicle of the 'Kings' of Venice |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09518967.2012.730796 |journal=Mediterranean Historical Review |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=151–160 |doi=10.1080/09518967.2012.730796 |s2cid=154974512 |issn=0951-8967}}</ref>

Bonfil surmises that the return to traditionalism in orthodoxy was actually a later phenomenon, a reactionary response to modernity.<ref name="Bonfil-1997" /> When those among the halakhic authorities who valued philosophy studied it, such as [[Moses Isserles]], they justified it with a continuity to Hellenistic philosophy.<ref name="Fuss-1994">{{Cite journal |last=Fuss |first=Abraham M. |date=1994 |title=The Study of Science and Philosophy Justified by Jewish Tradition |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40914819 |journal=The Torah U-Madda Journal |volume=5 |pages=101–114 |jstor=40914819 |issn=1050-4745}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Feldman |first=Louis H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ACMg1T6sXGcC |title=Judaism And Hellenism Reconsidered |date=2006 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-14906-9 |language=en}}</ref>

Notably, [[Baruch Spinoza]] was [[herem (censure)|excommunicated]] for transgressing the bounds of Rabbinic thought into the growing domain of Enlightenment philosophy in 1656.<ref>{{Citation |last=Schwartz |first=Daniel B. |title=1. ''Our Rabbi Baruch'': Spinoza and Radical Jewish Enlightenment |date=2015-06-30 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.9783/9780812291513-003/html |pages=25–47 |access-date=2023-11-04 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |language=en |doi=10.9783/9780812291513-003 |isbn=978-0-8122-9151-3}}</ref> Spinoza and rabbi [[Joseph Solomon Delmedigo]], who studied with [[Galileo]], shared a goal to liberate science from theology, and combined it with scriptural references.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rudavsky |first=Tamar |date=March 2013 |title=Galileo and Spinoza: The Science of Naturalizing Scripture |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17496977.2012.738002 |journal=Intellectual History Review |language=en |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=119–139 |doi=10.1080/17496977.2012.738002 |s2cid=170150253 |issn=1749-6977}}</ref> Spinoza and other [[heretics]] such as [[Abraham Abulafia]] or [[ibn Caspi]] became figures in the conflict between emancipation and traditionalism in Jewish political and historical ideology.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wertheim |first=David J. |date=2006 |title=Spinoza's Eyes: The Ideological Motives of German-Jewish Spinoza scholarship |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40753405 |journal=Jewish Studies Quarterly |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=234–246 |doi=10.1628/094457006778994786 |jstor=40753405 |issn=0944-5706}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Idel |first=Moshe |date=2007 |title=Yosef H. Yerushalmi's "Zakhor": Some Observations |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25470222 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=97 |issue=4 |pages=491–501 |jstor=25470222 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref> [[Israël Salvator Révah]], per [[Marina Rustow]], has stressed that the anti-rabbinic themes expressed by both [[Uriel da Costa]] (1585-1640) and Spinoza had emerged from the crucible of Iberian [[crypto-Judaism|crypto-Jewish]] culture.<ref name="Rustow-2014" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lacerda |first=Daniel |date=2009-10-23 |title=Israël Salvator Révah, Uriel da Costa et les marranes de Porto |isbn=978-972-8462-37-6 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/luso/16/2/article-p265_22.xml |journal=Lusotopie |language=en |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=265–269 |doi=10.1163/17683084-01602022 |issn=1257-0273|doi-access=free }}</ref> Early modern [[philology]] (i.e. the study of historical texts) had an important impact on the development of the Enlightenment intellectual movements through work such as that of Spinoza.<ref>{{Citation |last=Bod |first=Rens |title=The Importance of the History of Philology, or the Unprecedented Impact of the Study of Texts |date=2015 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt130h8j8.4 |work=The Practice of Philology in the Nineteenth-Century Netherlands |pages=17–36 |editor-last=van Kalmthout |editor-first=Ton |access-date=2023-11-04 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |jstor=j.ctt130h8j8.4 |isbn=978-90-8964-591-3 |editor2-last=Zuidervaart |editor2-first=Huib}}</ref> [[Richard Simon (priest)|Richard Simon]] also had his work of historical biblical criticism suppressed by the Catholic authorities in France in 1678.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lambe |first=Patrick J. |date=1985 |title=Biblical Criticism and Censorship in Ancien Régime France: The Case of Richard Simon |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1509597 |journal=The Harvard Theological Review |volume=78 |issue=1/2 |pages=149–177 |doi=10.1017/S0017816000027425 |jstor=1509597 |s2cid=162945310 |issn=0017-8160}}</ref> While some Jews were willing to express doubt or disbelief privately, they feared the judgment or ostracism of the community to go too far in criticism of the establishment.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Davis |first=Joseph M. |title=The Wiley-Blackwell History of Jews and Judaism |chapter=Judaism and Science in the Age of Discovery |date=2012-03-19 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118232897.ch15 |pages=257–276 |doi=10.1002/9781118232897.ch15|isbn=9781405196376 }}</ref>

[[File:Cod. Hebr. 120 - Zalman Stern 1849 --- 12a.jpg|thumb|224px|alt=Responsa of the Geonim, 1300s, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek in Vienna|Responsa of the Geonim, 1300s, [[Austrian National Library|Österreichische Nationalbibliothek]], Vienna|left]]

=== Medieval sources ===
About 90% of world Jewry inhabited the Muslim world around the Mediterranean in the medieval period.<ref name="University of Cambridge-2022">{{Cite web |date=2022-05-31 |title=Discarded history: Cairo Genizah treasures |url=https://www.cam.ac.uk/stories/discarded-history-treasures-of-the-cairo-genizah |access-date=2023-11-12 |website=University of Cambridge |language=en}}</ref> Jews of the medieval Islamic world such as [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain|Andalusia]], [[History of the Jews in North Africa (disambiguation)|North Africa]], [[History of the Jews in Syria|Syria]], [[History of the Jews in the Land of Israel|Palestine]], and [[History of the Jews in Iraq|Iraq]] were prolific producers and consumers of historical works in Hebrew, [[Judeo-Arabic]], [[Arabic]] and rarely [[Aramaic]].<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Vehlow |first=Katja |title=Historiography |date=2021 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-judaism/historiography/3A9537802E16ADA43F9829F0037A749C |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 5: Jews in the Medieval Islamic World |volume=5 |pages=974–992 |editor-last=Lieberman |editor-first=Phillip I. |access-date=2023-11-08 |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781139048873.037 |isbn=978-0-521-51717-1}}</ref> [[David B. Ruderman]] has stated that Bonfil's perspective on the complex dialectic between Jews and non-Jews, rather than a simplistic understanding of "influence," is a revisionist perspective with implications for understanding historiography in context be it Christian or Ottoman; Ruderman is a proponent of Bonfil's interpretation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aziz |first=Jeff |date=July 2012 |title=Early Modern Jewry: A New Cultural History by David B. Ruderman Princeton University Press, 2010, 340 pp, ISBN 978-0691144641 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8705.2012.02063.x |journal=Critical Quarterly |language=en |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=82–86 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8705.2012.02063.x}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=December 1982 |title=The World of a Renaissance Jew: The Life and Thought of Abraham ben Mordecai Farissol |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/ahr/87.5.1417 |journal=The American Historical Review (Monographs of the Hebrew Union College, Number 6.) Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press; Distributed by KTAV, New York. 1981. Pp. Xvi, 265. $20.00  |doi=10.1086/ahr/87.5.1417 |issn=1937-5239}}</ref>

Over 400,000 manuscript fragments in the [[Cairo Geniza]] are an important historical source from the [[Fatimid]] period, rediscovered as a historical source in the 18th and 19th centuries. The Geniza has been called a "lost archive." The Geniza is a storeroom in the [[Ben Ezra Synagogue]] in [[Fustat]] which contained scrap documents dating to the 9th century, and now exists at various academic institutions for study.<ref name="Rustow-2020">{{Cite book |url=https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691156477/the-lost-archive |title=The Lost Archive |date=2020-01-14 |isbn=978-0-691-15647-7 |language=en |last1=Rustow |first1=Marina |publisher=Princeton University Press }}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Greenhouse |first=Emily |date=2013-03-01 |title=Treasures in the Wall |language=en-US |magazine=The New Yorker |url=https://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/treasures-in-the-wall |access-date=2023-11-12 |issn=0028-792X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Nirenberg |first=David |date=2011-06-01 |title=From Cairo to Córdoba: The Story of the Cairo Geniza |language=en-US |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/cairo-cordoba-story-cairo-geniza/ |access-date=2023-11-12 |issn=0027-8378}}</ref><ref name="University of Cambridge-2022" /><ref name="Rustow-2014-2">{{Cite book |last=Rustow |first=Marina |date=2014-10-03 |title=Heresy and the Politics of Community |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/9780801455308 |doi=10.7591/9780801455308|isbn=9780801455308 }}</ref>

[[Iggeret of Rabbi Sherira Gaon]] (987)<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=גפני |first1=ישעיהו |last2=Gafni |first2=Isaiah |date=1987 |title=On the Talmudic Chronology in "Iggeret Rav Sherira Gaon" / לחקר הכרונולוגיה התלמודית באיגרת רב שרירא גאון |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23559516 |journal=Zion / ציון |volume=נב |issue=א |pages=1–24 |jstor=23559516 |issn=0044-4758}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=גפני |first1=ישעיהו |last2=Gafni |first2=Isaiah M. |date=2008 |title=On Talmudic Historiography in the Epistle of Rav Sherira Gaon: Between Tradition and Creativity / ההיסטוריוגרפיה התלמודית באיגרת רב שרירא גאון: בין מסורת ליצירה |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23568181 |journal=Zion / ציון |volume=עג |issue=ג |pages=271–296 |jstor=23568181 |issn=0044-4758}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gross |first=Simcha |date=2017 |title=When the Jews Greeted Ali: Sherira Gaon's Epistle in Light of Arabic and Syriac Historiography |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44861517 |journal=Jewish Studies Quarterly |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=122–144 |doi=10.1628/094457017X14909690198980 |jstor=44861517 |issn=0944-5706}}</ref> and ''[[Sefer ha-Qabbalah]]'' (1161)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kraemer |first=Joel L. |date=1971 |editor-last=Cohen |editor-first=Gerson D. |title=A Critical Edition with a Translation and Notes of the Book of Tradition |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1453863 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=61–71 |doi=10.2307/1453863 |jstor=1453863 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref> by [[Abraham ibn Daud]] (ibn David)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Halivni |first=David Weiss |date=1996 |title=Reflections on Classical Jewish Hermeneutics |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3622592 |journal=Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research |volume=62 |pages=21–127 |doi=10.2307/3622592 |jstor=3622592 |issn=0065-6798}}</ref> were two medieval sources available to and trusted by Jewish early modern historians.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chazan |first=Robert |date=1994 |title=The Timebound and the Timeless: Medieval Jewish Narration of Events |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25618660 |journal=History and Memory |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=5–34 |jstor=25618660 |issn=0935-560X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gil |first=Moshe |date=1990 |title=The Babylonian Yeshivot and the Maghrib in the Early Middle Ages |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3622655 |journal=Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research |volume=57 |pages=69–120 |doi=10.2307/3622655 |jstor=3622655 |issn=0065-6798}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marcus |first=Ivan G. |date=1990 |title=History, Story and Collective Memory: Narrativity in Early Ashkenazic Culture |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20689283 |journal=Prooftexts |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=365–388 |jstor=20689283 |issn=0272-9601}}</ref> Ibn David is considered one of the first rationalist Spanish Jewish philosophers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Singer |first=David G. |date=2004 |title=God in Nature or the Lord of the Universe?: The Encounter of Judaism and Science from Hellenistic Times to the Present |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42943720 |journal=Shofar |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=80–93 |jstor=42943720 |issn=0882-8539}}</ref> The 10th century [[responsa of the Geonim]] are an important corpus of correspondence. Iraqi Jews in areas such as [[Baghdad]] and [[Basra]], were an important community in this time period and corresponded with the [[Talmudic academies in Babylonia]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mann |first=Jacob |date=1917 |title=The Responsa of the Babylonian Geonim as a Source of Jewish History |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1451354 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=457–490 |doi=10.2307/1451354 |jstor=1451354 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref>

[[File:Brockhaus_and_Efron_Jewish_Encyclopedia_e8_843-0.jpg|thumb|Yiddish Josippon 1546,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nemoy |first=Leon |date=1929 |title=The Yiddish Yosippon of 1546 in the Alexander Kohut Memorial Collection of Judaica |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40856706 |journal=The Yale University Library Gazette |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=36–39 |jstor=40856706 |issn=0044-0175}}</ref> reprinted 1906 Brockhaus & Efron Jewish Encyclopedia|alt=Yiddish Josippon 1546, reprinted 1906 Brockhaus & Efron Jewish Encyclopedia|368x368px]]

==== ''Josippon'' ====
''[[Josippon]]'' (or ''Sefer/Sepher Josippon''), also called "Josephus of the Jews," was a key medieval source familiar to [[Hasdai ibn Shaprut]] and [[Ibn Hazm]], one of if not the most influential historical works in pre-modern Jewish historiography, probably composed by a pseudonymous "Joseph ben Gorion" in the 10th century based on the earlier [[Josephus Flavius]] and his work ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]''.<ref name="Marcus-1948">{{Cite journal |last=Marcus |first=Ralph |date=1948 |title=A 16TH CENTURY HEBREW CRITIQUE OF PHILO (Azariah dei Rossi's "Meor Eynayim", Pt. I, cc. 3–6) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23503688 |journal=Hebrew Union College Annual |volume=21 |pages=29–71 |jstor=23503688 |issn=0360-9049}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Dönitz |first=Saskia |title=Historiography Among Byzantine Jews: The Case Of Sefer Yosippon |date=2012-01-01 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004216440/B9789004216440-s036.xml |work=Jews in Byzantium |pages=951–968 |access-date=2023-10-29 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004203556.i-1010.171 |isbn=978-90-04-21644-0}}</ref> It relies on the [[Hegesippus (chronicler)|Hegesippus]] (or [[Pseudo-Hegesippus]]), a Latin translator of ''Antiquities'' and Josephus' ''[[The Jewish War]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Avioz |first=Michael |date=2019 |title=The Place of Josephus in Abravanel's Writings |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26833120 |journal=Hebrew Studies |volume=60 |pages=357–374 |jstor=26833120 |issn=0146-4094}}</ref>  The author had access to a decent library of material and drew on [[1 Maccabees]], [[2 Maccabees]], [[Jerome]]'s translation of [[Eusebius]], the [[Aeneid]], [[Macrobius]], [[Orosius]], and [[Livy]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VMk-EAAAQBAJ |title=Sepher Yosippon: A Tenth-Century History of Ancient Israel |date=2022-11-09 |publisher=Wayne State University Press |isbn=978-0-8143-4945-8 |language=en}}</ref> Like its namesake and inspiration, the work commingles Roman history and Jewish history.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bowman |first=Steven |date=2010 |title=Jewish Responses to Byzantine Polemics from the Ninth through the Eleventh Centuries |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5703/shofar.28.3.103 |journal=Shofar |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=103–115 |jstor=10.5703/shofar.28.3.103 |issn=0882-8539}}</ref> ''Yosippon'' was republished in the 16th century and was a historical chronicle of critical importance to medieval Jews.<ref name="Yerushalmi-1979" /> It was relied on by [[Abraham ibn Ezra]] and [[Isaac Abravanel]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Neuman |first=Abraham A. |date=1952 |title=Josippon and the Apocrypha |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1452910 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.2307/1452910 |jstor=1452910 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref> These books were frequently reprinted through the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gertner |first=Haim |date=2007 |title=Epigonism and the Beginning of Orthodox Historical Writing in Nineteenth-Century Eastern Europe |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41482513 |journal=Studia Rosenthaliana |volume=40 |pages=217–229 |doi=10.2143/SR.40.0.2028846 |jstor=41482513 |issn=0039-3347}}</ref><ref name="Schatz-2019">{{Cite book |last=Schatz |first=Andrea |title=Josephus in modern Jewish culture |date=2019 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-39308-0 |series=Studies in Jewish history and culture |location=Leiden Boston (N.Y.)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zeitlin |first=Solomon |date=1963 |title=Josippon |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1453382 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=277–297 |doi=10.2307/1453382 |jstor=1453382 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Dönitz |first=Saskia |title=Sefer Yosippon (Josippon) |date=2015-12-15 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118325162.ch25 |work=A Companion to Josephus |pages=382–389 |editor-last=Chapman |editor-first=Honora Howell |access-date=2023-11-06 |edition=1 |publisher=Wiley |language=en |doi=10.1002/9781118325162.ch25 |isbn=978-1-4443-3533-0 |editor2-last=Rodgers |editor2-first=Zuleika}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Goodman |first1=Martin |last2=Weinberg |first2=Joanna |date=2016 |title=The Reception of Josephus in the Early Modern Period |journal=International Journal of the Classical Tradition |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=167–171 |doi=10.1007/s12138-016-0398-2 |jstor=45240038 |s2cid=255509625 |issn=1073-0508|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The work emerged from the context of [[Hellenistic Judaism]] or [[Romaniote Jew|Romaniote Judaism]] in the [[History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire|Jewish Byzantine Empire]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bowman |first=Steven |date=2021-11-02 |title=Plato and Aristotle in Hebrew Garb: Review of Dov Schwartz, Jewish Thought in Byzantium in the Late Middle Ages |url=https://judaica.ch/article/view/7659 |journal=Judaica |series=Neue Digitale Folge |language=en |volume=2 |doi=10.36950/jndf.2r5 |s2cid=243950830 |issn=2673-4273|doi-access=free }}</ref> The version of ''Josippon'' by the young Balkan scholar [[Yehudah ibn Moskoni]] (1328-1377), printed in [[Byzantium|Constantinople]] in 1510 and translated to English in 1558, became the most popular book published by Jews and about Jews for non-Jews, who ascribed its authenticity to the Roman Josephus, until the 20th century.<ref name="Bowman-1995">{{Cite journal |last=Bowman |first=Steven |date=1995 |title='Yosippon' and Jewish Nationalism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4618850 |journal=Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research |volume=61 |pages=23–51 |jstor=4618850 |issn=0065-6798}}</ref> Born in Byzantium, Moskoni's library of 198 volumes was once considered by historians to be the largest individual Jewish library in medieval Western Europe, although as [[Eleazar Gutwirth]] notes, there were numerous Jewish and ''[[converso]]'' libraries 1229-1550, citing [[Jocelyn Nigel Hillgarth]]. He further notes that Moskoni's library was sold in 1375 for a high price, and that Moskoni specifically commented on the use of non-Jewish sources in ''Josippon''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Eleazar |first=Gutwirth |date=2022 |title=Leo Grech/Yehudah Mosconi: Hebrew Historiography and Collectionism in the Fourteenth Century |url=https://revistas.upsa.es/index.php/helmantica/article/download/679/506/1464 |journal=Helmantica |volume=73 |issue=207 |pages=221–237}}</ref> Moskoni was part of a Byzantine Greek-Jewish milieu that produced a number of philosophical works in Hebrew and a common intellectual community of Jews in the Mediterranean.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sackson |first=Adrian |date=2014 |title=Joseph ben Moses Qilti: Preliminary Study of a Greek-Jewish Philosopher |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24751788 |journal=Jewish Studies Quarterly |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=328–361 |doi=10.1628/094457014X14127716907065 |jstor=24751788 |issn=0944-5706}}</ref>

[[File:Yosippon = Josippon, sive Josephi Ben-Gorionis Historiae Judaicae libri sex Fleuron T154274-1.png|thumb|Printer's [[fleuron (typography)|fleuron]] from 1706 edition of Josippon|alt=Printer's fleuron from 1706 edition of Josippon|222x222px]]

[[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332-1406) 's ''[[Muqaddimah]]'' (1377) also contains a post-biblical Jewish history of the "Israelites in Syria" and he relied on Jewish sources, such as the Arabic translation of ''Josippon'' by [[Zachariah ibn Said]], a [[Yemenite Jew]], according to [[Kâtip Çelebi|Khalifa]] (d. 1655).<ref>{{Citation |last=Bland |first=Kalman |title=An Islamic Theory of Jewish History: The Case of Ibn Khaldun |date=1986-01-01 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004474000/B9789004474000_s006.xml |work=Ibn Khaldun and Islamic Ideology |pages=37–45 |access-date=2023-11-08 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004474000_006 |isbn=978-90-04-47400-0}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fischel |first=Walter J. |date=1961 |title=Ibn Khaldūn's Use of Historical Sources |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1595187 |journal=Studia Islamica |issue=14 |pages=109–119 |doi=10.2307/1595187 |jstor=1595187 |issn=0585-5292}}</ref> [[Saskia Dönitz]] has analyzed an earlier Egyptian version older than the version reconstructed by [[David Flusser]], drawing on the work of a parallel Judaeo-Arabic ''Josippon'' by [[Shulamit Sela]] and fragments in the Cairo Geniza, which indicate that ''Josippon'' is a composite text written by multiple authors over time.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Josippon, Book of |url=https://www.degruyter.com/database/EBR/entry/MainLemma_3407/html |access-date=2023-11-08 |website=De Gruyter |language=en |doi=10.1515/ebr.josipponbookof |last1=Ilan |first1=Nahem |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sela |first=Shulamit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eFnVwQEACAAJ |title=Book of Josippon and its parallel versions in Arabic and Judaeo-Arabic |date=1991 |publisher=Universiṭat Tel Aviv, ha-Ḥug le-Historyah shel ʻam Yiśraʼel |language=he}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Dönitz |first=Saskia |title=Josephus Torn to Pieces—Fragments of Sefer Yosippon in Genizat Germania |date=2013-01-01 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004258501/B9789004258501_007.xml |work=Books within Books |pages=83–95 |access-date=2023-11-08 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004258501_007 |isbn=978-90-04-25850-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vollandt |first=Ronny |date=2014-11-19 |title=Ancient Jewish Historiography in Arabic Garb: Sefer Josippon between Southern Italy and Coptic Cairo |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18750214-12341264 |journal=Zutot |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=70–80 |doi=10.1163/18750214-12341264 |issn=1571-7283}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Bowman on Sela, 'Sefer Yosef ben Guryon ha-ʻArvi' {{!}} H-Net |url=https://networks.h-net.org/node/28655/reviews/30781/bowman-sela-sefer-yosef-ben-guryon-ha-%CA%BBarvi |access-date=2023-11-08 |website=networks.h-net.org}}</ref>

''Josippon'' was also a popular work or a [[volksbuch]], and had further influence such as its Latin translation by [[Christian Hebraist]] [[Sebastian Münster]] which was translated into English by [[Peter Morvyn]], a fellow of [[Magdalen College]] in [[Oxford University|Oxford]] and a [[Canon (clergy)|Canon]] of [[Lichfield]], printed by [[Richard Jugge]], printer to the Queen in England, and according to [[Lucien Wolf]] may have played a role in the [[resettlement of the Jews in England]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wolf |first=Lucien |date=1908 |title="Josippon" in England |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29777757 |journal=Transactions (Jewish Historical Society of England) |volume=6 |pages=277–288 |jstor=29777757 |issn=2047-2331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reiner |first=Jacob |date=1967 |title=The English Yosippon |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1453342 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=126–142 |doi=10.2307/1453342 |jstor=1453342 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref> Munster also translated the historical work of ibn Daud which was included with Morwyng's edition.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vehlow |first=Katja |date=2017 |title=Fascinated by Josephus: Early Modern Vernacular Readers and Ibn Daud's Twelfth-Century Hebrew Epitome of Josippon |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44816356 |journal=The Sixteenth Century Journal |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=413–435 |doi=10.1086/SCJ4802005 |jstor=44816356 |s2cid=166029181 |issn=0361-0160}}</ref> [[Steven Bowman]] notes that ''Josippon'' is an early work that inspired Jewish nationalism and had a significant influence on midrashic literature and talmudic chroniclers as well as secular historians, though considered [[aggadah]] by mainstream Jewish thought, and acted as an [[Urtext (biblical studies)|ur-text]] for 19th century efforts in Jewish national history.<ref name="Bowman-1995" />

=== Jewish expulsions and the Spanish Inquisition ===

[[File:Expulsion judios-en.svg|left|243x243px|map of Jewish expulsions|border]]

[[Expulsions and exoduses of Jews#15th century|Jewish expulsions]] accelerated in the 15th century and influenced the growth in Jewish historiography.<ref name="Wallet-2007">{{Cite journal |last=Wallet |first=Bart |date=2007 |title=Ongoing History: The Successor Tradition in Early Modern Jewish Historiography |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41482510 |journal=Studia Rosenthaliana |volume=40 |pages=183–194 |doi=10.2143/SR.40.0.2028843 |jstor=41482510 |issn=0039-3347}}</ref><ref name="Rustow-2014">{{Cite journal |last=Rustow |first=Marina |date=2014 |title=Yerushalmi and the Conversos |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24709808 |journal=Jewish History |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=11–49 |doi=10.1007/s10835-014-9198-x |jstor=24709808 |s2cid=254599514 |issn=0334-701X}}</ref> Sephardic Jews from Spain, Portugal, and France settled in Italy and the Ottoman Empire during this period, shifting the nexus of Jewry east.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ray |first=Jonathan |date=2009 |title=Iberian Jewry between West and East: Jewish Settlement in the Sixteenth-Century Mediterranean |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41163962 |journal=Mediterranean Studies |volume=18 |pages=44–65 |doi=10.2307/41163962 |jstor=41163962 |issn=1074-164X}}</ref> The [[Languedoc]] region, which had a large population and respected rabbis known collectively as the [[Hachmei Provence]], were [[forced conversion|forced to convert]] or flee in the 14th century, and they sought to avoid detection, which creates a paucity of documentation and a difficult scenario for historians.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mentzer |first=Raymond A. |date=1982 |title=Marranos of Southern France in the Early Sixteenth Century |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1454184 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=72 |issue=4 |pages=303–311 |doi=10.2307/1454184 |jstor=1454184 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref> Within Italy, there was also considerable upheaval with the migration and expulsion of Jews in the [[Papal States]] in the late 1500s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Segre |first=Renata |date=December 1991 |title=Sephardic settlements in Sixteenth-century Italy: A historical and geographical survey |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09518969108569618 |journal=Mediterranean Historical Review |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=112–137 |doi=10.1080/09518969108569618 |issn=0951-8967}}</ref>

The [[Spanish Inquisition]] attempted to burn any parchment or paper containing Hebrew, and any book known to have been translated from Hebrew. This led to an estimated millions of texts destroyed in Spain and Portugal, especially centers of academic learning as [[Salamanca]] and [[Coimbra]], rendering surviving manuscripts in foreign libraries rare and hard to come by.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Roditi |first=Edouard |date=1970 |title=Sephardic Cartographers |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41431091 |journal=European Judaism: A Journal for the New Europe |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=35–37 |jstor=41431091 |issn=0014-3006}}</ref>

[[File:The Chaldeans Carrying Away the Pillars of the Temple of Jerusalem, from The Disasters of the Jewish People, plate 17 MET DP300234.jpg|thumb|[[Maarten van Heemskerck]] (1498–1574), [[Philip Galle]] (1537–1612), The Chaldeans Carrying Away the Pillars of the Temple of Jerusalem, ''The Disasters of the Jewish People'' (1569)|243x243px|alt=Maarten van Heemskerck (1498–1574), Philip Galle (1537–1612), The Chaldeans Carrying Away the Pillars of the Temple of Jerusalem, from The Disasters of the Jewish People (1569)|left]]

Whether the Spanish Inquisition's records are truthful or worthy of trust is the subject of debate. Historians such as [[Yitzhak Baer]] and [[Haim Beinart]] have taken the view that the crypto-Jews were sincerely Jewish; [[Benzion Netanyahu]] has argued they were sincerely Christian converts, and their secret practice of Judaism a myth, before changing his view; [[Norman Roth]] has also argued the Inquisition's records can be trusted, which is disputed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Edwards |first=John |date=1997 |editor-last=Netanyahu |editor-first=B. |editor2-last=Roth |editor2-first=Norman |title=Was the Spanish Inquisition Truthful? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1455191 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=87 |issue=3/4 |pages=351–366 |doi=10.2307/1455191 |jstor=1455191 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref>

==Early modern histories in the post-medieval and Renaissance era==
The 16th century is considered something of a blossoming of Jewish historiography by some historians, such as Yerushalmi, who characterizes the focus as shifting social and post-biblical.<ref name="Yerushalmi-1979" /><ref name="Bonfil-1988" /> Although some historians focus on the 19th century as an important period in the development of modern Jewish historiography, the 16th century is also considered an important period.<ref name="Rutkowski-2010">{{Cite journal |last=Rutkowski |first=Anna |date=2010 |title=Between history and legend |url=https://publishup.uni-potsdam.de/frontdoor/index/index/docId/4143 |journal=PaRDeS: Zeitschrift der Vereinigung für Jüdische Studien e.V. |issue=16 |pages=50–56 |issn=1614-6492}}</ref> Religion figured prominently and the differences in martyrdom and messianic figures in Sephardic and Askenazic communities post-expulsion are the subject of historiographical debate.<ref>{{Citation |last=Berger |first=David |title=Sephardic and Ashkenazic Messianism in the Middle Ages: An Assessment of the Historiographical Debate |date=2011 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt21h4xrd.16 |work=Cultures in Collision and Conversation |pages=289–311 |access-date=2023-11-04 |series=Essays in the Intellectual History of the Jews |publisher=Academic Studies Press |doi=10.2307/j.ctt21h4xrd.16 |jstor=j.ctt21h4xrd.16 |isbn=978-1-936235-24-7}}</ref> Some historians, such as Bonfil, have disagreed with Yerushalmi that this period produced a significant sea change in historiography.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Peters |first=Edward |date=1995 |title=Jewish History and Gentile Memory: The Expulsion of 1492 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20101210 |journal=Jewish History |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=9–34 |doi=10.1007/BF01669187 |jstor=20101210 |s2cid=159523585 |issn=0334-701X}}</ref><ref name="Tropper-2004">{{Cite journal |last=Tropper |first=Amram |date=2004 |title=The Fate of Jewish Historiography after the Bible: A New Interpretation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3590703 |journal=History and Theory |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=179–197 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2303.2004.00274.x |jstor=3590703 |issn=0018-2656}}</ref>

Italian Jewry in particular benefitted from factors such as education, geography, and access to printing. They enjoyed relative freedom during the period and had contact with Christian scholars. Besides their interest in Jewish text, they also pursued the sciences, medicine, music, and history.<ref name="Portraying the Land-2018">{{Citation |title=3. Between Jewish and Christian Maps: The Sixteenth-Century Map of the Israelites' Peregrinations from Mantua |date=2018-05-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9783110570656-006 |work=Portraying the Land |pages=80–101 |access-date=2023-11-24 |publisher=De Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110570656-006 |isbn=9783110570656 }}</ref> The liberal [[House of Este|dukes of d'Este]] practiced toleration of Jewish faith.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Toaff |first1=Ariel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lMYeAQAAMAAJ&q=%5B%5BSamuel+Usque%5D%5D,++Consola%25C3%25A7%25C3%25A3o+%25C3%25A0s+Tribula%25C3%25A7%25C3%25B5es+de+Israel+(%2522Consolation+for+the+Tribulations+of+Israel%2522),+Ferrara,+1553 |title=The Mediterranean and the Jews: Society, culture, and economy in early modern times |last2=Schwarzfuchs |first2=Simon |last3=Horowitz |first3=Elliott S. |date=1989 |publisher=Bar-Ilan University Press |isbn=978-965-226-221-9 |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Portrait of a Man Pointing at a Hebrew Tablet, Campi, Antonio Cremona 1524 -1587.jpg|thumb|Portrait of a Man Pointing at a Hebrew Tablet, [[Antonio Campi]], [[Cremona]] (1524-1587)|alt=Portrait of a Man Pointing at a Hebrew Tablet, Antonio Campi, Cremona (1524-1587)|278x278px]]

''The Book of the Honeycomb's Flow'' (1476) by Italian rabbi [[Judah Messer Leon]] (c.1420-1498) (Judah ben Jehiel, alias Leone di Vitale) is an early work of humanistic classical rhetorical analysis that was also noted by Graetz, which was noted by Bonfil, and paraphrasing [[Israel Zinberg]] stated, he "was a child not only of the old people of Israel, but also of the youthful Renaissance." ''Nofet Zufim'' drew on the classical theoretical writings of [[Cicero]], [[Averroes]] and [[Quintilian]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bonfil |first=Robert |date=1992 |title=The "Book of the Honeycomb's Flow" by Judah Messer Leon: The Rhetorical Dimension of Jewish Humanism in Fifteenth-Century Italy |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20101117 |journal=Jewish History |volume=6 |issue=1/2 |pages=21–33 |doi=10.1007/BF01695207 |jstor=20101117 |s2cid=161950742 |issn=0334-701X}}</ref> While not a work of history, it was a precursor to [[Azariah dei Rossi]] and cited by him as opening the door to the value of secular studies. It was printed by [[Abraham Conat]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lesley |first1=Arthur M. |last2=Leon |first2=Judah Messer |date=1983 |title=Nofet Zufim, on Hebrew Rhetoric |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/rh.1983.1.2.101 |journal=Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=101–114 |doi=10.1525/rh.1983.1.2.101 |jstor=10.1525/rh.1983.1.2.101 |issn=0734-8584}}</ref> [[David ben Judah Messer Leon]], his son, published a humanistic work defending the literary arts in Constantinople in 1497.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tirosh-Rothschild |first=Hava |date=1988 |title=In Defense of Jewish Humanism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20085218 |journal=Jewish History |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=31–57 |doi=10.1007/BF01698568 |jstor=20085218 |s2cid=162257827 |issn=0334-701X}}</ref>

===Zacuto===

The 1504 historic work of the Portuguese royal astronomer<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Banes |first=Daniel |date=1988 |title=The Portuguese Voyages of Discovery and the Emergence of Modern Science |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24536958 |journal=Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=47–58 |jstor=24536958 |issn=0043-0439}}</ref> [[Abraham Zacuto]] (1452-1515),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Neuman |first=Abraham A. |date=1965 |title=Abraham Zacuto: Historiographer |journal=American Academy for Jewish Research |volume=Harry Austryn Wolfson Jubilee Volume on the Occasion of His Seventy-Fifth Birthday, ed. Saul Lieberman |issue=2 |pages=597–629}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Zacuto, Abraham Ben Samuel |url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/15143-zacuto-abraham-ben-samuel |access-date=2023-11-05 |website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> ''Sefer ha-Yuḥasin'' (''Book of the Genealogies''), contains anti-Christian historiographical polemic and urging of strength in the face of persecution and Jewish martyrdom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ben-Shalom |first=Ram |date=2017 |title=Anti-Christian Historiographical Polemic in 'Sefer Yuhasin' |url=https://cris.iucc.ac.il/en/publications/anti-christian-historiographical-polemic-in-sefer-yuhasin |journal=היספניה יודאיקה |language=English |volume=13 |pages=1–42 |issn=1565-0073}}</ref> Still, Zacuto was aware of and depended on secular work.<ref name="Chabás-2000">{{Cite journal |last1=Chabás |first1=José |last2=Goldstein |first2=Bernard R. |date=2000 |title=Astronomy in the Iberian Peninsula: Abraham Zacut and the Transition from Manuscript to Print |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1586015 |journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=90 |issue=2 |pages=iii–196 |doi=10.2307/1586015 |jstor=1586015 |issn=0065-9746}}</ref> Zacuto was an important scientist who befriended Columbus and provided a meaningful new [[astrolabe]] for the Portuguese explorers in addition to his work in history and commentary. [[Abraham A. Neuman]] writes,
{{blockquote|Sefer Yuhasin is a medley of historical biographical notes, reminiscences, comments and observations which often express his inner thoughts. Here, he appears in his strength and weakness, a man of numerous contradictions. He was necessarily a many-sided figure, for he lived and participated in the adventures of an explosive age, midway between medievalism and modernism, holding in its grasp the Inquisition and the discovery of new worlds.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Neuman |first=Abraham A. |date=1967 |title=The Paradoxes and Fate of a Jewish Medievalist |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1453505 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=57 |pages=398–408 |doi=10.2307/1453505 |jstor=1453505 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref>}}

[[File:Abraham Zacut (MUNCYT, Eulogia Merle).jpg|thumb|alt=Zacuto, Eulogia Merle, 2011, National Museum of Science and Technology (Spain)|245x245px|Zacuto, Eulogia Merle, 2011, [[National Museum of Science and Technology (Spain)]]]]

It is primarily a world history with specific attention to the Jewish plight, from creation to 1500.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Levy |first=Raphael |date=1936 |editor-last=Burgos |editor-first=Francisco Cantera |title=Zacuto's Astronomical Activity |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1452099 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=385–388 |doi=10.2307/1452099 |jstor=1452099 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref> ''Sefer Yuhasin'' traces the chronology and development of the Oral Torah, and contains critical appraisal of Talmudic evidence. Zacuto expresses his view of the importance of familiarity with Roman history. He was familiar with ''Josippon'' but was apparently unfamiliar with the genuine Josephus; [[Samuel Shullam]], his editor who published his annotated version in 1566, was familiar with the original Josephus, and inserted comments and glosses with corrections.<ref name="Weinberg-2016" />

===ibn Yahya===

Italian talmudic chronologer [[Gedaliah ibn Yahya ben Joseph]]'s (1515-1587) 1587 ''Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah'' (''Chain of Tradition'') was also of significance during this period.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ibn Yaḥya (or Ibn Yihyah), Gedaliah ben Joseph {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ibn-yahya-or-ibn-yihyah-gedaliah-ben-joseph |access-date=2023-11-05 |website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref><ref name="Yerushalmi-1979" /> It included a justification of Aristotelian and Neoplatonic philosophy.<ref>{{Citation |title=Chapter Eight. Solomon, Aristoteles Judaicus, and the Invention of a Pseudo- Solomonic Library |date=2020-08-10 |work=An Imaginary Trio |pages=172–190 |publisher=De Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110677263-010 |isbn=9783110677263 |s2cid=241221279 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The "chain of tradition" or the successor tradition is also used to refer to the continuation aspect of historians building on the shared reference base of works by creating introductions or citations to prior work, key to rabbinic textual analysis in the [[mishnah]] or [[Masoretic Text|mesorah]] well as Jewish historiography.<ref name="Wallet-2007" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Saldarini |first=Anthony J. |date=1974 |title=The End of the Rabbinic Chain of Tradition |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3263869 |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=93 |issue=1 |pages=97–106 |doi=10.2307/3263869 |jstor=3263869 |issn=0021-9231}}</ref>

[[File:1525-30veneto.jpg|thumb|Abraham Farissol, [[Bartolomeo Veneto]], (1525)|242px|left]]

=== ibn Verga ===
[[Solomon ibn Verga]] (1460-1554)'s 1520 ''[[Scepter of Judah]]'' (''Shevret Yehudah'') was a notable chronicle of Jewish persecutions, written in Italy and published in the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1550.<ref name="Funkenstein-1989">{{Cite journal |last=Funkenstein |first=Amos |date=1989 |title=Collective Memory and Historical Consciousness |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25618571 |journal=History and Memory |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=5–26 |jstor=25618571 |issn=0935-560X}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Melton|first1=J. Gordon|title=Faiths Across Time: 5,000 Years of Religious History [4 Volumes]: 5,000 Years of Religious History|date=2014|page=1514|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-61069-026-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HRnOEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22solomon+ibn+varga%22&pg=RA5-PA1514|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cohen |first=Jeremy |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv2t4c2k |title=A Historian in Exile: Solomon ibn Verga, "Shevet Yehudah," and the Jewish-Christian Encounter |date=2017 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |jstor=j.ctv2t4c2k |isbn=978-0-8122-4858-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ibn Verga, Solomon |url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8029-ibn-verga-solomon |access-date=2023-11-05 |website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The "Shebet Yehudah" and sixteenth century historiography {{!}} Article RAMBI990004793790705171 {{!}} The National Library of Israel |url=https://www.nli.org.il/en/articles/RAMBI990004793790705171/NLI |access-date=2023-11-05 |website=www.nli.org.il |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Raz-Krakotzkin-2007" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hamilton |first1=Michelle M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FbwpEAAAQBAJ&dq=%5B%5BSamuel+Usque%5D%5D,++Consola%25C3%25A7%25C3%25A3o+%25C3%25A0s+Tribula%25C3%25A7%25C3%25B5es+de+Israel+(%2522Consolation+for+the+Tribulations+of+Israel%2522),+Ferrara,+1553&pg=PT250 |title=In and Of the Mediterranean: Medieval and Early Modern Iberian Studies |last2=Silleras-Fernandez |first2=Nuria |date=2021-04-30 |publisher=Vanderbilt University Press |isbn=978-0-8265-0361-9 |language=en}}</ref> It contains some 75 stories of Jewish persecution,<ref name="Cohen-2013">{{Cite journal |last=Cohen |first=Jeremy |date=2013 |title=Interreligious Debate and Literary Creativity: Solomon ibn Verga on the Disputation of Tortosa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24751814 |journal=Jewish Studies Quarterly |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=159–181 |doi=10.1628/094457013X13661210446274 |jstor=24751814 |issn=0944-5706}}</ref> and is a transitional work between the medieval and modern periods of Jewish history.<ref name="Cohen-2009">{{Citation |last=Cohen |first=Jeremy |title=The blood libel in Solomon ibn Verga's Shevet Yehudah |date=2009 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203876404-13/blood-libel-solomon-ibn-verga-shevet-yehudah-jeremy-cohen |work=Jewish Blood |pages=128–147 |access-date=2023-11-05 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780203876404-13 |isbn=978-0-203-87640-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Cultural intermediaries: Jewish intellectuals in early modern Italy |date=2004 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-3779-5 |editor-last=Ruderman |editor-first=Daṿid |series=Jewish culture and contexts |location=Philadelphia, Pa |editor-last2=Veltri |editor-first2=Giuseppe |editor-last3=Wolfenbütteler Arbeitskreis für Renaissanceforschung |editor-last4=Leopold-Zunz-Zentrum zur Erforschung des Europäischen Judentums |editor-last5=Herzog August Bibliothek}}</ref> Born in Spain, Verga's views were shaped by the expulsion in 1492, his forced baptism, and the massacres as he fled Portugal.<ref name="Cohen-2013" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Wacks |first=David A. |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt16gzfs2 |title=Double Diaspora in Sephardic Literature: Jewish Cultural Production Before and After 1492 |date=2015 |publisher=Indiana University Press |jstor=j.ctt16gzfs2 |isbn=978-0-253-01572-3}}</ref> ''Shevret Yehudah'' was "the first Jewish work whose main concern was the struggle against ritual murder accusations."<ref name="Cohen-2009" /> It was cited by his contemporary [[Samuel Usque]], ''Consolação às Tribulações de Israel ("Consolation for the Tribulations of Israel")'', Ferrara, 1553.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Diner |first=Hasia R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sOFDEAAAQBAJ&dq=%5B%5BSamuel+Usque%5D%5D,++Consola%25C3%25A7%25C3%25A3o+%25C3%25A0s+Tribula%25C3%25A7%25C3%25B5es+de+Israel+(%2522Consolation+for+the+Tribulations+of+Israel%2522),+Ferrara,+1553&pg=PA387 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Jewish Diaspora |date=2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-024094-3 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schuartz |first=Miriam Sílvia |date=2011-10-05 |title=Presença do Sublime na Consolação às Tribulações de Israel, de Samuel Usque |journal=Vértices |pages=140–158 |doi=10.11606/issn.2179-5894.ip140-158 |s2cid=193200054 |issn=2179-5894|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Loeb |first=Isidore |date=1892 |title=Le folk-lore juif dans la chronique du Schébet Iehuda d'Ibn Verga |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/rjuiv_0484-8616_1892_num_24_47_3805 |journal=Revue des études juives |volume=24 |issue=47 |pages=1–29 |doi=10.3406/rjuiv.1892.3805|s2cid=263176489 }}</ref> Usque was a trader.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Monge |first1=Mathilde |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9YZjEAAAQBAJ&dq=%5B%5BSamuel+Usque%5D%5D,++Consola%25C3%25A7%25C3%25A3o+%25C3%25A0s+Tribula%25C3%25A7%25C3%25B5es+de+Israel+(%2522Consolation+for+the+Tribulations+of+Israel%2522),+Ferrara,+1553&pg=PT34 |title=Early Modern Diasporas: A European History |last2=Muchnik |first2=Natalia |date=2022-04-27 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-57214-8 |language=en}}</ref> [[Rebecca Rist]] has called it a satirical work that blends fiction with history.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rist |first=Rebecca |date=2015-12-17 |title=Papal Power and Protection in the Shebet Yehudah |journal=Journal of Religious History |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=490–507 |doi=10.1111/1467-9809.12324 |issn=0022-4227|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Jeremy Cohen (historian)|Jeremy Cohen]] has said Verga was a pragmatist who presented benevolent and enlightened characters with a happy ending.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Watts |first=James W. |date=March 2011 |title=Jewish Blood: Reality and Metaphor in History, Religion, and Culture |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0048721x.2011.553085 |journal=Religion |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=105–107 |doi=10.1080/0048721x.2011.553085 |issn=0048-721X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Jeremy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BHFvEAAAQBAJ&dq=%5B%5BSamuel+Usque%5D%5D,++Consola%25C3%25A7%25C3%25A3o+%25C3%25A0s+Tribula%25C3%25A7%25C3%25B5es+de+Israel+(%2522Consolation+for+the+Tribulations+of+Israel%2522),+Ferrara,+1553&pg=PA123 |title=Rethinking European Jewish History |last2=Rosman |first2=Moshe |date=2008-11-27 |publisher=Liverpool University Press |isbn=978-1-80034-541-6 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Carlebach |first1=Elisheva |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1VEzAQAAQBAJ&dq=%5B%5BSamuel+Usque%5D%5D,++Consola%25C3%25A7%25C3%25A3o+%25C3%25A0s+Tribula%25C3%25A7%25C3%25B5es+de+Israel+(%2522Consolation+for+the+Tribulations+of+Israel%2522),+Ferrara,+1553&pg=PA338 |title=New Perspectives on Jewish-Christian Relations |last2=Schacter |first2=Jacob J. |date=2011-11-25 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-22118-5 |language=en}}</ref>

===ha-Cohen===
[[Joseph ha-Kohen|Joseph ha-Cohen]] (1496-1575) was a Sephardic physician and chronicler who is considered one of the most significant 16th century Jewish historians and Renaissance scholars.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pollak |first=Michael |date=1975 |title=Printing in Venice: Before Gutenberg? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4306536 |journal=The Library Quarterly: Information, Community, Policy |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=287–308 |doi=10.1086/620401 |jstor=4306536 |s2cid=170339874 |issn=0024-2519}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cassen |first=Flora |title=Marking the Jews in Renaissance Italy: politics, religion, and the power of symbols |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-17543-3 |location=Cambridge New York}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=David |first=Abraham |title=Joseph Ha-Cohen and His Negative Attitude Toward R. Meir Katzenellenbogen (Maharam Padova) |date=2013-01-01 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004243323/B9789004243323_007.xml |work=The Italia Judaica Jubilee Conference |pages=59–68 |access-date=2023-11-03 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004243323_007 |isbn=978-90-04-24332-3}}</ref> Born in Avignon to Castilian and Aragonian Jewish parents and later in Genoa, he was cited and highly regarded by later historians such as Basnage.<ref name="Price-2020"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fox |first=Yaniv |date=2019 |title=Chronicling the Merovingians in Hebrew the Early Medieval Chapters of Yosef Ha-Kohen's Divrei Hayamim |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26846041 |journal=Traditio |volume=74 |pages=423–447 |doi=10.1017/tdo.2019.5 |jstor=26846041 |s2cid=210485218 |issn=0362-1529}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pollak |first=Michael |date=1975 |title=The Ethnic Background of Columbus: Inferences from a Genoese-Jewish Source, 1553-1557 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20139182 |journal=Revista de Historia de América |issue=80 |pages=147–164 |jstor=20139182 |issn=0034-8325}}</ref> His ''[[Emek Ha-Bakha]]'' (''[[Vale of tears|Vale of Tears]]''), appeared in 1558<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Roth |first=Cecil |date=1928 |title=The Jews of Malta |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29777798 |journal=Transactions (Jewish Historical Society of England) |volume=12 |pages=187–251 |jstor=29777798 |issn=2047-2331}}</ref> and is considered an important historical work.<ref name="Yerushalmi-1979"/> The name comes from [[Psalm 84]], and it is a history of Jewish [[martyrdom]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Friedlander |first=Albert H. |date=1980 |title=Bonhoeffer and Baeck: Theology after Auschwitz |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41444295 |journal=European Judaism: A Journal for the New Europe |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=26–32 |jstor=41444295 |issn=0014-3006}}</ref> It consisted of the narrative of Jewish persecution that extracted from and built on the Jewish part of his earlier world histories, and inspired Salo Baron's idea of the "lachrymose" conception of Jewish history.<ref name="Bonfil-1988"/> Yerushalmi notes that it begins in the post-biblical era.<ref name="Yerushalmi-1979"/> Bonfil notes that ha-Cohen's historiography is specifically shaped by the [[Jewish expulsion from Spain]] and France that ha-Cohen personally experienced.<ref name="Bonfil-1988"/> ha-Cohen's sources included Samuel Usque.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Joseph ben Joshua ben Meïr Ha-Kohen |url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8858-joseph-ha-kohen |access-date=2023-11-04 |website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> ha-Cohen and Usque are sources for early documentation of Jewish [[blood libel]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Soyer |first=Francois |date=2021-09-02 |title=Jews and the child murder libel in the medieval Iberian Peninsula: European trends and Iberian peculiarities |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17546559.2021.1969673 |journal=Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=309–330 |doi=10.1080/17546559.2021.1969673 |s2cid=238861190 |issn=1754-6559}}</ref> He was a contemporary of the Italian-Jewish geographer [[Abraham Farissol]], a scribe from Avignon who worked for Judah Messer Leon,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zonta |first=Mauro |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ta0TYvxRI5cC&pg=PA209 |title=Hebrew Scholasticism in the Fifteenth Century: A History and Source Book |date=2006-02-22 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-3715-3 |language=en}}</ref> and drew upon his work.<ref>{{cite book|author=Israel Zinberg|title=A History of Jewish Literature: Italian Jewry in the Renaissance era|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a31VbagQR70C&pg=PA53|date=1974 |publisher=Hebrew Union College Press |isbn=978-0-87068-240-7 |location=Cincinnati, Ohio}}</ref> It incorporates earlier medieval chronicles almost verbatim.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=GUTWIRTH |first=S |date=1983 |title=REVIEWS |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jss/xxviii.1.173 |journal=Journal of Semitic Studies |volume=XXVIII |issue=1 |pages=173–174 |doi=10.1093/jss/xxviii.1.173 |issn=0022-4480}}</ref>

=== dei Rossi ===
[[File:Mantua Map 1560.png|alt=Map, Mantua, 1560, intended for a [[hagaddah]], Central Library of Zurich<|thumb|343x343px|Map, Mantua, 1560, intended for a [[hagaddah]], Central Library of Zurich<ref name="Portraying the Land-2018"/>]]

[[Azariah dei Rossi]] (1511-1578) was an Italian-Jewish physician, [[rabbi]], and a leading Torah scholar during the [[Italian Renaissance]]. Born in [[Mantua]], he translated classical works such as Aristotle, and was known to quote Roman and Greek writers along with Hebrew in his work.<ref name="Miller-2007">{{Cite journal |last=Miller |first=Peter N. |date=2007 |title=Lost and Found |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25470223 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=97 |issue=4 |pages=502–507 |jstor=25470223 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Shulṿas |first=Mosheh Avigdor |title=The Jews in the world of the Renaissance |date=1973 |publisher=Brill [u.a.] |isbn=978-90-04-03646-8 |location=Leiden}}</ref><ref name="Shulvass-1948">{{Cite journal |last=Shulvass |first=Moses A. |date=1948 |title=The Knowledge of Antiquity among the Italian Jews of the Renaissance |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3622202 |journal=Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research |volume=18 |pages=291–299 |doi=10.2307/3622202 |jstor=3622202 |issn=0065-6798}}</ref> He is often considered the father of modern Jewish historiography.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.degruyter.com/database/EBR/entry/MainLemma_14422/html |title=de' Rossi, Azariah |last=Weinberg |first=Joanna |publisher=De Gruyter |doi=10.1515/ebr.derossiazariah}}</ref> He was the first major author in Jewish historiography to incorporate and edit non-Jewish texts into his work.<ref name="Rutkowski-2010" /> His 1573 work ''[[Me'or Einayim]]'' (''Light of the Eyes'') is an important early work of [[humanism|humanistic]] 16th century Jewish historiography.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Malkiel |first=David |date=2013 |title=The Artifact and Humanism in Medieval Jewish Thought |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24709729 |journal=Jewish History |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=21–40 |doi=10.1007/s10835-012-9169-z |jstor=24709729 |s2cid=254594796 |issn=0334-701X}}</ref><ref name="Yerushalmi-1979">{{Cite journal |last=Yerushalmi |first=Yosef Hayim |date=1979 |title=Clio and the Jews: Reflections on Jewish Historiography in the Sixteenth Century |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3622374 |journal=Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research |volume=46/47 |pages=607–638 |doi=10.2307/3622374 |jstor=3622374 |issn=0065-6798}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Veltri |first=G. |title=Chapter Four. Conceptions Of History: Azariah De' Rossi |date=2009-01-01 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789047425281/Bej.9789004171961.i-278_006.xml |work=Renaissance Philosophy in Jewish Garb |pages=73–96 |access-date=2023-10-29 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004171961.i-278.17 |isbn=978-90-474-2528-1}}</ref><ref name="Bonfil-1988">{{Cite journal |last=Bonfil |first=Robert |date=1988 |title=How Golden was the Age of the Renaissance in Jewish Historiography? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2504998 |journal=History and Theory |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=78–102 |doi=10.2307/2504998 |jstor=2504998 |issn=0018-2656}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jacobs |first=Martin |date=2002 |title=Azariah de' Rossi: The Light of the Eyes (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/jewish_quarterly_review/v093/93.1-2.jacobs.html |journal=Jewish Quarterly Review |language=en |volume=93 |issue=1–2 |pages=299–302 |doi=10.1353/jqr.2002.0032 |s2cid=161927612 |issn=1553-0604}}</ref> It includes a polemic critique of [[Philo]] noted by Baron and [[Norman Bentwich]]; Philo's work was popular among contemporary Italian Jews.<ref name="Marcus-1948" /> Rossi drew on the Latin Josephus, with specific annotations on source text versions for the Jewish academies at [[Ferrara]], and investigated the [[Septuagint]].<ref name="Weinberg-2016">{{Cite journal |last=Weinberg |first=Joanna |date=2016 |title=Early Modern Jewish Readers of Josephus |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45240047 |journal=International Journal of the Classical Tradition |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=275–289 |doi=10.1007/s12138-016-0409-3 |jstor=45240047 |s2cid=255519719 |issn=1073-0508}}</ref> Bonfil writes that it was an attempt at a "New History" of the Jews and a work of ecclesiastical historiography, that adopted as its main tool, logical and philological criticism.<ref name="Bonfil-1997" /> Rossi also cited rabbinical material and Jewish writers such as Zacuto; Baron has also noted it was an apologetic work, and Bonfil has asserted ultimately a conservative work with a medieval worldview, but nonetheless pioneering in its critical study and methods.<ref>{{Citation |last=Adelman |first=Howard Tzvi |title=Criticism and Tradition: Leon Modena, Azariah de' Rossi, and Elijah Levita Bahur on Kabbalah and the Hebrew Vowels |date=2019-12-31 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9781618114754-007 |work=History, Memory, and Jewish Identity |pages=147–170 |access-date=2023-11-24 |publisher=Academic Studies Press|doi=10.1515/9781618114754-007 |isbn=9781618114754 |s2cid=214165466 }}</ref>

De Rossi's work was critical of the rabbinical establishment, questioning the historicity of post-biblical Jewish legends, and was met with condemnation, opprobrium and bans; Joseph Caro called for it to be burned, though he died before this was carried out, and [[Samuel Judah Katzenellenbogen]], the leader of the Venetian rabbis at the time, published ''herem'' prior to publication prohibiting owning or reading the book without permission.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-11-06 |title=Rediscovering Azariah Dei Rossi |url=https://www.jpost.com/blogs/past-imperfect-confronting-jewish-history/rediscovering-azariah-dei-rossi-471847 |access-date=2023-10-29 |website=The Jerusalem Post |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baron |first=Salo Wittmayer |date=1929 |title=La méthode historique d'Azaria de Rossi (fin) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/rjuiv_0484-8616_1929_num_87_173_5623 |journal=Revue des études juives |volume=87 |issue=173 |pages=43–78 |doi=10.3406/rjuiv.1929.5623|s2cid=263187065 }}</ref><ref name="Wieseltier-1981">{{Cite journal |last=Wieseltier |first=Leon |date=1981 |title=Etwas Über Die Judische Historik: Leopold Zunz and the Inception of Modern Jewish Historiography |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2504764 |journal=History and Theory |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=135–149 |doi=10.2307/2504764 |jstor=2504764 |issn=0018-2656}}</ref><ref name="Whitfield-2002">{{Cite journal |last=Whitfield |first=S. J. |date=2002-10-01 |title=Where They Burn Books ... |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mj/22.3.213 |journal=Modern Judaism |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=213–233 |doi=10.1093/mj/22.3.213 |issn=0276-1114}}</ref><ref name="Visi-2014" /> Rossi's work mixed the world of secular Renaissance scholarship with Jewish rabbinical textual analysis, addressing contradictions, which offended the sensibilities of religious leaders such as the Rabbi Judah Loew of Prague, known as the [[Maharal]], who said the words of Torah should not mix with those of science.<ref name="Ruderman-2001">{{Cite book |last=Ruderman |first=David B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z1W0p5B7UgEC&q=rossi |title=Jewish Thought and Scientific Discovery in Early Modern Europe |date=2001 |publisher=Wayne State University Press |isbn=978-0-8143-2931-3 |language=en}}</ref> Signatories to the ban included important Jewish community scholars [[Yehiel Nissim da Pisa]] and [[Yehiel Trabot]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Segal |first=Lester A. |date=April 2005 |title=Azariah de' Rossi. The Light of the Eyes. Translated with introduction and annotations by Joanna Weinberg. Yale Judaica Series. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001. xlix, 802 pp. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0364009405430093 |journal=AJS Review |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=200–203 |doi=10.1017/s0364009405430093 |s2cid=161456571 |issn=0364-0094}}</ref> Nonetheless, the rabbis of Mantua, [[Judah Moscato]] and [[David Provençal]], although critical in some ways, still considered him a respectable Jew with great value.<ref name="Weinberg-1978" />

[[File:Tsemakh David Frankfurt 1698.jpg|thumb|left|Tsemakh David, Frankfurt, 1698|alt=Tsemakh David, Frankfurt, 1698|313x313px]]

Rossi went to [[Venice]] to argue his case with the rabbis who had charged him with heresy, who said he could publish if he would include David's brother [[Moses Provençal]]'s defense of the traditional chronology, which he did along with his own response to the response. They also requested some passages to be deleted, which he yielded to; [[Abraham Coen Porto]] rescinded his veto, but the 1574 decree still held sway in limiting publication. Rossi sought help from the Catholics interested in bible study, and obtained an [[imprimatur]] from [[Marco Marini]], a teacher of Hebrew and Latin in Venice. Marini taught [[Giacomo Boncompagno]] who requested Rossi translate ''Me'or Einyanim'' into Italian. Like [[Elijah Levita]], Rossi became known for teaching Hebrew to Christians, earning disapproval from fellow Jews, but he did not convert.<ref name="Weinberg-1978">{{Cite journal |last=Weinberg |first=Joanna |date=1978 |title=Azariah Dei Rossi: Towards a Reappraisal of the Last Years of His Life |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24304990 |journal=Annali della Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa. Classe di Lettere e Filosofia |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=493–511 |jstor=24304990 |issn=0392-095X}}</ref> Rossi was cited by [[Christian Hebraists]] such as [[Giulio Bartolocci|Bartolocci]], [[Samuel Bochart|Bochart]], [[Johannes Buxtorf|Buxtorf]], [[Johann Heinrich Hottinger|Hottinger]], [[Robert Lowth|Lowth]], [[Joseph de Voisin|Voisin]], and [[Jean Morin (theologian)|Morin]].<ref name="Marcus-1948" />

Despite its controversial status, Rossi's work was known in the 17th and 18th centuries, per [[David Cassel]] and Zunz as relayed by [[Joanna Weinberg]], individuals such as [[Joseph Solomon Delmedigo]] and [[Menasseh ben Israel]] considered it required reading. Baron considered Rossi an antiquarian; Bonfil argues he had a nationalistic view of Jewish history.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fontaine |first1=Resianne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aCAnAQAAIAAJ |title=Sepharad in Ashkenaz: Medieval Knowledge and Eighteenth-century Enlightened Jewish Discourse; [proceedings of the Colloquium, Amsterdam, February 2002] |last2=Schatz |first2=Andrea |last3=Zwiep |first3=Irene E. |date=2007 |publisher=Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences |isbn=978-90-6984-482-4 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rôssî |first1=ʿAzaryā Ben-Moše de |title=The light of the eyes |last2=Weinberg |first2=Joanna |last3=Rôssî |first3=ʿAzaryā Ben-Moše de |date=2001 |publisher=Yale Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-300-07906-7 |series=Yale Judaica series |location=New Haven, Conn.}}</ref>  Rossi's work is considered by some to be an early example of the construction of [[Jewish identity]] through modern historical methods.<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=Reconstructing Jewish Identity on the Foundations of Hellenistic History: Azariah de' Rossi's Me'or 'Enayim in Late 16th Century Northern Italy |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9r45c375 |publisher=UC Berkeley |date=2014 |language=en |first=David Michael |last=Rosenberg-Wohl}}</ref>

=== Gans ===
[[David Gans]] (1541–1613) was a German-Jewish [[rabbi]], astronomer, historian, and chronicler from [[Lippstadt]], [[Westphalia]], whose historical work ''Tzemach David'', published in 1592, was a pioneering study of Jewish history.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Breuer |first1=Mordechai |title=Deutsch-jüdische Geschichte in der Neuzeit. 1: Tradition und Aufklärung / von Mordechai Breuer u. Michael Graetz |last2=Graetz |first2=Michael |date=1996 |publisher=Beck |isbn=978-3-406-39702-8 |location=München}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=David |first=Abraham |date=2003 |title=The Lutheran Reformation in Sixteenth-Century Jewish Historiography |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40753327 |journal=Jewish Studies Quarterly |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=124–139 |doi=10.1628/0944570033029167 |jstor=40753327 |issn=0944-5706}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=גרטנר |first1=חיים |last2=Gertner |first2=Haim |date=2002 |title=The Beginning of 'Orthodox Historiography' in Eastern Europe: a Reassessment / ראשיתה של כתיבה היסטורית אורתודוקסית במזרח אירופה: הערכה מחודשת |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23564878 |journal=Zion / ציון |volume=סז |issue=ג |pages=293–336 |jstor=23564878 |issn=0044-4758}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Alter |first=George |date=2011 |title=Dossier: David Gans: A Renaissance Jewish Astronomer |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/aleph.2011.11.1.61 |journal=Aleph |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=61–114 |doi=10.2979/aleph.2011.11.1.61 |jstor=10.2979/aleph.2011.11.1.61 |issn=1565-1525}}</ref> Gans wrote on a variety of liberal arts and scientific topics, making him unique among the Ashkenazi for his production of secular scholarship.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Efron |first1=Noah J. |last2=Fisch |first2=Menachem |date=2001 |title=Astronomical Exegesis: An Early Modern Jewish Interpretation of the Heavens |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/301980 |journal=Osiris |volume=16 |pages=72–87 |doi=10.1086/649339 |jstor=301980 |s2cid=161329118 |issn=0369-7827}}</ref> Gans was a student of the Maharal, whom Yerushalmi says had the more profound ideas about Jewish history,<ref name="Yerushalmi-1979" /> and of [[Moses Isserles]].<ref name="Ruderman-2001" /> Gans was the first Jewish scholar to use a telescope and the science of [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]].<ref name="Fuss-1994" /> Gans also corresponded with secular astronomers such as [[Johannes Kepler]] and [[Tycho Brahe]], and drew on [[August Gottlieb Spangenberg]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gans, David ben Shelomoh |url=https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/gans_david_ben_shelomoh |access-date=2023-10-29 |website=yivoencyclopedia.org}}</ref> Gans took inspiration from Josippon and Maimonides.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-02-11 |title=The Tzemach David {{!}} Henry Abramson |url=https://henryabramson.com/2016/02/11/the-tzemach-david/ |access-date=2023-11-05 |website=henryabramson.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Gans' work is a hybrid of two parallel stories of world and Jewish history.<ref name="Bonfil-1988" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Graetz |first=Heinrich |title=History of the Jews, Vol. 4 (of 6) |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/43900/pg43900-images.html#CHAPTER_XVIII |access-date=2023-11-05 |language=en}}</ref> While not as cutting-edge a historian as his contemporary, de Rossi, his books introduced historiography to the Ashkenazi audience, making him a forerunner of subsequent developments in Jewish culture.<ref name="Visi-2014">{{Citation |last=Visi |first=Tamás |title=Gans, David: Born: 1541, Lippstadt Died: 1613, Prague |date=2014 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02848-4_46-1 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Renaissance Philosophy |pages=1–4 |editor-last=Sgarbi |editor-first=Marco |access-date=2023-11-05 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-02848-4_46-1 |isbn=978-3-319-02848-4}}</ref> Gans' work can be seen as a defense of the traditional dissemination of knowledge.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schorsch |first=I. |date=1990-01-01 |title=The Ethos of Modern Jewish Scholarship |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/leobaeck/35.1.55 |journal=The Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=55–71 |doi=10.1093/leobaeck/35.1.55 |issn=0075-8744}}</ref>

[[File:Portaleone_De_auro_dialogi_tres.jpg|alt=De auro dialogi tres. In quibus non solum de Auri in re Medica facultate verum etiam de specifica eius & caeterarum rerum forma ac duplici potestate qua mixtis in omnibus illa operatur copiose disputatur. Medico Hebraeo Auctore. Abraham ben David Portaleone, Baptistam a Porta, Venezia, 1584.|thumb|248x248px|''De auro dialogi tres. In quibus non solum de Auri in re Medica facultate verum etiam de specifica eius & caeterarum rerum forma ac duplici potestate qua mixtis in omnibus illa operatur copiose disputatur. Medico Hebraeo Auctore.'' Abraham ben David Portaleone, Baptistam a Porta, Venezia, 1584.]]

== 17th century ==
[[Abraham Portaleone]] was another Italian-Jewish Renaissance physician who, as discussed by [[Peter N. Miller|Peter Miller]] and [[Moses A. Shulvass|Moses Shulvass]], published the historiographical work, ''Shilte ha-Giborim (Shields of the Heroes)'' in Mantua in 1612<ref>{{Citation |title="I Seek the Truth from Whomever Pronounces It": Abraham Portaleone and Ancient Israelite Incense |date=2014 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/bible-and-natural-philosophy-in-renaissance-italy/i-seek-the-truth-from-whomever-pronounces-it/ADC1CB93E9C4B3A621ADE95E872924F9 |work=The Bible and Natural Philosophy in Renaissance Italy: Jewish and Christian Physicians in Search of Truth |pages=194–229 |editor-last=Berns |editor-first=Andrew D. |access-date=2023-11-20 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/CBO9781107588448.007 |isbn=978-1-107-06554-3}}</ref> which contained detailed descriptions of ancient life. Miller calls it a "complex" and "strange" "encyclopedic study."<ref name="Shulvass-1948" /><ref name="Miller-2007" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Andreatta |first=Michela |date=2018 |title=Review of La biblioteca di Avraham ben David Portaleone secondo l'inventario della sua eredità; Vita ebraica a Lugo nei verbali delle sedute consigliari degli anni 1621–1630, Lattes Andrea Yaakov |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/48698792 |journal=Jewish History |volume=31 |issue=3/4 |pages=365–368 |doi=10.1007/s10835-018-9293-5 |jstor=48698792 |issn=0334-701X}}</ref><ref name="Myers-2014" /> While ostensibly on the subject of the [[levites|levitical]] tasks of the Temple, it touches on diverse topics such as botany, music, warfare, zoology, mineralogy, chemistry, and philology, and appears as a work of Renaissance scholarship per [[Samuel S. Kottek]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Kottek |first=Samuel S. |title=Jews between Profane and Sacred Science in Renaissance Italy: The Case of Abraham Portaleone |date=2001-01-01 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789047400813/B9789047400813_s014.xml |work=Religious Confessions and the Sciences in the Sixteenth Century |pages=108–118 |access-date=2023-11-20 |publisher=Brill |language=en |isbn=978-90-474-0081-3}}</ref>

===Conforte===
[[David Conforte]] (1618) was a literary historian and compiler of Jewish bibliographic material from [[Salonica]] whose 17th century chronicle ''Kore ha-Dorot'' contains information on Sephardic rabbis from the Ottoman Empire and Italy in the 16th and 17th centuries, and relies on the rabbinic chain of tradition via Zacuto, Daud, and Yahya as well as [[responsa]] literature. <ref>{{Cite book |last=Roth |first=Norman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RTorDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22david+conforte%22&pg=PA306 |title=Routledge Revivals: Medieval Jewish Civilization (2003): An Encyclopedia |date=2017-07-05 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-351-67698-4 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goitein |first=S. D. |date=1960 |title=The Documents of the Cairo Geniza as a Source for Mediterranean Social History |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/595583 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=91–100 |doi=10.2307/595583 |jstor=595583 |issn=0003-0279}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=1985 |title=תקצירים באנגלית / Summaries |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23414835 |journal=Sefunot: Studies and Sources on the History of the Jewish Communities in the East / ספונות: מחקרים ומקורות לתולדות קהילות ישראל במזרח |volume=ג (יח) |pages=VII–XII |jstor=23414835 |issn=0582-3943}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ben-Zaken |first=Avner |date=2009 |title=Bridging networks of trust: practicing astronomy in late sixteenth-century Salonika: To the memory of Richard Popkin |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25653803 |journal=Jewish History |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=343–361 |doi=10.1007/s10835-009-9092-0 |jstor=25653803 |issn=0334-701X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Berkovitz |first=Jay R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XeZU6K4XL1sC&dq=conforte+ha-dorot&pg=PA200 |title=The Shaping of Jewish Identity in Nineteenth-century France |date=1989 |publisher=Wayne State University Press |isbn=978-0-8143-2011-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hansen-Kokoruš |first1=Renate |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=npjkEAAAQBAJ&dq=conforte+ha-dorot&pg=PA119 |title=Jewish Literatures and Cultures in Southeastern Europe: Experiences, Positions, Memories |last2=Terpitz |first2=Olaf |date=2021-10-11 |publisher=Böhlau Wien |isbn=978-3-205-21289-8 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> It was reprinted in Warsaw in 1838 with an introduction by Jost, and by Cassel in 1846. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sclar |first=David |date=2015-04-01 |title=History for Religious Purposes: The Writing, Publication, and Renewal of Tzemah David |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18750214-12341268 |journal=Zutot |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=16–30 |doi=10.1163/18750214-12341268 |issn=1571-7283}}</ref> This work contains historical information on extant [[yeshivot]] of the [[Jewish diaspora]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ben-Naeh |first=Yaron |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xWZ4qCzJKasC&dq=%22david+conforte%22&pg=PA260 |title=Jews in the Realm of the Sultans: Ottoman Jewish Society in the Seventeenth Century |date=2008 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |isbn=978-3-16-149523-6 |language=en}}</ref> According to Bonfil, likely motivated by the failure of [[Sabbateanism]], the work explores the history of the Jewish people without mentioning that messianic movement.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bonfil |first1=Roberto |last2=Shazar |first2=Zalman |date=1973 |title=Rabbì David Conforti e il suo tempo |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41283876 |journal=La Rassegna Mensile di Israel |volume=39 |issue=7/8 |pages=393–402 |jstor=41283876 |issn=0033-9792}}</ref> His work was also cited by Azulai.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gruber |first=Mayer I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nsl2NrA6v6gC&dq=conforte+ha-dorot&pg=PA56 |title=Rashi's Commentary on Psalms |date=2007-10-10 |publisher=Jewish Publication Society |isbn=978-0-8276-0872-6 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Hannover ===
[[Nathan ben Moses Hannover]]'s ''[[Yeven Mezulah]]'' (''Abyss of Despair'') (1653)<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=שמרוק |first1=חנא |last2=Shmeruk |first2=Chone |date=1988 |title=Yiddish Literature and 'Collective Memory': The Case of the Chmielnitski Massacres / גזירות ת"ח ות"ט: ספרות יידיש וזיכרון קולקטיבי |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23560581 |journal=Zion / ציון |volume=נג |issue=ד |pages=371–384 |jstor=23560581 |issn=0044-4758}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=HANNOVER, NATHAN (NATA) BEN MOSES - JewishEncyclopedia.com |url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7229-hannover-nathan-nata-ben-moses |access-date=2023-11-10 |website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=YIVO {{!}} Hannover, Natan Note |url=https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Hannover_Natan_Note |access-date=2023-11-10 |website=yivoencyclopedia.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bacon |first=Gershon |date=2003 |title="The House of Hannover": Gezeirot Tah in Modern Jewish Historical Writing |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20101497 |journal=Jewish History |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=179–206 |doi=10.1023/A:1022388904982 |jstor=20101497 |s2cid=159222203 |issn=0334-701X}}</ref> is a chronicle of the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising#Massacres|Khmelnytsky massacres]] or [[pogrom]]s in eastern Europe in the mid 17th century. While a massacre certainly occurred, accounts and casualty numbers differ among Ukrainian, Polish, and Jewish historians.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stow |first1=Kenneth |last2=Teller |first2=Adam |date=2003 |title=Introduction: The Chmielnitzky Massacres, 1648-1649: Jewish, Polish, and Ukrainian Perspectives |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20101492 |journal=Jewish History |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=105–106 |doi=10.1023/A:1022300812642 |jstor=20101492 |s2cid=159959965 |issn=0334-701X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kohut |first=Zenon E. |date=2003 |title=The Khmelnytsky Uprising, the Image of Jews, and the Shaping of Ukrainian Historical Memory |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20101495 |journal=Jewish History |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=141–163 |doi=10.1023/A:1022300121820 |jstor=20101495 |s2cid=159708538 |issn=0334-701X}}</ref> All three groups also use the story as part of their own national ideologies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yakovenko |first=Natalia |date=2003 |title=The Events of 1648-1649: Contemporary Reports and the Problem of Verification |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20101496 |journal=Jewish History |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=165–178 |doi=10.1023/A:1022308423637 |jstor=20101496 |s2cid=159214775 |issn=0334-701X}}</ref>

=== Basnage ===
[[File:Woodcut Jews synagogu, shoshanat hamakim, Prague, 1617.png|thumb|Jews in a [[synagogue]] with books, [[woodcut]], [[Prague]], [[1617]], reprinted in [[Alfred Rubens|Rubens]], 1971 <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Spicer |first=Joaneath |date=1996 |title=The Star of David and Jewish Culture in Prague around 1600, Reflected in Drawings of Roelandt Savery and Paulus van Vianen |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20169118 |journal=The Journal of the Walters Art Gallery |volume=54 |pages=203–224 |jstor=20169118 |issn=0083-7156}}</ref>|alt=Jews in a synagogue with books, woodcut, Prague, 1617|247x247px|left]]

[[Jacques Basnage]] (1653-1723), a [[Huguenot]] living in the Netherlands, was one of the first authors in the modern era to publish a comprehensive post-biblical history of the Jews.{{sfn|Meyer|1988|p=169}} Basnage aimed to recount the story of the Jewish religion in his work ''Histoire des juifs, depuis Jésus-Christ jusqu'a present. Pour servir de continuation à l'histoire de Joseph'' (1706, in 15 volumes). Basnage heavily cites early modern and medieval Sephardic Jewish historians, such as [[Isaac Cardoso]], [[Leon Modena]], Abraham ibn Daud, ''Josippon'', and Joseph ha-Cohen (whom he called "the best historian this nation has had since Josephus"), but also drew on Christian sources such as [[Jesuit]] [[Juan de Mariana]].<ref name="Price-2020">{{Cite journal |last=Price |first=David H. |date=2020 |title="The Sincerity of Their Historians": Jacques Basnage and the Reception of Jewish History |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/755197 |journal=Jewish Quarterly Review |language=en |volume=110 |issue=2 |pages=290–312 |doi=10.1353/jqr.2020.0009 |s2cid=219454578 |issn=1553-0604}}</ref>

It was said to be the first comprehensive post-biblical history of Judaism and became the authoritative work for 100 years;{{sfn|Brenner|2010|p=8, 19}} Basnage was aware that no such work had ever been published before.{{sfn|Yerushalmi|1982|p=81b|ps=: "It is significant that the first real attempt in modern times at a coherent and comprehensive post-biblical history of the Jews was made, not by a Jew, but by a French Huguenot minister and diplomat, Jacques Basnage, who had found refuge in Holland… nothing like it had been produced before, and Basnage knew this. "I dare to say," he writes, "that no historian has appeared among the Jews themselves who has gathered together so many facts concerning their nation." He complains of the paucity of reliable materials. Of those Jewish works that were devoted to the "chain of tradition" he observes that, "attached only to the succession of the persons through whom the tradition has passed from mouth to mouth, they have preserved the names and have often neglected the rest.""}} Basnage sought to provide an objective account of the history of Judaism.<ref name="de Beauval 1716">{{cite book | last=de Beauval | first=J.B. | title=Histoire des juifs, depuis Jésus-Christ jusqu'a present. Pour servir de continuation à l'histoire de Joseph. Par Mr. Basnage. Nouvelle edition augmentée | publisher=chez Henri Scheurleer | issue=v. 1; v. 9 | year=1716 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0emTxflriAAC | language=fr | access-date=2023-09-17 | page=}}</ref><ref name="Segal 1983 pp. 303–324">{{cite journal | last=Segal | first=Lester A. | title=Jacques Basnage de Beauval's | journal=Hebrew Union College Annual | publisher=Hebrew Union College - Jewish Institute of Religion | volume=54 | year=1983 | issn=0360-9049 | jstor=23507671 | pages=303–324 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/23507671 | access-date=2023-09-17}}</ref> His work was widely influential, and developed further by other authors such as [[Hannah Adams]].{{sfn|Brenner|2010|p=19}}{{sfn|Meyer|1988|p=169-172}} Basnage's work is considered the birth of the "Christian historiography" of Jewish history.<ref name="Price-2020" />

[[File:Mendelssohn, Lessing, Lavater.jpg|thumb|Mendelssohn, [[Johann Kaspar Lavater|Lavater]] and [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing|Lessing]], in an imaginary portrait by the Jewish artist [[Moritz Daniel Oppenheim]] (1856). Collection of the [[Judah L. Magnes Museum]]|alt=Mendelssohn, Lavater and Lessing, in an imaginary portrait by the Jewish artist Moritz Daniel Oppenheim (1856). Collection of the Judah L. Magnes Museum|430x430px]]

== 18th century ==
In the 18th century, reformists such as [[Moses Mendelssohn]] (1729-1786) invoked [[Maimonides]] to pursue a rational emancipationist movement for German Jews.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Arkush |first1=Allan |last2=Breuer |first2=Edward |date=1999 |title=The Limits of Enlightenment: Jews, Germans, and the Eighteenth-Century Study of Scripture |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1455033 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=89 |issue=3/4 |pages=393 |doi=10.2307/1455033 |jstor=1455033 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Myers |first=David |date=1986 |title=The Scholem-Kurzweil Debate and Modern Jewish Historiography |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1396217 |journal=Modern Judaism |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=261–286 |doi=10.1093/mj/6.3.261 |jstor=1396217 |issn=0276-1114}}</ref> Mendelssohn has a significant role in Jewish history and the Haskalah or Jewish enlightenment. One of Mendelssohn's central goals concerned a grounding in Jewish history.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sacks |first=Elias Reinhold |date=2012-01-01 |title=Enacting a "Living Script": Moses Mendelssohn on History, Practice, and Religion |url=https://dataspace.princeton.edu/handle/88435/dsp013r074t99t |journal=Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Academic Dissertations (Ph.D.) |language=en}}</ref> [[Isaac Euchel]] (1756-1804)'s ''[[Toledot Rabbenu Moshe ben Menahem]]'' (1788) was the first biography of Mendelssohn and significant in beginning a movement of biographical studies in Jewish historiography.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Barzilay |first=Isaac |date=1974 |editor-last=Altmann |editor-first=Alexander |title=Moses Mendelssohn: A Biographical Study by Alexander Altmann |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4466842 |journal=Jewish Social Studies |volume=36 |issue=3/4 |pages=330–335 |jstor=4466842 |issn=0021-6704}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sorkin |first=David |date=1994 |title=The Case for Comparison: Moses Mendelssohn and the Religious Enlightenment |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1396291 |journal=Modern Judaism |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=121–138 |doi=10.1093/mj/14.2.121 |jstor=1396291 |issn=0276-1114}}</ref> Meyer notes that Euchel acknowledges that Mendelssohn began his secular studies in history.{{sfn|Meyer|1988}} [[Israel Zamosz]], one of Mendelssohn's teachers, also published a work applying reason and science to the statements of talmudic authorities.<ref>{{Citation |last=Sinkoff |first=Nancy |title=In the Podolian Steppe |date=2020 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvzpv5tn.10 |work=Out of the Shtetl |pages=14–49 |access-date=2023-11-06 |series=Making Jews Modern in the Polish Borderlands |publisher=Brown Judaic Studies |doi=10.2307/j.ctvzpv5tn.10 |jstor=j.ctvzpv5tn.10 |isbn=978-1-946527-96-7|s2cid=242642210 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=YIVO {{!}} Zamość, Yisra'el ben Mosheh ha-Levi |url=https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Zamosc_Yisrael_ben_Mosheh_ha-Levi |access-date=2023-11-06 |website=yivoencyclopedia.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rosman |first=Moshe |date=2007 |editor-last=Feiner |editor-first=Shmuel |editor2-last=Naor |editor2-first=Chaya |title=Haskalah: A New Paradigm |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25470197 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=129–136 |jstor=25470197 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref>

According to [[David B. Ruderman]], the [[maskilim]] were inspired by such medieval and early modern historians and thinkers as Judah Messer Leon, de Rossi, ibn Verga, Moscato, Portaleone, [[Tobias Cohen]], [[Simone Luzzatto]], [[Menasseh ben Israel]], and [[Isaac Orobio de Castro]]. Rossi's ''Me'or Einayim'' was republished by [[Isaac Satanow]] in 1794.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ruderman |first=David B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f3OqTo_Gn3AC&q=rossi |title=Early Modern Jewry: A New Cultural History |date=2010-04-12 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-3469-3 |page=200|language=en}}</ref> Satanow wrote on education and encouraged the study of science and enlightenment philosophy, citing David Gans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rezler-Bersohn |first=N. |date=1980-01-01 |title=Isaac Satanow: An Epitome of an Era |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/leobaeck/25.1.81 |journal=The Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=81–99 |doi=10.1093/leobaeck/25.1.81 |issn=0075-8744}}</ref> According to Funkenstein as related by [[David Sorkin]], the development of the Haskalah was related to [[classical liberalism]], citing Mendelssohn's influence by [[Thomas Hobbes]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sorkin |first=David |date=1999 |title=Emancipation, Haskalah, and Reform: The Contribution of Amos Funkenstein |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4467568 |journal=Jewish Social Studies |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=98–110 |doi=10.2979/JSS.1999.6.1.98 |jstor=4467568 |s2cid=162382522 |issn=0021-6704}}</ref>

The [[Haskalah]] made education a priority and produced pedagogical literature in the humanistic vein, such as that of Satanow and [[David Friedländer]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Eisenstein-Barzilay |first=Isaac |date=1956 |title=The Ideology of the Berlin Haskalah |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3622341 |journal=Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research |volume=25 |pages=1–37 |doi=10.2307/3622341 |jstor=3622341 |issn=0065-6798}}</ref> The Haskalah became interested in Sephardic Jewish sources and had an idea of historiography with an eye toward reformism.{{sfn|Meyer|1988|p=1-2}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hyman|first=Paula E.|date=2005|title=Recent Trends in European Jewish Historiography|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/431818 |journal=The Journal of Modern History|volume=77|issue=2|pages=345–356|doi=10.1086/431818 |jstor=10.1086/431818 |s2cid=143801802 |issn=0022-2801}}</ref> The scholarship of the Sephardim held a mystique for emancipated German Jews who had an opportunity to redefine their identities.<ref>{{Citation |last=Schorsch |first=Ismar |title=The Myth of Sephardic Supremacy in Nineteenth-Century Germany |date=2012-04-11 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.11126/stanford/9780804777469.003.0002 |work=Sephardism |pages=35–57 |access-date=2023-11-20 |publisher=Stanford University Press|doi=10.11126/stanford/9780804777469.003.0002 |isbn=9780804777469 }}</ref> They held manuscripts in held esteem, and superior to other types of sources.<ref name="Schrijver-2017">{{Citation |last=Schrijver |first=Emile G. L.|title=Jewish Book Culture Since the Invention of Printing (1469 – c. 1815) |date=2017-11-16 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/9781139017169.013 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism |pages=291–315 |access-date=2023-11-24 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781139017169.013 |isbn=978-1-139-01716-9}}</ref>

The travel diary of [[Chaim Yosef David Azulai]] (1724-1806) is one important source for information on the broader Jewish world during this period.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lehmann |first=Matthias B. |date=2007 |title="Levantinos" and Other Jews: Reading H. Y. D. Azulai's Travel Diary |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4467773 |journal=Jewish Social Studies |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=1–34 |jstor=4467773 |issn=0021-6704}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cohen |first1=Julia Phillips |last2=Stein |first2=Sarah Abrevaya |date=2010 |title=Sephardic Scholarly Worlds: Toward a Novel Geography of Modern Jewish History |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20750709 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=100 |issue=3 |pages=349–384 |jstor=20750709 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref> The [[Vilna Gaon]] was another figure that encouraged critical reading of text and scientific study during this period.<ref name="Thulin-2018" />

[[Prague]] was a major center of Jewish scholarship before the 19th century, with maskilim Peter Beer (1758-1838), [[Salomo Löwisohn]] (1789-1821), and [[Marcus Fischer]] (1788-1858) making it a center for Jewish historical production.<ref name="Hecht-2005">{{Cite journal |last=Hecht |first=Louise |date=2005 |title=The Beginning of Modern Jewish Historiography: Prague: A Center on the Periphery |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20100959 |journal=Jewish History |volume=19 |issue=3/4 |pages=347–373 |doi=10.1007/s10835-005-3329-3 |jstor=20100959 |s2cid=159754547 |issn=0334-701X}}</ref>

[[File:Solomon Schechter studying the fragments of the Cairo Genizah, c. 1898.jpg|thumb|Solomon Schechter studying the fragments of the Cairo Geniza, 1898 (Cambridge University)|alt=Solomon Schechter studying the fragments of the Cairo Geniza, 1898 (Cambridge University)|343x343px|left]]

There was also significant progression in Yiddish historiography during the 18th century such as the work of [[Menahem Amelander]] (also called Menahem ben Solomon ha-Levi or Menahem Mann) in the Netherlands, who translated ''Josippon''.<ref name="Rutkowski-2010" /><ref name="Fuks-Mansfeld-1981">{{Cite journal |last=Fuks-Mansfeld |first=R.G. |date=1981 |title=Yiddish Historiography in the Time of the Dutch Republic |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41481882 |journal=Studia Rosenthaliana |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=9–19 |jstor=41481882 |issn=0039-3347}}</ref><ref name="Wallet-2012">{{Cite journal |last=Wallet |first=Bart |url=https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/1337027/103756_09.pdf |title=Links in a Chain: Early Modern Yiddish Historiography in the Northern Netherlands (1743-1812) |date=2012-01-01 |journal=Universiteit van Amsterdam [thesis, fully internal] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Amelander (Amlander), Menahem Mann Ben Solomon Ha-Levi|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10633-menahem-mann-ben-solomon-ha-levi |access-date=2023-11-05 |website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Amelander (also Amlander), Menahem Mann ben Solomon Ha-Levi {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/amelander-also-amlander-menahem-mann-ben-solomon-ha-levi |access-date=2023-11-06 |website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref><ref name="Schatz-2019" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=menahem man ben salomo halevi und sein jiddisches geschichtswerk "sche'erit jisrael" |url=https://www.degruyter.com/database/IBZ/entry/ibz.ID541089935/html?lang=de |access-date=2023-11-06 |website=De Gruyter |language=de}}</ref> He also drew on Basnage.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2019 |title=Hidden Polemic: Josephus's Work in the Historical Writings of Jacques Basnage and Menaḥem Amelander |url=https://www.academia.edu/39217235 |journal=Josephus in Modern Jewish Culture |pages=42}}</ref> His 1743 work ''[[Sheyris Yisroel]]'' (''Remnant of Israel'') picks up where Josippon left off.<ref name="Wallet-2012"/> It is a continuation of his Yiddish translation of ''Josippon'' with a general history of the Jews in the diaspora until 1740.<ref name="Fuks-Mansfeld-1981"/> [[Max Erik]] and [[Israel Zinberg]] considered it the foremost representative of its genre.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=Mark L. |date=December 2021 |title=Two Views of Yiddish Culture in the Netherlands |url=https://www.aup-online.com/content/journals/10.5117/SR2021.2.002.SMIT |journal=Studia Rosenthaliana |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=117–138 |doi=10.5117/SR2021.2.002.SMIT|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 }}</ref> It was cited by [[Abraham Trebitsch]] with his ''Qorot ha-'Ittim'' and [[Abraham Braatbard|Abraham Chaim Braatbard]] with his ''Ayn Naye Kornayk.''<ref name="Wallet-2007" /> Zinberg called it "the most important work of Old Yiddish historiographical literature".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zinberg |first=Israel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7auAgLTBgU0C&q=amelander |title=Old Yiddish Literature from Its Origins to the Haskalah Period |date=1975 |publisher=KTAV Publishing House, Inc. |isbn=978-0-87068-465-4 |language=en}}</ref>

The Lithuanian rabbi [[Jehiel ben Solomon Heilprin]] (1660-1746)'s ''[[Seder HaDoroth]]'' (1768) was another 18th century historical work which cited the earlier work by Gans, ibn Yahya and Zacuto as well as other medieval work such as the itinerary of [[Benjamin of Tudela]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heilprin, Jehiel ben Solomon {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/heilprin-jehiel-ben-solomon |access-date=2023-11-06 |website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Adler |first=M. N. |date=1905 |title=The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela (Continued) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1450823 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=84–101 |doi=10.2307/1450823 |jstor=1450823 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref>

== 19th century and birth of modern Jewish studies==
{{main|Jewish studies}}
Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi wrote that first modern professional Jewish historians appeared in the early 19th century,<ref name="Yeru81">{{harvnb|Yerushalmi|1982|p=81a}}: "As a professional Jewish historian I am a new creature in Jewish history. My lineage does not extend beyond the second decade of the nineteenth century, which makes me, if not illegitimate, at least a parvenu within the long history of the Jews. It is not merely that I teach Jewish history at a university, though that is new enough. Such a position only goes back to 1930 when my own teacher, Salo Wittmayer Baron, received the Miller professorship at Columbia, the first chair in Jewish history at a secular university in the Western world."</ref> writing that "[v]irtually all nineteenth-century Jewish ideologies, from Reform to Zionism, would feel a need to appeal to history for validation".{{sfn|Yerushalmi|1982|p=86|ps=: "The modern effort to reconstruct the Jewish past begins at a time that witnesses a sharp break in the continuity of Jewish living and hence also an ever-growing decay of Jewish group memory. In this sense, if for no other, history becomes what it had never been before - the faith of fallen Jews. For the first time history, not a sacred text, becomes the arbiter of Judaism. Virtually all nineteenth-century Jewish ideologies, from Reform to Zionism, would feel a need to appeal to history for validation. Predictably, "history" yielded the most varied conclusions to the appellants."}} He has further explained that the 19th century themes of martyrology and the chain of rabbinic tradition were a line of continuation from the medieval era; Daniel Frank has suggested a corollary, that Jewish history had tended to focus on these themes and ignore threads without clear expression of them.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frank |first=Daniel |date=1989 |title=Review of The Jews of Byzantium (1204-1453) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/617924 |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=124–126 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X0002317X |jstor=617924 |s2cid=161276924 |issn=0041-977X}}</ref>

[[File:יצחק מרדכי יוסט (cropped).jpg|alt=Jost, Anton Goldschmidt, Shavadron collection, National Library of Israel|thumb|Jost, Anton Goldschmidt, Shavadron collection, National Library of Israel]]

The German ''[[Wissenschaft des Judentums]]'' (or the "science of Judaism" or "Jewish studies") movement, was founded by [[Isaac Marcus Jost]], [[Leopold Zunz]], [[Heinrich Heine]],<ref>{{Citation |title="Who learns history from Heine?" |date=2014-03-19 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvqsf2d8.7 |work=Jewish Pasts, German Fictions |pages=45–66 |access-date=2023-11-26 |publisher=Stanford University Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctvqsf2d8.7 }}</ref> [[Solomon Judah Loeb Rapoport]], and [[Eduard Gans]], and was the birth of modern academic Jewish studies. Although a rationalist movement, it also drew on spiritual sources such as [[Yehuda Halevi]]'s ''[[Kuzari]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kohler |first=George Y. |date=2019 |title=Yehuda Halevi's Kuzari and the Wissenschaft des Judentums (1840–1865) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26900154 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=109 |issue=3 |pages=335–359 |jstor=26900154 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref> Zunz started the movement in 1818 with his ''Etwas''.<ref name="Brämer-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Brämer |first1=Andreas |last2=ברמר |first2=אנדריאס |date=2019 |title=Wissenschaft? des? Judenthums? – Defining the Boundaries of Modern Jewish Scholarship in Germany 1818-1876 - 'חכמת ישראל'? — הגדרת גבולות המחקר המודרני של היהדות בגרמניה 1876-1818 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26898070 |journal=Daat: A Journal of Jewish Philosophy & Kabbalah / דעת: כתב-עת לפילוסופיה יהודית וקבלה |issue=88 |pages=33–50 |jstor=26898070 |issn=0334-2336}}</ref>

Another important father of the movement was [[Immanuel Wolf]] whose essay ''Über den Begriff einer Wissenschaft des Judentums (On the Concept of Jewish Studies)'' in 1822 proposed a structure for Jewish studies, and indicated a modern notion of Jewish peoplehood.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feldt |first=Jakob Egholm |date=September 2019 |title=Immanuel Wolf (1799–1847): Outlining a Program for the Scientific Study of Judaism |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/704811 |journal=History of Humanities |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=251–256 |doi=10.1086/704811 |s2cid=211942689 |issn=2379-3163}}</ref> Wolf was a [[German idealism|German idealist]] who dealt with Judaism in systematic, universal, [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegelian]] terms.<ref name="Brämer-2019" />

[[David Cassel]] was a notable historian and student of Zunz.<ref>{{Citation |last=Wiese |first=Christian |title=The Divergent Path of Two Brothers: The Jewish Scholar David Cassel and the Protestant Missionary Paulus Cassel |date=2017-12-04 |work=Converts of Conviction |pages=55–96 |publisher=De Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110530797-005 |isbn=9783110530797 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Edouard Gans was one of Hegel's students.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rotenstreich |first1=Nathan |last2=רוטנשטרייך |first2=נתן |date=1992 |title="מדעי היהדות" וגלגוליהם / the "Science of Judaism" and Its Transformation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23381443 |journal=Jewish Studies / מדעי היהדות |issue=32 |pages=9–12 |jstor=23381443 |issn=0792-5964}}</ref>

[[Abraham Geiger]] founded the [[Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums]] or school/seminary for Jewish studies, in Berlin in 1872, which remained until it was shuttered by the Nazis in 1942.<ref>{{Citation |last=Homolka |first=Walter |title=A Vision Come True: Abraham Geiger and the Training of Rabbis and Cantors for Europe |date=2015-09-25 |pages=244–250 |publisher=De Gruyter Oldenbourg |language=en |doi=10.1515/9783110350159-016 |isbn=978-3-11-035015-9|doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[Solomon Schechter]] was an important Moldavian-born, later British-American rabbi. A student of the Hochschule, he went on to start his own American school, become president of synagogues and was influential in the development of [[Conservative Judaism]] in the United States. He was also influential in British and American Jewish education. Schechter became aware of the Cairo Geniza and was instrumental in bringing the documents to [[Cambridge University Library]] and the [[Jewish Theological Seminary of America|Jewish Theological Seminary]] for study.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dunkelgrün |first=Theodor |date=2016-12-01 |title=Solomon Schechter: a Jewish scholar in Victorian England (1882–1902) |journal=Jewish Historical Studies |volume=48 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.14324/111.444.jhs.2016v48.021 |issn=2397-1290|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Karp |first=Abraham J. |date=1963 |title=Solomon Schechter Comes to America |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23873750 |journal=American Jewish Historical Quarterly |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=44–62 |jstor=23873750 |issn=0002-9068}}</ref>

[[File:Moritz Steinschneider writing at his desk.jpg|thumb|267x267px|Moritz Steinschneider (1816–1907), Germany, [[Leo Baeck Institute]]|alt=Moritz Steinschneider (1816–1907), Germany, Leo Baeck Institute|left]]

[[Adolph Jellinek]] was a rabbi, publisher and pamphleteer who spoke and wrote emphatically against antisemitism, and republished medieval works from the Crusades era and history from the early modern period such as ha-Kohen's ''Emeq ha-Bakha.''<ref name="Kessler-2022" />

The ''Wissenschaft'' has been called "institutionalized German historicism," and a number of historians from Funkenstein to Meyer to [[Shmuel Feiner]] and [[Louise Hecht]] have challenged Yerushalmi's interpretation that the 19th century narrative is the salient shift in the characterization of Jewish historiography into modernity.<ref name="Hecht-2005" />

Significant work from the 19th century included [[Moritz Steinschneider]] (1816-1907)'s ''Geschichtsliteratur der Juden''.<ref>{{Cite book |date=2012-01-01 |editor-last=Leicht |editor-first=Reimund |editor2-last=Freudenthal |editor2-first=Gad |title=Studies on Steinschneider |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004226456 |doi=10.1163/9789004226456|isbn=9789004183247 }}
*{{Citation |last=Fenton |first=Paul B. |title=Moritz Steinschneider's Contribution to Judaeo-Arabic Studies |date=2012-01-01 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004226456/B9789004226456-s019.xml |work=Studies on Steinschneider |pages=363–382 |access-date=2023-11-20 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004226456_019 |isbn=978-90-04-22645-6}}
*{{Citation |title=Steinschneider and Yiddish |date=2012-01-01 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004226456_020 |work=Studies on Steinschneider |pages=383–409 |access-date=2023-11-20 |publisher=BRILL|doi=10.1163/9789004226456_020 |isbn=9789004183247 |last1=Matut |first1=Diana }}
*{{Citation |title=Moritz Steinschneider and the Leiden Manuscripts |date=2012-01-01 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004226456_013 |work=Studies on Steinschneider |pages=263–276 |access-date=2023-11-20 |publisher=BRILL|doi=10.1163/9789004226456_013 |isbn=9789004183247 |last1=Witkam |first1=Jan Just }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Poznański |first=Samuel |date=1905 |editor-last=Steinschneider |editor-first=Moritz |title=Steinschneider's Bibliography of Jewish History |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1450836 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=181–190 |doi=10.2307/1450836 |jstor=1450836 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schechter |first=S. |date=1909 |title=Moritz Steinschneider |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43057815 |journal=Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society |issue=17 |pages=226–231 |jstor=43057815 |issn=0146-5511}}</ref> Steinschneider became the preeminent scholar of the period.<ref name="Brämer-2019" /> The work of [[Julius Fürst]] was also significant.<ref name="Kessler-2022">{{Cite book |last=Kessler |first=Samuel Joseph |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv322v3vf |title=The Formation of a Modern Rabbi: The Life and Times of the Viennese Scholar and Preacher Adolf Jellinek |date=2022 |publisher=The Society of Biblical Literature |isbn=978-1-951498-92-4 |pages=248|doi=10.2307/j.ctv322v3vf |jstor=j.ctv322v3vf |s2cid=254816644 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1q6bnr2 |title=Frontiers of Jewish Scholarship: Expanding Origins, Transcending Borders |date=2022 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |jstor=j.ctv1q6bnr2 |isbn=978-0-8122-5364-1}}</ref>

[[Théodore Reinach]] (1860-1928)'s ''Histoire des Israelites'' (1884) is the most significant example of 19th-century French-Jewish historiography which is something of a counterpoint to the mainstream German development in this time.<ref name="Naar-2014" /> [[Marco Mortara]] (1815-1894) can be considered an Italian-Jewish version.<ref>{{Citation |last=Salah |first=Asher |title=The Intellectual Networks of Rabbi Marco Mortara (1815–1894): An Italian "Wissenschaftler des Judentums" |date=2019-07-22 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110554618-005/html |pages=59–76 |access-date=2023-11-06 |publisher=De Gruyter |language=en |doi=10.1515/9783110554618-005 |isbn=978-3-11-055461-8|s2cid=200095670 }}</ref> [[Isidore Loeb]] (1839-1892) founded the ''[[Revue des Études Juives]]'' or Jewish studies review, in 1880 in Paris. British Jews [[Claude Montefiore]] and [[Israel Abrahams]] founded ''[[The Jewish Quarterly Review]]'', an English counterpart, in 1889.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kessler |first=Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kNTXAAAAMAAJ&q=montefiore+abrahams+judaism+quarterly |title=A Reader of Early Liberal Judaism: The Writings of Israel Abrahams, Claude Montefiore, Lily Montagu and Israel Mattuck |date=2004 |publisher=Vallentine Mitchell |isbn=978-0-85303-592-3 |language=en}}</ref> [[Emmanuel Levinas]], a Lithuanian-French philosopher, offered a "new science of Judaism" critique of the ''Wissenschaft'' pertaining to Jewish particularism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sohn |first=Michael |date=2013 |title=Emmanuel Levinas and the New Science of Judaism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24586152 |journal=The Journal of Religious Ethics |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=626–642 |doi=10.1111/jore.12035 |jstor=24586152 |issn=0384-9694}}</ref>

[[File:Moritz Daniel Oppenheim Portrait Leopold Zunz.jpeg|thumb|Leopold Zunz (portrait by [[Moritz Daniel Oppenheim]])|alt=Leopold Zunz (portrait by Moritz Daniel Oppenheim)|323x323px]]

Forerunners to Jewish national Zionist historiography from the 19th century include [[Peretz Smolenskin]], [[Abraham Shalom Friedberg]], and [[Saul Pinchas Rabinowitz]], part of the [[Hovevei Zion|Hibbat Zion]] movement, leading to [[Ahad Ha'am]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yedidya |first=Asaf |date=2023-12-14 |title=Between Peretz Smolenskin and Ahad Ha'am: The Forgotten Historiography of the Jewish National Movement Hibbat Zion |journal=Nationalities Papers |pages=1–17 |doi=10.1017/nps.2023.86 |issn=0090-5992|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Jost ===
[[Isaak Markus Jost]] (1793-1860) was the first Jewish author to publish a comprehensive post-biblical modern history of the Jews.{{sfn|Meyer|1988|p=167}} His ''Geschichte der Israeliten seit den Zeit der Maccabaer'', in 9 volumes (1820–1829), was the first comprehensive history of Judaism from Biblical to modern times by a Jewish author. It primarily focused on recounting the history of the Jewish religion.{{sfn|Brenner|2010|p=13, 32}}

Jost's history left "the differences among various phases of the Jewish past clearly apparent". He was criticized for this by later scholars such as Graetz, who worked to create an unbroken narrative.{{sfn|Meyer|1988|p=175|ps=: "In fact, however, Jost did not tear a coherent fabric asunder. Rather he loosely stitched together sources that he found unconnected, leaving the differences among various phases of the Jewish past clearly apparent. Graetz declared that his own approach was entirely different: not accumulative but dialectical - and hence fully integrative… As historicism in Germany came increasingly to center upon the German legacy and to act as a force for German unity, so did Graetz come to view study of the Jewish past as a tool for reversing the declining salience of Jewish identity in a community by then well on the road to social, cultural, and political integration. It was this motive, carried further to national consciousness and divested of its close religious connection, which came to prominence in eastern Europe toward the end of the nineteenth century."}}

Unlike Zunz, Jost has an anti-rabbinical stance, and sought to free Jewish history from Christian theology. He saw influence from Greco-Roman law and philosophy in Jewish philosophy, and sought to secularize Jewish history.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schorsch |first=I. |date=1983-01-01 |title=The Emergence of Historical Consciousness in Modern Judaism |url=https://academic.oup.com/leobaeck/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/leobaeck/28.1.413 |journal=The Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook |language=en |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=413–437 |doi=10.1093/leobaeck/28.1.413 |issn=0075-8744}}</ref>

=== Zunz ===
[[Leopold Zunz]] (1794-1886), a colleague of Jost, was considered the father of academic Jewish studies in universities, or ''Wissenschaft des Judentums'' (or the "science of Judaism").<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Veltri |first=Giuseppe |date=2000 |title=A Jewish Luther? The Academic Dreams of Leopold Zunz |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40753273 |journal=Jewish Studies Quarterly |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=338–351 |jstor=40753273 |issn=0944-5706}}</ref> Zunz' article ''Etwas über die rabbinische Litteratur'' ("''On Rabbinical Literature''"), published in 1818, was a manifesto for modern Jewish scholarship.<ref name="Wieseltier-1981" /> Zunz was influenced by Rossi's philological and [[comparative linguistics]] approach.<ref name="Thulin-2018">{{Cite book |last1=Thulin |first1=Mirjam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zpd0DwAAQBAJ&dq=azariah+de+rossi&pg=PA32 |title=Cultures of Wissenschaft des Judentums at 200 |last2=Krah |first2=Markus |last3=Meyer |first3=Michael A. |last4=Schorsch |first4=Ismar |last5=Brodt |first5=Eliezer |last6=Sariel |first6=Eliezer |last7=Yedidya |first7=Asaf |last8=Esther |first8=Solomon |last9=Kessler |first9=Samuel J. |date=2018 |publisher=Universitätsverlag Potsdam |isbn=978-3-86956-440-1 |language=en|page=32}}</ref> Though they were childhood friends, Zunz had a harsh and perhaps jealous criticism of Jost's earlier work and sought to improve on it.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schorsch |first=I. |date=1977-01-01 |title=From Wolfenbuttel to Wissenschaft: The Divergent Paths of Isaak Markus Jost and Leopold Zunz |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/leobaeck/22.1.109 |journal=The Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=109–128 |doi=10.1093/leobaeck/22.1.109 |issn=0075-8744}}</ref> Zunz was a student of [[August Böckh]] and [[Friedrich August Wolf]] and they influenced his work.<ref name="Wieseltier-1981" />

[[File:Heinrich Graetz.jpg|thumb|Heinrich Graetz, ca. 1885|alt=Heinrich Graetz, ca. 1885|351x351px|left]]

Zunz urged his contemporaries to, through the embrace of study of a wide swath of literature, grasp the [[geist]] or "spirit" of the Jewish people.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bitzan |first=Amos |date=2017 |title=Leopold Zunz and the Meanings of Wissenschaft |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/90002027 |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |volume=78 |issue=2 |pages=233–254 |doi=10.1353/jhi.2017.0012 |jstor=90002027 |pmid=28366886 |s2cid=27183205 |issn=0022-5037}}</ref> Zunz proposed an ambitious Jewish historiography and further proposed that Jewish people adopt history as a way of life.<ref name="Wieseltier-1981" /> Zunz not only proposed a university vision of Jewish studies, but believed Jewish history to be an inseparable part of human culture.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Berti |first=Silvia |date=1996 |title=A World Apart? Gershom Scholem and Contemporary Readings of 17th Century Jewish-Christian Relations |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40753161 |journal=Jewish Studies Quarterly |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=212–224 |jstor=40753161 |issn=0944-5706}}</ref> Zunz's historiographical view aligns with the "lachrymose" view of Jewish history of persecution.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Myers |first=David N. |date=1999 |title="Mehabevin Et Ha-Tsarot": Crusade Memories and Modern Jewish Martyrologies |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20101376 |journal=Jewish History |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=49–64 |doi=10.1007/BF02336580 |jstor=20101376 |s2cid=161793041 |issn=0334-701X}}</ref> Zunz was the least philosophically inclined of the ''Wissenschaft'' but the most devoted to scholarship.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meyer |first=M. A. |date=1971-01-01 |title=Jewish Religious Reform and Wissenschaft des Judentums: The Positions of Zunz, Geiger and Frankel |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/leobaeck/16.1.19 |journal=The Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=19–41 |doi=10.1093/leobaeck/16.1.19 |issn=0075-8744}}</ref> Zunz called for an "emanicipation" of Jewish scholarship "from the theologians."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meyer |first=M. A. |date=2004-05-01 |title=Two Persistent Tensions within Wissenschaft Des Judentums |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mj/kjh009 |journal=Modern Judaism |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=105–119 |doi=10.1093/mj/kjh009 |issn=0276-1114}}</ref> He was the editor of [[Nachman Krochmal]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schorsch |first=I. |date=1986-01-01 |title=The Production of a Classic: Zunz as Krochmal's Editor |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/leobaeck/31.1.281 |journal=The Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=281–315 |doi=10.1093/leobaeck/31.1.281 |issn=0075-8744}}</ref>

Contrasting with earlier bible printing, Zunz adopted a re-Hebraization of names.<ref>{{Citation |title=2. The Second Wave |date=2018 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226477862.003.0004 |work=A History of German Jewish Bible Translation |access-date=2023-11-26 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |doi=10.7208/chicago/9780226477862.003.0004 |isbn=978-0-226-47772-5}}</ref>

Zunz was politically active and was elected to office. He believed that Jewish emancipation would come out of universal human rights.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schorsch |first=Ismar |date=2017-12-31 |title=Leopold Zunz |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.9783/9780812293326 |doi=10.9783/9780812293326|isbn=9780812293326 }}</ref> [[Revolutions of 1848|The revolutionary year of 1848]] had an influence on Zunz, and he expressed a messianic eagerness in the ideals of equality.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Glatzer |first=N. N. |date=1960-01-01 |title=Leopold Zunz and the Revolution of 1848: With the Publication of four Letters by Zunz |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/leobaeck/5.1.122 |journal=The Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=122–139 |doi=10.1093/leobaeck/5.1.122 |issn=0075-8744}}</ref> Zunz's stated goal was to transform Prussia into a democratic republic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schwartz |first=Daniel B. |date=2018-12-01 |title=Ismar Schorsch. Leopold Zunz: Creativity in Adversity  |url=https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article/123/5/1766/5221068 |journal=The American Historical Review |language=en |volume=123 |issue=5 |pages=1766–1767 |doi=10.1093/ahr/rhy312 |issn=0002-8762}}</ref>

===Graetz===
[[Heinrich Graetz]] (1817-1891) was one of the first modern historians to write a comprehensive history of the Jewish people from a specifically Jewish perspective.{{sfn|Brenner|2010|p=13, 15, 56-57, 73}}<ref>{{Cite news |last=Singer |first=Saul Jay |date=2020-10-14 |title=The Jewish-Historical Philosophy Of Heinrich Graetz |url=https://www.jewishpress.com/sections/features/features-on-jewish-world/the-jewish-historical-philosophy-of-heinrich-graetz/2020/10/14/ |access-date=2023-10-29 |language=en-US}}</ref> ''Geschichte der Juden'' (History of the Jews) (1853-1876) had a dual focus. While he provided a comprehensive history of the Jewish religion, he also highlighted the emergence of a Jewish national identity and the role of Jews in modern nation-states.{{sfn|Brenner|2010|p=13}}{{sfn|Brenner|2010|p=53-92}} Graetz sought to improve on Jost's work, which he disdained for lacking warmth and passion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meyer |first=Michael A. |date=1986 |title=Heinrich Graetz and Heinrich Von Treitschke: A Comparison of Their Historical Images of the Modern Jew |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1396500 |journal=Modern Judaism |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1093/mj/6.1.1 |jstor=1396500 |issn=0276-1114}}</ref>

Salo Baron later identified Graetz with the "lachrymose conception" of Jewish history which he sought to critique.<ref name="Teller-2014" />

[[File:Hebrew Writers in Odessa before leaving the Soviet Russia.3.jpg|thumb|Ben-Zion Dinur (far left, middle row) with Hebrew writers, leaving Odessa, 1921|alt=Ben-Zion Dinur (far left, middle row) with Hebrew writers, leaving Odessa, 1921|267x267px]]

[[Baruch Ben-Jacob]] (1886-1943) likewise criticized Graetz' "sad and bitter" narrative for omitting [[Ottoman Jews]].<ref name="Naar-2014">{{Cite journal |last=Naar |first=Devin E. |date=2014 |title=Fashioning the "Mother of Israel": The Ottoman Jewish Historical Narrative and the Image of Jewish Salonica |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24709820 |journal=Jewish History |volume=28 |issue=3/4 |pages=337–372 |doi=10.1007/s10835-014-9216-z |jstor=24709820 |s2cid=254602444 |issn=0334-701X}}</ref> Graetz was also meaningfully challenged by [[Hermann Cohen]] and [[Zecharias Frankel]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nahme |first=Paul E. |date=2017 |title="Wissen und Lomdus": Idealism, Modernity, and History in some Nineteenth-Century Rabbinic and Philosophical Responses to the "Wissenschaft des Judentums" |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26357911 |journal=The Harvard Theological Review |volume=110 |issue=3 |pages=393–420 |doi=10.1017/S0017816017000153 |jstor=26357911 |s2cid=171687378 |issn=0017-8160}}</ref>

== 20th century histories==
The 20th century saw the [[Shoah]] and the [[establishment of Israel]], both of which had a major impact on Jewish historiography.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wistrich |first=Robert S. |date=1997 |title=Israel and the Holocaust Trauma |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20101298 |journal=Jewish History |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=13–20 |doi=10.1007/BF02335674 |jstor=20101298 |s2cid=159844918 |issn=0334-701X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Diner |first=Hasia |date=2003 |title=Post-World-War-II American Jewry and the Confrontation With Catastrophe |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23887290 |journal=American Jewish History |volume=91 |issue=3/4 |pages=439–467 |jstor=23887290 |issn=0164-0178}}</ref>

[[File:חיים הלל בן ששון.JPG|alt=Ben-Sasson, 1917|thumb|189x189px|Ben-Sasson, 1917|left]]

[[Ephraim Deinard]] (1846–1930) was a notable 20th century historian of American Jews.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schapiro |first=Israel |date=1937 |title=Ephraim Deinard |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43058440 |journal=Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society |issue=34 |pages=149–163 |jstor=43058440 |issn=0146-5511}}</ref> The writings of [[Gershom Scholem]] and [[Hannah Arendt]] are also important in modern Jewish historiography of the 1940s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dalin |first=David G. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv2mwg3df |title=Jews and American Public Life |date=2022-05-24 |publisher=Academic Studies Press |doi=10.2307/j.ctv2mwg3df |isbn=978-1-64469-882-2|s2cid=249357249 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Feldman |first=Ron H. |title=The Pariah as Rebel |date=2009-12-01 |url=https://doi.org/10.5422/fso/9780823230754.003.0018 |work=Thinking in Dark Times |pages=197–206 |access-date=2023-11-24 |publisher=Fordham University Press |doi=10.5422/fso/9780823230754.003.0018|isbn=9780823230754 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Muller |first=Sharon |date=1981 |title=The Origins of Eichmann in Jerusalem: Hannah Arendt's Interpretation of Jewish History |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4467139 |journal=Jewish Social Studies |volume=43 |issue=3/4 |pages=237–254 |jstor=4467139 |issn=0021-6704}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Arendt |first1=Hannah |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226487618.001.0001 |title=The Correspondence of Hannah Arendt and Gershom Scholem |last2=Scholem |first2=Gershom |last3=David |first3=Anthony |last4=Knott |first4=Marie Luise |date=2017 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |doi=10.7208/chicago/9780226487618.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-226-92451-9}}</ref> Scholem was a critic of the ''Wissenschaft'' for their history that had omitted [[Jewish mysticism]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wp5wx |title=Dutch Jewry in a Cultural Maelstrom: 1880-1940 |date=2007 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |doi=10.2307/j.ctt6wp5wx |jstor=j.ctt6wp5wx |isbn=978-90-5260-268-4}}</ref> [[Martin Buber]] also was a significant exponent of Jewish mysticism building on the work of Scholem in the 20th century.<ref name="Idel-2020" />

While most of the historians associated with the ''Wissenschaft'' were men, [[Selma Stern]] (1890-1981) was the first woman associated with the movement and one of the first professional female historians in Germany.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Krone |first1=K. v. d. |last2=Thulin |first2=M. |date=2013-01-01 |title=Wissenschaft in Context: A Research Essay on the Wissenschaft des Judentums |url=https://academic.oup.com/leobaeck/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/leobaeck/ybt010 |journal=The Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook |language=en |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=249–280 |doi=10.1093/leobaeck/ybt010 |issn=0075-8744}}</ref>

=== Dubnow ===
[[File:Semionas_Dubnovas.jpg|thumb|Simon Dubnow (1930s)|alt=Simon Dubnow (1936)|239x239px]]

[[Simon Dubnow]] (1860-1941) wrote ''Weltgeschichte des Jüdischen Volkes'' (World History of the Jewish People), which focused on the history of Jewish communities across the world. His scholarship developed a unified Jewish national narrative, especially in the context of the Russian Revolution and Zionism.{{sfn|Brenner|2010|p=43-120}} Dubnow's work nationalized and secularized Jewish history, whilst also moving its modern center of gravity from Germany to Eastern Europe and shifting its focus from intellectual history to social history.{{sfn|Meyer|2007|p=663}} [[Michael Brenner (historian)|Michael Brenner]] commented that Yerushalmi's "faith of fallen Jews" observation "is probably applicable to no one more than to Dubnow, who claimed to be praying in the temple of history that he himself erected."{{sfn|Brenner|2010|p=106|ps=: "Yerushalmi’s observation that history could become a religion for unbelieving Jews is probably applicable to..."}}

=== Dinur ===
[[Ben-Zion Dinur]] (1884 – 1973) followed Dubnow with a Zionist version of Jewish history. Conforti writes that Dinur "provided Jewish historiography with a clear Zionist-nationalist structure... [and] established the Palestine-centric approach, which viewed the entire Jewish past through the prism of Eretz Israel".{{sfn|Conforti|2005|p=2|ps=: "Zionist historiographers accepted and welcomed this view, especially historians like Ben Zion Dinur, Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, Yosef Klausner, Avraham Ya’ari and others. These historians acted out of secular and nationalist motivations.They based their study of Jewish history on the idea that history has a central role in creating a modern, secular-nationalist Jewish identity. History, from their point of view, provided an alternative to the religious ethics of traditional Jewish identity. This school of thought emphasized the ideological motif in a sometimes explicit manner. Although the leaders of this school were exceptionally talented historians, the ideological mission they adopted often resulted in the formulation of a Zionist-nationalist image of the course of all Jewish history. The best known example of this nationalist approach among researchers in Eretz Israel is Ben Zion Dinur (1884–1973). To a large extent, his historiographic opus parallels the work of other nationalist historians in Europe, as Arielle Rein has demonstrated in her doctoral dissertation (Rein). His energetic work laid the foundation for research of Jewish history in Eretz Israel. A close examination of his writings reveals that he provided Jewish historiography with a clear Zionist-nationalist structure: A. Dinur, along with Ben-Zvi (Ben-Zvi), established the Palestine-centric approach, which viewed the entire Jewish past through the prism of Eretz Israel."}}

Dinur was the first Zionist scholar to study the fate of Jewish communities in Palestine during the [[Crusades]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bronstein |first=Judith |date=2019 |title=Reviving Forgotten Jewish Heroes: An Aspect of the Early Twentieth-Century Zionist Perception of the Crusader Period in Palestine |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26900171 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=109 |issue=4 |pages=631–649 |jstor=26900171 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref>

===Baron ===
[[File:Salo Wittmayer Baron at Eichmann trial 1961 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Prof. Baron testifying at [[Adolf Eichmann#Trial|Adolf Eichmann's trial]] (1961)|alt=Prof. Baron testifying at Adolf Eichmann's trial (1961)|248x248px|left]]

[[Salo Wittmayer Baron]] (1895-1989), a professor at [[Columbia University]], became the first chair in Jewish history at a secular university; the chair at Columbia is now named after him.<ref name="Yeru81" /> Born in [[Tarnów]], he was ordained at the Jewish Theological Seminary in [[Vienna, Austria]] in 1920. He joined the faculty at Columbia in 1930, and starting in 1950 he directed Columbia's Institute for Israel and Jewish Studies, where he worked until retirement in 1963. He published 13 works of Jewish history. His student Yerushalmi called him the greatest 20th century historian of Jewish history.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Steinfels |first=Peter |date=1989-11-26 |title=Salo W. Baron, 94, Scholar of Jewish History, Dies |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/11/26/obituaries/salo-w-baron-94-scholar-of-jewish-history-dies.html |access-date=2023-11-12 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> His ''A Social and Religious History of the Jews'' (18 vols., 2d ed. 1952–1983) covered both the religious and social aspects of Jewish history. His work is the most recent comprehensive multi-volume Jewish history.{{sfn|Brenner|2010|p=14}}

Baron's work further developed the Jewish national history, particularly in the wake of the Holocaust and the establishment of Israel.{{sfn|Brenner|2010|p=123-131}} Baron called for Jews and Jewish historical studies to be integrated into traditional general world history as a key part.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kaplan |first1=Debra |last2=Teter |first2=Magda |date=2009 |title=Out of the (Historiographie) Ghetto: European Jews and Reformation Narratives |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40540639 |journal=The Sixteenth Century Journal |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=365–394 |doi=10.1086/SCJ40540639 |jstor=40540639 |s2cid=155563177 |issn=0361-0160}}</ref><ref name="Barzilay-1994">{{Cite journal |last=Barzilay |first=Isaac E. |date=1994 |title=Yiṣḥaq (Fritz) Baer and Shalom (Salo Wittmayer) Baron: Two Contemporary Interpreters of Jewish History |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3622569 |journal=Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research |volume=60 |pages=7–69 |doi=10.2307/3622569 |jstor=3622569 |issn=0065-6798}}</ref> Baron sought to balance the tendencies toward extremes of traditionalism or modernity, seeking a third way on the question of emancipation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sorkin |first=David |date=2014 |title=Salo Baron on Emancipation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24273656 |journal=AJS Review |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=423–430 |doi=10.1017/S0364009414000348 |jstor=24273656 |s2cid=161130472 |issn=0364-0094}}</ref> While Baron's earlier work was periodic, in ''The Jewish Community'' he analyzed a Jewish community that transcended time, per [[Elisheva Carlebach]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carlebach |first=Elisheva |date=2014 |title=Between Universal and Particular: Baron's Jewish Community in Light of Recent Research |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24273655 |journal=AJS Review |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=417–421 |doi=10.1017/S0364009414000336 |jstor=24273655 |s2cid=163560468 |issn=0364-0094}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zeitlin |first1=Solomon |last2=Baron |first2=Salo Wittmayer |date=January 1944 |title=The Jewish Community |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1452018 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=371 |doi=10.2307/1452018 |jstor=1452018 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Engel |first=David |date=2014 |title=A Colleague Not a Sacred Authority—Reflections on Salo Baron's Scholarly Opus |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24273658 |journal=AJS Review |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=441–445 |doi=10.1017/S0364009414000361 |jstor=24273658 |s2cid=161319995 |issn=0364-0094}}</ref> [[Amnon Raz‐Krakotzkin]] says Baron's historiography is a call to view Jewish history as counter-history.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Raz-Krakotzkin |first=Amnon |date=2014-02-14 |title=History, Exile, and Counter-History |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118525395.ch8 |journal=A Companion to Global Historical Thought |pages=122–135 |doi=10.1002/9781118525395.ch8|isbn=9780470658994 }}</ref> In contrast to Baer and the Zionist historians, Baron believed the diaspora to be a critical source of strength and vitality.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Conforti |first=Yitzhak |date=October 2015 |title=State or Diaspora: Jewish History as a Form of National Belonging |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/sena.12150 |journal=Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=230–250 |doi=10.1111/sena.12150 |issn=1473-8481}}</ref> While Baron was mainly criticizing the lachrymose conception of medieval Jewish history, "neobaronianism" has been proposed by [[David Engel (historian)|David Engel]] to apply more generally.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Engel |first=David |date=2006 |title=Crisis and Lachrymosity: On Salo Baron, Neobaronianism, and the Study of Modern European Jewish History |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20100984 |journal=Jewish History |volume=20 |issue=3/4 |pages=243–264 |doi=10.1007/s10835-006-9020-5 |jstor=20100984 |s2cid=159662850 |issn=0334-701X}}</ref>

[[File:Esther Benbassa dans une manifestation.jpg|alt=Esther Benbassa, French senator and historian, 2019|thumb|266x266px|Esther Benbassa, French senator and historian, 2019]]

Baron admired and even revered Graetz, who was an influence on him, but he sought to counter and critique the historical view espoused by the older historian.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chazan |first=Robert |date=1993 |title=The Historiographical Legacy of Salo Wittmayer Baron: The Medieval Period |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1486796 |journal=AJS Review |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=29–37 |doi=10.1017/S0364009400004372 |jstor=1486796 |s2cid=163134226 |issn=0364-0094}}</ref>  Engel says the Baronian view of history stresses continuities, rather than ruptures.<ref name="Teller-2014">{{Cite journal |last=Teller |first=Adam |date=2014 |title=Revisiting Baron's "Lachrymose Conception": The Meanings of Violence in Jewish History |journal=AJS Review |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=431–439 |doi=10.1017/S036400941400035X |jstor=24273657 |s2cid=163063819 |issn=0364-0094|doi-access=free }}</ref> Baron's analysis of Jewish historiography runs through Zacuto, Hacohen, Ibn Verga, to Jost, Graetz, and Dubnow.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baron |first=Salo W. |date=1939 |title=Emphases in Jewish History |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4464272 |journal=Jewish Social Studies |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=15–38 |jstor=4464272 |issn=0021-6704}}</ref> Baron believed older work to be "parochial."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baron |first=Salo W. |date=1963 |title=Newer Emphases in Jewish History |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4466044 |journal=Jewish Social Studies |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=235–248 |jstor=4466044 |issn=0021-6704}}</ref> [[Adam Teller]] says his work is an alternative to history motivated by persecution and antisemitism, at the risk of de-emphasizing the impact of violence on Jewish history.<ref name="Teller-2014"/> [[Esther Benbassa]] is another critic of the lachrymose conception and says that Baron is joined by [[Cecil Roth]] and to a lesser extent [[Ismar Schorsch|Schorsch]] in restoring a less tragic vision of Jewish fate.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Benbassa |first=Esther |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dVqcEAAAQBAJ |title=Suffering as Identity: The Jewish Paradigm |date=2020-05-05 |page=87 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-075-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Popescu on Benbassa, 'Suffering as Identity: The Jewish Paradigm' {{!}} H-Net |url=https://networks.h-net.org/node/8054/reviews/26303/popescu-benbassa-suffering-identity-jewish-paradigm |access-date=2023-11-27 |website=networks.h-net.org}}</ref>

===Baer===
[[Yitzhak Baer]] (1888-1980) made a significant contribution to medieval and modern Jewish historiography. He had a critique of Baron's view that had failed to take into account his friend [[Gershom Sholem]]'s studies of [[Jewish mysticism]] and [[Jewish messianism]]. Baer aligned his approach with Israeli Zionist historians such as Dinur and [[Hayim Hillel Ben-Sasson]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marcus |first=Ivan G. |date=2010 |title=Israeli Medieval Jewish Historiography: From Nationalist Positivism to New Cultural and Social Histories |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20798279 |journal=Jewish Studies Quarterly |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=244–285 |doi=10.1628/094457010792912848 |jstor=20798279 |issn=0944-5706}}</ref><ref name="Barzilay-1994" /> [[Moshe Idel]] considers Baer a "historian's historian" and possibly the most important historian at the [[Hebrew University]] since its inception, and the founder of the Jerusalem School of Jewish history.<ref name="Idel-2020">{{Citation |last=Idel |first=Moshe |title=The Ascent and Decline of the "Historical Jew" |date=2020-12-31 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9781644693087-011 |work=Swimming against the Current |pages=163–187 |access-date=2023-11-24 |publisher=Academic Studies Press|doi=10.1515/9781644693087-011 |isbn=9781644693087 |s2cid=241246075 }}</ref> Baer's periodization considers Jewish history one long period from the end of the Second Temple until the Enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rosenbluth |first=P. E. |date=1977-01-01 |title=Yitzchak Baer: A Reappraisal of Jewish History |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/leobaeck/22.1.175 |journal=The Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=175–188 |doi=10.1093/leobaeck/22.1.175 |issn=0075-8744}}</ref>

[[File:Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi 1989.jpg|thumb|Yerushalmi, 1989|289x289px|alt=Yerushalmi, 1989]]

==Later 20th century: history of historiography==
Jewish historiography also developed uniquely in [[Jewish diaspora]] communities<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McCoskey |first=Denise Eileen |date=2003 |title=Diaspora in the Reading of Jewish History, Identity, and Difference |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/diaspora_a_journal_of_transnational_studies/v012/12.3.mccoskey.html |journal=Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies |language=en |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=387–418 |doi=10.1353/dsp.2011.0012 |s2cid=145296196 |issn=1911-1568}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Endelman |first=Todd M. |date=1991 |title=The Legitimization of the Diaspora Experience in Recent Jewish Historiography |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1396267 |journal=Modern Judaism |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=195–209 |doi=10.1093/mj/11.2.195 |jstor=1396267 |issn=0276-1114}}</ref> such as Anglo-Jewish historiography,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gartner |first=Lloyd P. |date=1986 |title=A Quarter Century of Anglo-Jewish Historiography |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4467326 |journal=Jewish Social Studies |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=105–126 |jstor=4467326 |issn=0021-6704}}</ref> Polish-Jewish historiography,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Friedman |first=Philip |date=1949 |title=Polish Jewish Historiography between the Two Wars (1918-1939) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4464843 |journal=Jewish Social Studies |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=373–408 |jstor=4464843 |issn=0021-6704}}</ref> and American-Jewish historiography.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Handlin |first=Oscar |date=1976 |title=A Twenty Year Retrospect of American Jewish Historiography |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23880299 |journal=American Jewish Historical Quarterly |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=295–309 |jstor=23880299 |issn=0002-9068}}</ref> History of women and Jewish women in particular became more widespread in the 1980s, such as the work of [[Paula Hyman]] and [[Judith Baskin]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Michel |first=Sonya |date=2020 |title=America's Jewish Women: A History from Colonial Times to Today by Pamela S. Nadell |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/775067 |journal=American Jewish History |language=en |volume=104 |issue=2–3 |pages=457–461 |doi=10.1353/ajh.2020.0035 |s2cid=235053750 |issn=1086-3141}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rozenblit |first=Marsha L. |date=September 2022 |title=Jewish Women's History from Antiquity to the Present ed. by Federica Francesconi and Rebecca Lynn Winer (review) |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/880813 |journal=Nashim: A Journal of Jewish Women's Studies & Gender Issues |language=en |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=148–152 |doi=10.2979/nsh.2022.a880813 |s2cid=256810033 |issn=1565-5288}}</ref>

Beginning around 1970, a new Polish-Jewish historiography gradually arose, driven by reprints of works by Zinberg, Dubnow, and Baron, as well as new consideration by [[Bernard Dov Weinryb]].  Relevant authors in Polish-Jewish historiography are [[Meier Balaban]], [[Yitzhak Schipper]] and [[Moses Schorr]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Rosman |first=Moshe |title=Polish–Jewish Historiography 1970–2015: Construction, Consensus, Controversy |date=2018 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv7xbrh4.12 |work=New Directions in the History of the Jews in the Polish Lands |pages=60–77 |editor-last=Polonsky |editor-first=Antony |access-date=2023-11-08 |publisher=Academic Studies Press |doi=10.2307/j.ctv7xbrh4.12 |jstor=j.ctv7xbrh4.12 |editor2-last=Węgrzynek |editor2-first=Hanna |editor3-last=Żbikowski |editor3-first=Andrzej}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rosman |first=M. J. |date=1987 |editor-last=Litman |editor-first=Jacob |title=Litman's "Contribution of Yitzhak Schipper" |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1454096 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=78 |issue=1/2 |pages=151–153 |doi=10.2307/1454096 |jstor=1454096 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref>

The concept of [[microhistory]] has also arisen to describe a new movement in Jewish history led by [[Francesca Trivellato]] and [[Carlo Ginzburg]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=katzcenterupenn |title=The Case of Jewish History |url=https://katz.sas.upenn.edu/resources/blog/case-jewish-history |access-date=2023-11-04 |website=Herbert D. Katz Center for Advanced Judaic Studies |language=en}}</ref> [[Steven Bowman]] is the recipient of a [[Fulbright Fellowship]] and filled a gap in the study of Greek Jews.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dr. Steven Bowman - United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |url=https://www.ushmm.org/research/about-the-mandel-center/all-fellows-and-scholars/steven-bowman-2002 |access-date=2023-11-24 |website=www.ushmm.org |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Yerushalmi ===
[[File:GLAM_National_Library_Trude_Krolik.JPG|alt=1947 drawing, Trude Krolik, Scholem, National Library of Israel|thumb|188x188px|1947 drawing, Trude Krolik, Scholem, [[National Library of Israel]] |left]]

[[Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi]] (1932-2009) wrote ''[[Zakhor: Jewish History and Jewish Memory]]'' (1982) which explored the intersection of historical scholarship and Jewish [[collective memory]], including mythology, religion and assimilation. The term Zakhor is an imperative ''"Remember,"'' and the book discusses the author's perception of the decay in memory and the impact on the Jewish psyche; his core belief is that one can never stop being Jewish.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/11/nyregion/11yerushalmi.html|title=Yosef H. Yerushalmi, Scholar of Jewish History, Dies at 77|first=Joseph|last=Berger|work=The New York Times |date=December 11, 2009|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=December 1983 |title=Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi. Zakhor: Jewish History and Jewish Memory. (Samuel and Althea Stroum Lectures in Jewish History.) Seattle: University of Washington Press. 1982. Pp. xvii, 144. $17.50 |url=https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article-lookup/doi/10.1086/ahr/88.5.1239 |journal=The American Historical Review |language=en |doi=10.1086/ahr/88.5.1239 |issn=1937-5239}}</ref> It has been described as the "pathbreaking study on the relationship between Jewish historiography and memory from the biblical period to the modern age".{{sfn|Brenner|2010|p=221}}

Yerushalmi's work can be viewed largely as critique of the ''Wissenschaft''.<ref>{{Citation |last=Myers |first=David N. |title=History as Consolation |date=2018-01-09 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.12987/yale/9780300228939.003.0003 |work=The Stakes of History |access-date=2023-11-24 |publisher=Yale University Press|doi=10.12987/yale/9780300228939.003.0003 |isbn=9780300228939 }}</ref> He was influenced by his teacher, Salo Baron, whose classes he attended at [[Columbia University]] where he later taught, and saw himself as a social historian of Jews, not of Judaism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dubin |first=Lois C. |date=2014 |title=Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi, the Royal Alliance, and Jewish Political Theory |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24709809 |journal=Jewish History |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=51–81 |doi=10.1007/s10835-014-9199-9 |jstor=24709809 |s2cid=254597671 |issn=0334-701X}}</ref> Yerushalmi was born and lived most of his life in [[New York City]], aside from a stint at [[Harvard University]] in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]].<ref name="Myers-2014" /> Whilst Yerushalmi's work largely centered on premodern Jewish histories, it set the stage for future analysis of modern Jewish histories, per his student Brenner.{{sfn|Brenner|2006|p=15|ps=: The first attempts to deal with the history of Jewish history writing were made by the scions of 19th-century Wissenschaft des Judentums, most notably Moritz Steinschneider in his essay on the Geschichtsliteratur der Juden which, however, like most of his writings was a bibliographical essay rather than a comprehensive historical analysis. Naturally, Steinschneider and his colleagues dealt mainly with premodern accounts of Jewish history, an emphasis that can also be found in more recent attempts to analyze Jewish historiography, such as Salo Baron's essays on the topic collected under the title History and Jewish Historians (1964) and the more recent Perceptions of Jewish History (1993) by the late Amos Funkenstein. Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi's much acclaimed Zakhor (1989), which is not only the first comprehensive study but up to now the definitive systematic analysis of Jewish history writing, laid the groundwork for any contemporary discussion on Jewish history, but it does not focus on the history of modern Jewish history writing. After his profound discussion of premodern Jewish history and memory, Yerushalmi stresses the break and not the continuity in his concluding chapter on modern Jewish historical writing. Zakhor thus opens the way for a systematic discussion of modern Jewish historiography without undertaking such an attempt itself.}} Yerushalmi deeply studied the Sephardim, such as Isaac Cardoso, particularly the ''[[marrano]]'' or ''converso'', i.e. crypto-Jewish or forced Catholic secular Jews, which were a core historical interest.<ref name="Rustow-2014" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sicroff |first=A. A. |date=1973 |title=Review of From Spanish Court to Italian Ghetto. Isaac Cardoso: A Study in Seventeenth-Century Marranism and Jewish Apologetics |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1879277 |journal=The Journal of Modern History |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=658–660 |doi=10.1086/241120 |jstor=1879277 |issn=0022-2801}}</ref> In addition to his work on the Sephardim, Yerushalmi's history also focused on German Jewish, not Eastern European Jewish social history, despite being American Eastern European Jewish himself.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Efron |first=John M. |date=2014 |title=Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi: Historian of German Jewry |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24709810 |journal=Jewish History |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=83–95 |doi=10.1007/s10835-014-9200-7 |jstor=24709810 |s2cid=254602762 |issn=0334-701X}}</ref> Yerushalmi wrote that:

[[File:Halper 113 Midrash David on Genesis, colophon, Cairo Geniza.jpg|thumb|''Midrash David on Genesis'', [[Colophon (publishing)|colophon]], Cairo Geniza, David ben Abraham Maimuni (ha-Nagid), 12th or 13th c., Katz Center/UPenn|alt=Midrash David on Genesis, colophon, Cairo Geniza, David ben Abraham Maimuni (ha-Nagid), 12th or 13th c., Katz Center/UPenn|193x193px]]

<blockquote>...the secularization of Jewish history is a break with the past, [and] the historicizing of Judaism itself has been an equally significant departure... Only in the modern era do we really find, for the first time, a Jewish historiography divorced from Jewish collective memory and, in crucial respects, thoroughly at odds with it. To a large extent, of course, this reflects a universal and ever-growing modern dichotomy... Intrinsically, modern Jewish historiography cannot replace an eroded group memory which, as we have seen throughout, never depended on historians in the first place. The collective memories of the Jewish people were a function of the shared faith, cohesiveness, and will of the group itself, transmitting and recreating its past through an entire complex of interlocking social and religious institutions that functioned organically to achieve this. The decline of Jewish collective memory in modern times is only a symptom of the unraveling of that common network of belief and praxis through whose mechanisms, some of which we have examined, the past was once made present. Therein lies the root of the malady. Ultimately Jewish memory cannot be "healed" unless the group itself finds healing, unless its wholeness is restored or rejuvenated. But for the wounds inflicted upon Jewish life by the disintegrative blows of the last two hundred years the historian seems at best a pathologist, hardly a physician.{{sfn|Yerushalmi|1982|p=91-94}}</blockquote>

[[File:Scholem_card_catalog.jpg|left|thumb|Scholem's card catalog|alt=Scholem's card catalog|246x246px]]

Some scholars such as Bonfil, Yerushalmi's students [[David N. Myers]] and Marina Rustow, and Amos Funkenstein took issue with Yerushalmi's interpretation of the importance of Jewish historiography or its relative abundance in the medieval period. In particular, Funkenstein argues that collective memory is an earlier form of historical consciousness, not a fundamental break.<ref name="Funkenstein-1989" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Myers |first1=David N. |last2=Funkenstein |first2=Amos |date=1992 |title=Remembering "Zakhor": A Super-Commentary [with Response] |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25618637 |journal=History and Memory |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=129–148 |jstor=25618637 |issn=0935-560X}}</ref><ref name="Raz-Krakotzkin-2007">{{Cite journal |last=Raz-Krakotzkin |first=Amnon |date=2007 |title=Jewish Memory between Exile and History |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25470226 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=97 |issue=4 |pages=530–543 |jstor=25470226 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref> Rustow says that Yerushalmi's core thesis rests on a narrow definition of historiography and explores the issue of [[historical particularism]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Zakhor at 40: A Conversation on the Importance of Yosef Yerushalmi's Masterpiece | date=8 December 2022 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jrtzj4gKtes |access-date=2023-11-13 |language=en}}</ref>  [[Gavriel D. Rosenfeld]] writes that Yerushalmi's fear that history would overtake memory was unfounded.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rosenfeld |first=Gavriel D. |date=2007 |title=A Flawed Prophecy? "Zakhor", the Memory Boom, and the Holocaust |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25470224 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=97 |issue=4 |pages=508–520 |jstor=25470224 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref> Myers writes that his teacher took the criticism of his paper, which contextualized the work as a post-Shoah malaise and a postmodern authorial perspective, hard, and did not know how to respond to it, leading to estrangement that lasted years before reconnecting shortly before his professor's death.<ref name="Myers-2014">{{Cite journal |last=Myers |first=David N. |date=2014 |title=Introduction |journal=Jewish History |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1007/s10835-014-9197-y |jstor=24709807 |s2cid=254333935 |issn=0334-701X|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Yerushalmi is also described by Rustow as practicing microhistory, that he did not believe in traditional methods, "heritage", "contributions", but sought a spirituality and "immanence" in his study of history.<ref name="Rustow-2014" /> Yerushalmi was frustrated by "antiquarianism" and the anachronistic view of history. He had a complex relationship with the Jerusalem school of historians including Baer, whom he disagreed with, but was influenced by, and Scholem. He was also influenced by [[Lucien Febvre]]. Rustow, writes that Yerushalmi, like his teacher Baron, believed modernity to be a trade-off and that the role of the Church in protecting, as well as persecuting, the Jewish people of premodern Europe was "anti-lachrymose," and drew admiration from his teacher. However she writes that he agreed with Baer and Scholem that history could be only understood in Jewish terms, and disagreed with Baron's more integrationist view. Ultimately, he is criticized for accepting the sources of the [[Spanish Inquisition]] without characterizing their motive as [[antisemitism|anti-Jewish]].<ref name="Rustow-2014" /> One of Yerushalmi's major themes as expressed in the foreword to ''Zakhor'' is about a proposed return to previous modes of thinking.{{sfn|Yerushalmi|1982}}

[[File:MichaelMeyer.jpg|thumb|Michael A. Meyer in 2007|alt=Michael A. Meyer in 2007|145x145px]]

===Meyer===
[[Michael A. Meyer]]'s ''Ideas of Jewish History'' (1974) is a milestone in the study of modern Jewish histories, and Meyer's ideas were developed further by [[Ismar Schorsch]]'s "From Text to Context" (1994). These works emphasized the transformation of Jewish historical understanding in the modern era and are significant in summarizing the evolution of modern Jewish histories. According to Michael Brenner, these works – like Yerushalmi's before them – underlined the "break between a traditional Jewish understanding of history and its modern transformation".{{sfn|Brenner|2006|p=15-16|ps=: The most comprehensive attempts so far to summarize the achievements of Wissenschaft des Judentums and modern Jewish historiography are a collection of essays and an anthology. Ismar Schorsch's From Text to Context (1994), which brings together the author's essays on modern Jewish scholarship, underlines the same break between a traditional Jewish understanding of history and its modern transformation that Yerushalmi stressed in Zakhor. This break is also made clear in the only systematic anthology of Jewish history writing, Michael Meyer's pioneering Ideas of Jewish History (1987). In his introduction, which remains the most compact treatment of the subject, Mever writes: "It was not until the nineteenth century that a reflective conception of Jewish history became central to the consciousness of the Jew. The reasons for this new concern lay first of all in a transformation of the cultural environment.”}}

===Brenner===
[[File:Hasia Diner US historian (cropped).jpg|Hasia Diner|thumb|left|166x166px]]

[[Michael Brenner (historian)|Michael Brenner]]'s ''Prophets of the Past'', first published in German in 2006, was described by Michael A. Meyer as "the first broadly conceived history of modern Jewish historiography".{{sfn|Meyer|2007|p=661a}} Born in [[Weiden in der Oberpfalz]], Brenner studied under Yerushalmi at Columbia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wissenschaften |first=Bayerische Akademie der |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=guZAnT_Hi0sC&dq=%22Michael+Brenner%22&pg=PA243 |title=Jahrbuch der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften |date=1987 |publisher=C.H.Beck |language=de}}</ref>

===Rustow===
[[Marina Rustow]], a [[Princeton University]] professor and student of Yerushalmi's at Columbia, was a recipient of a [[MacArthur Fellowship]] and a [[Guggenheim Fellowship]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=NJ.com |first=Amy Kuperinsky {{!}} NJ Advance Media for |date=2015-09-29 |title=Princeton University historian named MacArthur 'genius' |url=https://www.nj.com/entertainment/2015/09/marina_rustow_princeton_university_macarthur_fello.html |access-date=2023-11-20 |website=nj |language=en}}</ref> and specializes in medieval Egypt, particularly the Cairo Geniza.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Historian of Jewish Life in Medieval Egypt Wins MacArthur 'Genius Award' |language=en |work=Haaretz |url=https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/2015-09-29/ty-article/historian-of-jewish-life-in-medieval-egypt-wins-fellowship/0000017f-e698-da9b-a1ff-eeffc3570000 |access-date=2023-11-20}}</ref><ref name="Rustow-2020" /> Her 2008 work has changed the scholarly view of heresy with respect to the relative community interaction with the [[Karaite Judaism|Karaites]], a divergent group from the [[Rabbanite]] sect dominant in Judaism.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Marina Rustow |url=https://www.macfound.org/fellows/class-of-2015/marina-rustow |access-date=2023-11-20 |website=www.macfound.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Rustow-2014-2" />

==References==
*{{Commons category-inline|Jewish history}}
*{{Commons category-inline|Collections of the National Library of Israel}}
{{reflist}}

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{{Historiography}}

[[Category:Jewish history]]
[[Category:Jewish historiography|.]]