View source for Yugoslavia and the Non-Aligned Movement

{{Short description|Yugoslav involvement in the Cold War}}
[[File:Konferencija Pokreta nesvrstanih 1961. godine.jpg|thumbnail|First Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement, Belgrade]]

The [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] was a founding member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], an international groupation established to maintain independence of countries beyond [[Eastern Bloc|Eastern]] and [[Western Bloc]] from the major [[Cold War]] powers. [[Belgrade]], the capital of Yugoslavia, hosted the [[1st Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement|First Summit]] of the Non-Aligned Movement in September 1961 and the [[9th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement|Ninth Summit]] in September 1989.

Non-alignment was a cornerstone of Yugoslavia's Cold War foreign policy and ideology.<ref name="Pakistan Horizon 1983">{{cite journal |last1=Martinović |first1=S. |date=1983 |title=Foreign Policy of Yugoslavia |journal=[[Pakistan Horizon]] |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=28–31 |jstor=41394717 }}</ref> As the only [[socialist state]] in [[Europe]] outside the Eastern Bloc, and one with  [[Yugoslavia and the European Economic Community|strong economic ties to Western Europe]], Yugoslavia pursued a careful policy of [[Balancing (international relations)|balancing]] and equidistance<ref name="UNT Digital Library">{{cite thesis |last=Iheanacho |first=Vitalis Akujiobi |date=1987 |title=Nonalignment: Cuba and Yugoslavia in the Nonaligned Movement 1979-1986 |type=Master's Thesis |publisher=[[North Texas State University]] |url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc501237/ |access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref> between the [[United States]], the [[Soviet Union]], and [[China]]. This stance together with active nonaligned multilateralism was seen as a collective safeguard of the country's political independence.<ref name="NYT1964">{{cite journal |date=28 December 1964 |title='Yugocentrism': Belgrade's Balancing Actas Friend of East, West and Nations In Between |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/12/28/archives/yugocentrism-belgrades-balancing-actas-friend-of-east-west-and.html |journal=[[New York Times]] |pages=12 }}</ref> The Non-Aligned Movement also provided Yugoslavia with additional diplomatic flexibility, contrasting with neutral states such was Finland at the time, whose policies were more constrained by great power influences, a phenomenon often referred to as ''[[Finlandization]]''.<ref name="Kullaa">{{cite book |last=Kullaa |first=Rinna |date=2012|title=Non-alignment and Its Origins in Cold War Europe: Yugoslavia, Finland and the Soviet Challenge |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] }}</ref> Yugoslavia's leadership in the Non-Aligned Movement granted it a disproportionately influential role in Cold War diplomacy, elevating its global standing beyond its comparatively modest population and economic size, and military power, with some authors even describing it as a "third diplomatic power" during certain moments of the Cold War, particularly in the [[Global South]] issues.<ref name="Jakovina-Treća strana">{{cite book |last=Jakovina |first=Tvrtko |date=2011|title=Treća strana Hladnog rata |publisher=Fraktura |isbn=978-953-266-203-0 }}</ref>

The end of the Cold War and the subsequent [[dissolution of Yugoslavia]] raised questions about the future of the Non-Aligned Movement. However, the movement's continuity was ensured through the pragmatic leadership of [[Indonesia]] during this period.<ref name="International Organizations 2008">{{cite book |last=Schiavone |first=Giuseppe |date=2008 |title=International Organizations: A dictionary and directory |edition=Seventh |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |page=250 |isbn=978-0-230-57322-2 }}</ref> Today, the archives in Belgrade and the rest of [[former Yugoslavia]] remain largely untapped but often vital for Cold War [[historians]], offering unique insights due to the extensive documents produced and information collected by Yugoslav diplomats and intelligence services during that time.<ref name="Lazić-Arhivi">{{cite web |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/yugoslavia-gone-its-archives-remain#:~:text=The%20archives%20in%20the%20former,about%20the%20Global%20Cold%20War |title=Yugoslavia is Gone, But Its Archives Remain |last=Lazić |first=Milorad |date=20 March 2017 |publisher=[[Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]] }}</ref> 

==History==

=== Post–1948 Yugoslav context ===
[[File:Poseta premijera Indije Džavaharlala Nehrua Jugoslaviji.jpg|thumb|[[Indian Prime Minister]] [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] in Yugoslavia in 1955]]
[[File:Stevan Kragujevic, Car Haile Selasije i Josip Broz Tito, Beogad, 1963.jpg|thumb|[[Haile Selassie]], [[Emperor of Ethiopia]] and [[Josip Broz Tito]], [[President of Yugoslavia]], in Belgrade 1963]]
[[World War II in Yugoslavia|During World War II]], [[Yugoslav Partisans]] liberated their country with only minimal help from the Soviet [[Red Army]] and [[Western allies]].  This led the new communist authorities to the belief that contrary to other countries in [[Eastern Europe]], they are entitled to follow a more independent socialist course. Unlike other communist parties in the region, the [[Communist Party of Yugoslavia]] was able to rely on local army, police, and relatively high legitimacy among diverse Yugoslav demographic groups. Yugoslavia did not perceive itself as a client, but as a partner of the USSR, and in many respect pursued its own domestic and foreign policy which sometimes was more assertive than Moscow's policy. This was the case concerning the issue of the [[Free Territory of Trieste]], [[Balkan Federation]], [[Greek Civil War]], [[Austro-Slovene conflict in Carinthia]] and infiltration and relations with the [[National Liberation Movement (Albania)|Albanian National Liberation Movement]]. Belgrade's independent policies raised tensions with Moscow and escalated in the 1948 [[Tito–Stalin split]] when Yugoslavia found itself isolated from the rest of the [[Eastern Bloc]] countries and in need to redefine its foreign policy.

The country initially oriented itself towards the [[Western Bloc]] and signed the [[Balkan Pact (1953)|1953 Balkan Pact]] with the [[NATO]] member states of the [[Kingdom of Greece]] and [[Turkey]]. After the death of Stalin, Yugoslav relations with the USSR improved with the country's verbal support for the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956|Soviet intervention in Hungary]] (contrary to the [[Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia|1968 one in Czechoslovakia]]).  The 1955 [[Belgrade declaration]] decreased reliance on the 1953 Balkan Pact which subsequently discontinued its activities. As the country still wanted to preserve its newly gained independence, it developed relations with European neutral countries such as [[Finland]]. It also avoided joining the [[Warsaw Pact]] established in May 1955. Yet in order to avoid isolation in deeply divided Europe, Yugoslavia looked for new allies among former colonies and mandate territories.<ref name="Trültzsch">{{cite web |url=https://www.sylff.org/news_voices/23943/ |title=An Almost Forgotten Legacy: Non-Aligned Yugoslavia in the United Nations and in the Making of Contemporary International Law |last=Trültzsch |first=Arno }}</ref> Yugoslavia supported [[Egypt]] during the [[Suez Crisis]], a country which became one of the founding members of the Non-aligned movement. Yugoslavia developed its relations with [[India]], another founding member, from the time of their concurrent mandate at the [[UN Security Council]] from the end of 1949 onward.<ref name="Mišković2009">{{cite journal |last1=Mišković |first1=Nataša |date=2009 |title=The Pre-history of the Non-Aligned Movement: India's First Contacts with the Communist Yugoslavia, 1948–50 |journal=[[India Quarterly]] |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=185–200 |doi=10.1177/097492840906500206 |s2cid=154101021 |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/20770/2/Miskovic.pdf }}</ref>

=== Origins of the Movement ===
A year later, during the 1950 [[United Nations General Assembly]] session, prominent Yugoslav politician and at the time Minister of Foreign Affairs [[Edvard Kardelj]] stated that "''Yugoslavia cannot accept that mankind must choose between domination by one or other power''".<ref name="UNT Digital Library"/> The term non-alignment was used for the first time in the same year when both India and Yugoslavia rejected alignment with any side in the [[Korean War]].<ref name="Goldstein">{{cite book |author1= [[Ivo Goldstein]] |author2=[[Slavko Goldstein]] |date=2020 |title=Tito |trans-title=Tito |pages=636–647 |url= |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=Profil |isbn=978-953-313-750-6}}</ref> In 1951 Tito said that he will never agree that only great powers should determine the destiny of the world in which he effectively rejected [[Comintern]]'s idea on dichotomous division of the world.<ref name="Goldstein"/> He rejected claims that India and Yugoslavia want to establish the third bloc.<ref name="Goldstein"/> In August 1954 [[Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit]] (at the time [[president of the United Nations General Assembly]]) visited Yugoslavia and invited Tito to visit India.<ref name="Goldstein"/> On 22 December 1954 meeting in [[New Delhi]] [[Indian Prime Minister]] [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] and [[President of Yugoslavia]] [[Josip Broz Tito]] signed a joint statement stipulating that "''the policy of non-alignment adopted and pursued by their respective countries is not 'neutrality' or 'neutralism' and therefore passivity, as sometimes alleged, but is a positive, active and constructive policy seeking to lead to collective peace''".<ref name="Mišković2009"/>

===From 1956 Brioni Meeting until the 1961 Belgrade Conference===
[[File:Jawaharlal Nehru’s tour of Belgrade, Yugoslavia, 1961 (02).jpg|thumb|Brioni Islands meeting.]]
The [[Brioni Meeting]] between Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito, Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, and [[President of Egypt]] [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], took place on the [[Brijuni]] Islands in the Yugoslav constituent [[People's Republic of Croatia]] on 19 July 1956.<ref name="Povijest.hr-Brijuni1956">{{cite journal |last1=Krajcar |first1=Dražem |title=Tito, Nehru i Naser na Brijunima dogovorili osnivanje Pokreta nesvrstanih – 1956. |journal=Povijest.hr |url=https://povijest.hr/nadanasnjidan/tito-nehru-i-naser-na-brijunima-dogovorili-osnivanje-pokreta-nesvrstanih-1956/ }}</ref> The three leaders signed a document expressing that: ''"Peace cannot be achieved via division, but via striving for collective security on the global scale. Achieved by the expansion of the area of freedom, as well as through the ending of domination of one country over another."''<ref name="Povijest.hr-Brijuni1956"/>

In late 1958, and early 1959, president Tito, and the rest of Yugoslav delegation, initiated a three months long international boat trip on board the [[Yugoslav training ship Galeb]].<ref name="Jakovina-Treća strana">{{cite book |last=Jakovina |first=Tvrtko |date=2011|title=Treća strana Hladnog rata |publisher=Fraktura |isbn=978-953-266-203-0 }}</ref> During the trip, the delegation visited [[Indonesia]], [[India]], [[Burma]], [[Ceylon]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Sudan]], [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]].<ref name="Jakovina-Treća strana"/> Indonesian president [[Sukarno]] called Tito a [[world citizen]], while Tito referred to the [[Bandung Conference]] by saying "''Bandung is the place from which a new spirit originated which permeate humanity''".<ref name="Jakovina-Treća strana"/> During his stay in Bandung president Tito received an honorary doctorate in law.<ref name="Jakovina-Treća strana"/>

===The 1961 Non-Aligned Conference in Belgrade===
{{main|1st Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement}}
[[File:Belgrade Conference, 1961.jpg|thumb|Heads of State or Government who participated in 1961 Conference.]]
The 1961 '''Summit Conference of Heads of State or Government of the Non-Aligned Movement''' was the first official conference of the Non-Aligned Movement.<ref name="Ancic">{{cite journal |last1=Ancic |first1=Ivana |date=17 August 2017 |title=Belgrade, The 1961 Non-Aligned Conference |publisher=[[University of Virginia]] |journal=Global South Studies |url=https://globalsouthstudies.as.virginia.edu/key-moments/belgrade-1961-non-aligned-conference }}</ref> A major contributing factor to the organization of the conference was the process of [[decolonization]] of a number of African countries in the 1960s.<ref name="Ancic"/> Some therefore called it the ″''Third World's Yalta''″ in reference to 1945 [[Yalta Conference]].<ref name="Ancic"/> Twenty-five countries in total participated in Belgrade Conference including [[Afghanistan]], [[Algeria]], [[Burma]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Ghana]], [[Guinea]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Iraq]], [[Yemen]], Yugoslavia, [[Cambodia]], [[Cyprus]], [[Tunisia]], [[United Arab Republic]], and [[Ceylon]], while 3 countries, [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]] and [[Ecuador]], were observers.<ref name="Arhiv Jugoslavije katalog">{{cite journal |last1=Pantelic |first1=Nada |date=2011 |title=The First Conference of Heads of State or Government of Non-Aligned Countries (in Serbian and English) |publisher=[[Archives of Yugoslavia]] |journal=Exhibition Catalog |isbn=978-86-80099-35-4 |url=http://www.arhivyu.gov.rs/index.php?download_command=attachment&file_command=download&file_id=436935&file_type=oFile&modul=Core%3A%3AFileManagement%3A%3AcFileModul }}</ref> The preparatory meeting of Non-Aligned Countries took place earlier that year in [[Cairo]] June 5–12, 1961.<ref name="RJ1960Kairo">{{cite web |url=http://www.arhivyu.gov.rs/active/en/home/glavna_navigacija/izlozbe/izlozbe_arhiva/Nesvrstani_prva_konferencija.html |title=2011.- "The first conference of the Heads of state or Government of Non-aligned countries, Belgrade 1961" |publisher=[[Archives of Yugoslavia]] |access-date=28 July 2020 }}</ref> One of the issues was division of the newly independent countries over the [[Congo Crisis]] which led to a rift and creation of the conservative and anti-radical [[Brazzaville Group]] and radical nationalist [[Casablanca Group]].<ref name="Ancic"/>  All members of the Casablanca Group attended the conference, including [[Algeria]], [[Ghana]], [[Guinea]], [[Mali]], [[Morocco]] and the [[United Arab Republic]], while none of the Brazzaville Group was present.<ref name="Ancic"/>
<gallery>
Dolazak predsednika Gane Kvame Nkrumaha na konferenciju nesvrstanih, 1961. god.jpg|[[President of Ghana]] [[Kwame Nkrumah]] and [[President of Yugoslavia]] [[Josip Broz Tito]] arrive at the Conference
Lideri pokreta nesvrstanih u Beogradu 1961. godine.jpg|Leaders' group photo
Konferencija Pokreta nesvrstanih 1961. godine.jpg|The venue of the Conference
</gallery>

===The 1979 Non-Aligned Conference in Havana, Cuba===
{{see also|6th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement}}
At least as early as 1978 some more conservative NAM member states initiated campaign against Cuba's chairmanship.<ref name="Riechers">{{cite thesis |last=Riechers |first=C. Russell |date=2012 |title=Cuba and the Non-Aligned Movement: Interactions of Pragmatic Idealism |type=Independent Capstone |publisher=[[American University]] |url=https://dra.american.edu/islandora/object/1112capstones%3A95/datastream/PDF/view |access-date=7 May 2021}}</ref> Yugoslavia rejected to argue for a change of venue but nevertheless criticized [[Cuba]] for facilitating new forms of bloc dependence in Africa and argued against what Belgrade perceived as communist hegemony or capitalist imperialism.<ref name="Riechers"/> Yugoslavia's rejection of the need to move the Summit from [[Havana]] over the fear of divisiveness of such a move decisively calmed down those voices.<ref name="Riechers"/> Nevertheless, President of Yugoslavia Tito, who was the sole surviving founder of NAM at the time, launched a diplomatic campaign to keep the movement independent of both blocs.<ref name="Michael Dobbs">{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1979/06/10/tito-fears-for-independence-of-nonaligned-group/1a38b38d-23a8-45bc-be79-bde161d8f2a3/ |author=Michael Dobbs |date= 10 June 1979 |title=Tito Fears for Independence of Nonaligned Group |work=[[Washington Post]] |access-date=7 May 2021}}</ref> Yugoslavia wanted to preserve its hard-won independence from the Soviet Union and to prevent some Arab countries in their effort to deprive Egypt of its nonaligned status after [[Camp David Accords|the peace deal with Israel]].<ref name="Michael Dobbs"/> Soviet Union accused Yugoslavia of conducting an unjustified campaign against Cuba and [[Vietnam]].<ref name="Michael Dobbs"/> While [[Fidel Castro]] and Josip Broz Tito presented sharply different visions of the NAM both openly allowed for differing views and stressed the need of unity.<ref name="Riechers"/>

===The 1989 Non-Aligned Conference in Belgrade===
{{main|9th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement}}
[[File:Sava Centar plenary hall.jpg|thumb|The Plenary Hall of the [[Sava Centar]], venue of the 1989 conference.]]
In an effort to rebuild internal cohesion via success in the foreign policies Post-Tito, Yugoslavia attempted to host prominent events and participate in a number of multilateral initiatives. One of them was a successful bid to host the 1989 Non-Aligned Conference in Belgrade after the city hosted the first conference in 1961. The initiative was pushed by the new Yugoslav foreign minister from the [[Socialist Republic of Croatia]] and future 1993-1996 UN Secretary General's Special Advisor on the NAM [[Budimir Lončar]].<ref name="Jakovina-Treća strana"/> It was expected that the new host would come from [[Latin America]] but at the time [[Nicaragua]], which was the only Latin American country strongly lobbying to host the event, was not the preferred choice among a significant number of the member states.<ref name="Jakovina-Treća strana"/>

===Breakup of Yugoslavia===
[[File:Breakup of Yugoslavia-TRY2.gif|thumb|Animated series of maps showing the Breakup of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]
At the time of the [[Breakup of Yugoslavia]] in the early 1990s, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was at the end of its 1989-1992 chairmanship of the movement and was about to transfer its chairmanship to Indonesia. With five chairpersons in total, the rotation of the NAM chairpersons following the 1989 Belgrade Conference was the most dynamic in the history of the movement. The Yugoslav crisis created logistical and legal issues in the smooth transfer to Indonesian chairmanship. At the time of the [[10th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement|September 1–6, 1992 conference]] in [[Jakarta]], the [[Yugoslav Wars]] had begun.  Former Yugoslav republics of [[Croatia]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]] joined the [[United Nations]] as new member states while UN imposed [[sanctions against Yugoslavia]].  At the time, the new state of the [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] (consisting of [[Republic of Serbia (1992–2006)|Serbia]] and [[Republic of Montenegro (1992–2006)|Montenegro]]) claimed to be the sole legal successor of the Socialist Yugoslavia (which had been rejected in the [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 777]] a couple of days following the Jakarta conference). The Yugoslav Crisis created an unprecedented situation in which the chairperson of the movement ([[Dobrica Ćosić]] who was in [[London]] at the time) was absent from the conference to transfer the chairmanship to Indonesia.<ref name="Jakovina-Treća strana"/> The Yugoslav delegation, which was without specific instructions from Belgrade, was led by Montenegrin diplomat [[Branko Lukovac]].<ref name="Jakovina-Treća strana"/> In the absence of clear direction, the Yugoslav delegation agreed that the new post-Yugoslav states could participate in the meeting with the status of observers despite the fact that Belgrade did not recognize them at the time.<ref name="Jakovina-Treća strana"/> In the partially chaotic circumstances, the Yugoslav delegation ([[de facto]] Serbian and Montenegrin delegation) managed to achieve results which the [[Minister of Foreign Affairs (Egypt)|Minister of Foreign Affairs of Egypt]], [[Amr Moussa]], described as good for Yugoslavia and better than what should be expected from the United Nations.<ref name="Jakovina-Treća strana"/> The movement decided not to expel Yugoslavia from the movement. Instead, to leave the Yugoslav nametag and the ''empty chair'', which was kept until the beginning of the XXI century when, after the [[overthrow of Slobodan Milošević]], the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia dropped its claim on sole succession of the Socialist Yugoslavia.<ref name="Jakovina-Treća strana"/> The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was not to be invited to conferences except if Yugoslav issues were discussed.<ref name="Jakovina-Treća strana"/> The last Yugoslav delegation was even faced with the logistical issue of how to return home due to sanctions.<ref name="Jakovina-Treća strana"/> They were finally able to fly to [[Budapest]] where they boarded a bus for the return to Yugoslavia, the country which was never again present at the NAM conference.<ref name="Jakovina-Treća strana"/>

==Ideology==
[[File:Свјетлопис обелиска несврстаних земаља у Биограду.jpg|thumb|1961 Conference Commemorative Obelisk in [[Belgrade]]]]

===Movement's core members===
Yugoslavia was the proponent of equidistance towards both blocs during the Cold War and implicitly questioned the non-alignment of some of the movement's members. The country was the major advocate among the member states for moderate approach to numerous issues always highlighting the importance of non-attachment to superpower-led alliances.<ref name="Lawrence">{{cite book |last1=Atwood Lawrence |first1=Mark |editor=Robert J. McMahon |date=2013 |chapter=The Rise and Fall of Nonalignment |title=The Cold War in the Third World |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |ISBN=978-0-19-976868-4 |pages=139–155 }}</ref>

Belgrade feared that the close Soviet ally [[Cuba]], together with other self-described progressive members such as [[Vietnam]], [[South Yemen]], [[Ethiopia]] and [[Angola]] were trying to link the movement to the Eastern Bloc on the basis of [[Lenin]]'s thesis of the natural identity of interest between Soviet socialism and the independence struggle of colonial peoples in Africa and Asia.<ref name="The World Today 1979">{{cite journal |last1=Cviic |first1=K. F. |date=1979 |title=Note of the Month |journal=[[The World Today (magazine)|The World Today]] |volume=35 |issue=10 |pages=387–390 |jstor=40395078 }}</ref> In late 1970, it was the time for [[Latin America]] to host the Conference for the first time, as it had already been organized once in Europe, once in Asia and three times in Africa.<ref name="The World Today 1979"/> [[Peru]] is said to have been the first tentative choice for the meeting but this idea was cancelled after the overthrow of the president [[Velasco Alvarado]].<ref name="The World Today 1979"/> Yugoslavia, together with India, proposed a large number of amendments in a successful effort to change what they saw as unacceptably one-sided pro-Soviet draft of the final declaration of the Havana Conference.<ref name="The World Today 1979"/> Cuba, Iran, and Iraq, all of which were perceived to belong to the more radical wing of the movement, were absent from the 1989 Belgrade Conference which led to adoption of the more equidistant final document.<ref name="International Organizations 2008"/>

===European and Mediterranean element of non-alignment===
{{see also|Neutral and Non-Aligned European States}}
Twenty-five delegations participated at the First Non-Aligned Summit in Belgrade which included Yugoslavia, [[Cyprus]], [[Algeria]], [[United Arab Republic]], [[Lebanon]], [[Morocco]] and [[Tunisia]] from Europe or the [[Mediterranean]] region. Yugoslav diplomacy showed a certain mistrust of exclusive [[Asian–African Legal Consultative Organization|Asian–African]] and [[Tricontinental Conference 1966|Tricontinental]] initiatives which Belgrade perceived as an effort by Soviets and self-described progressive nations to undermine and obscure the Yugoslav and Mediterranean place within the movement of [[Third World|non-Bloc]] nations.

Yugoslavia cooperated with other non-aligned and neutral countries in Europe within the [[Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (CSCE) in trying to preserve results of the [[Helsinki Accords]].<ref name="Pakistan Horizon 1983"/> In this framework Yugoslavia cooperated with [[Austria]] and Finland on mediation between blocs, organized second CSCE summit in 1977 in Belgrade and proposed drafts on [[Ethnic groups in Europe#Minorities|national minorities]] protection which are still valid and integral part of [[OSCE]] provisions on [[minority rights]].<ref name="Trültzsch"/> Yugoslav foreign minister Miloš Minić stated that "Yugoslavia is a European, Mediterranean, non-aligned and developing country".<ref name="TWT 1980">{{cite journal |last1=Singleton |first1=F. B. |date=1980 |title=Yugoslavia without Tito |journal=[[The World Today (magazine)|The World Today]] |volume=36 |issue=6 |pages=204–208 |jstor=40395190 }}</ref> During his international trips to other non-aligned countries president Tito underlined the need for the Mediterranean to become a zone of peace.<ref name="Sabiha Hasan 1981">{{cite journal |last1=Hasan |first1=Sabiha |date=1981 |title=Yugoslavia's Foreign Policy Under Tito (1945-1980) - II |journal=[[Pakistan Horizon]] |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=62–103 |jstor=41394138 }}</ref>

Due to its perceived [[Eurocentrism]], Yugoslavia was sometimes criticized of excessively cautious support to [[decolonization]] liberation movements with Belgrade's provision of significant material and logistic support only in the case of the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|National Liberation Front of Algeria]].<ref name="UNT Digital Library"/> With the exception of [[Algeria]] Yugoslavia focused its support on activities on the [[Special Committee on Decolonization]] where it was one of 17 original members and where its representative Miša Pavićević urged the committee to make a recommendation to the General Assembly that would push [[United Kingdom]] to give priority in granting independence to [[British Empire|its colonies]].<ref name="UNT Digital Library"/> The country argued that its own historical experiences of [[foreign domination]] by [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] empire, [[Developing country|challenges in development]] and complex [[Ethnic federalism|multi-ethnic federalist]] structure are akin to experiences of newly independent post-colonial countries.

==Cultural and scientific cooperation==
===Media===
[[Non-Aligned News Agencies Pool]], the predecessor of the [[NAM News Network]], was established in January 1975 when the Yugoslav Agency [[Tanjug]] initiated publication of stories from other countries in [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]].<ref name="UNT Digital Library"/>

===Local authorities===
While in practice Yugoslav municipalities engaged in foreign policy cooperation since the 1950s, they gained constitutionally protected right to engage in foreign affairs with the enactment of the [[1974 Yugoslav Constitution]] which was almost two decades prior to similar provisions in some western countries such as [[Belgium]].<ref name="Unkovski-Korica">{{cite journal |last1=Unkovski-Korica |first1=Vladimir |date=2021 |title=Non-aligned Cities in the Cold War: Municipal Internationalism, Town Twinning and the Standing Conference of Towns of Yugoslavia, c.1950–c.1985 |publisher= |journal=[[The International History Review]] |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/07075332.2021.1960585 |volume= |issue= |pages= |doi=10.1080/07075332.2021.1960585 |doi-access=free }}</ref> During the 1957 [[International Union of Local Authorities|IULA]] congress in [[The Hague]] Yugoslav representatives sided with representatives from Africa and Asia who argued against the practice in which the outgoing executive committee was nominating its successors which effectively ensured dominance by the [[Global North]].<ref name="Unkovski-Korica"/> During the 1959 Yugoslav representatives invited the [[All-Indian Federation of Local Authorities]] to visit Yugoslavia.<ref name="Unkovski-Korica"/> By the end of 1969, 60 cities from Yugoslavia had already established formal relations with 150 cities from 20 countries.<ref name="Unkovski-Korica"/> Standing Conference of Towns of Yugoslavia actively promoted cooperation with non-aligned nations both domestically and in international context.<ref name="Unkovski-Korica"/> The country's municipal umbrella organization was in the unique position to actively participate both in work of the International Union of Local Authorities and the [[Fédération mondiale des villes jumelées—United Towns Organisation]] where it advocated for East-West and North-South local cooperation.<ref name="Unkovski-Korica"/> By 1977 out of 16 agreements with Third World local governments, 8 were established by municipalities from Serbia, 5 from Croatia, and 1 each from Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Macedonia.<ref name="Unkovski-Korica"/> By 1982 Yugoslav municipalities established 33 agreements with municipalities in non-aligned and developing states 22 of which were established by municipalities from Serbia, 5 from Croatia, 4 from Slovenia and 1 each from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedonia.<ref name="Unkovski-Korica"/> At the time Yugoslav municipalities established 343 agreements in total with Croatia (86 agreements) and Slovenia (81 agreement) leading and with 154 agreements with municipalities in neighboring countries.<ref name="Unkovski-Korica"/> In general, a large majority of all agreements were established by municipalities from only three republics of Serbia, Croatia and Slovenia with municipalities in Serbia leading the way in cooperation with the non-aligned world.<ref name="Unkovski-Korica"/>

==Economic cooperation==

; Notable Yugoslav projects in Non-Aligned countries
{{Dynamic list}}
*[[Babylon Rotana Baghdad Hotel]] ([[Baghdad]], {{Flag|Iraq}}) (1969–1982)<ref name="The Spomenik Database">{{cite web |url=https://www.spomenikdatabase.org/post/10-works-of-yugoslav-modernist-architecture-in-africa-the-middle-east |title=10 Works of Yugoslav Modernist Architecture in Africa & the Middle East |last=Niebyl |first=Donald |date=29 March 2020 |website=The Spomenik Database |publisher=The Spomenik Database |access-date=31 March 2020 }}</ref>
*[[Umm Qasr Port]] ([[Umm Qasr]], {{Flag|Iraq}})<ref name="Gatarić">{{cite web|url=https://www.vecernji.hr/vijesti/u-iraku-je-radilo-100000-radnika-iz-sfrj-732836 |last=Gatarić |first=Ljubica |title=U Iraku je radilo 100.000 radnika iz SFRJ |work=[[Večernji list]] |date=22 March 2003 |access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref>
*Weapons factory ([[Yusufiyah]], {{Flag|Iraq}})<ref name="Salihbegović">{{cite web|url=https://www.jutarnji.hr/vijesti/jugoslavija-je-gradila-vojni-kompleks-u-iraku-kojega-se-docepala-al-qaida-1957860 |last=Salihbegović |first=Ahmed |title=Jugoslavija je gradila vojni kompleks u Iraku kojega se dočepala Al-Qa'ida |work=[[Jutarnji list]] |date=11 January 2011 |access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref>
*[[Entebbe International Airport]] ([[Entebbe]], {{Flag|Uganda}}) (1975)<ref name="The Spomenik Database"/>
*[[FINDECO House]] ([[Lusaka]], {{Flag|Zambia}})<ref name="The Spomenik Database"/>
*[[Kampala Serena Hotel#International Conference Center at Serena Hotel|International Conference Center at Serena Hotel]] ([[Kampala]], {{Flag|Uganda}}) (1975)<ref name="The Spomenik Database"/>
*[[Lagos International Trade Fair]] ([[Lagos]], {{Flag|Nigeria}}) (1974–1977)<ref name="The Spomenik Database"/>
*Old Nigerian Parliament House Building ([[Lagos]], {{Flag|Nigeria}})<ref name="Jovana Georgievski">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/serbian/lat/srbija-52753755 |title=Jugoslavija, Tito i nesvrstani: Kako je socijalistička arhitektura osvojila Afriku |trans-title=Yugoslavia, Tito and the Non-Aligned: How Socialist Architecture Conquered Africa|language=sr|last=Georgievski |first=Jovana |date=28 May 2020 |website= |publisher=BBC Serbian |access-date=7 March 2022 |archive-date=22 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220222200231/https://www.bbc.com/serbian/lat/srbija-52753755 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[Ministry of Transport and Communications (Ethiopia)|Ministry of Works and Communications]] of [[Ethiopia]] employed [[Branko Petrović]] as the lead architect for its headquarters. ([[Addis Ababa]], {{Flag|Ethiopia}})<ref name="Novosti: Pulig">{{cite web |url=https://www.portalnovosti.com/kako-smo-gradili-treci-svijet |title= Kako smo gradili Treći svijet |last=Pulig |first=Srećko |date=16 December 2020 |publisher=[[Novosti (Croatia)]] |access-date=16 December 2020 }}</ref>
*[[Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology]] campus employed [[Miro Marasović]] as the lead architect. ([[Kabwe]], {{Flag|Zambia}})<ref name="Novosti: Pulig"/>
*[[National Museum of Aleppo]] ([[Aleppo]], {{Flag|Syria}})<ref name="Novosti: Pulig"/>
*Partially implement General urbanisation plan of [[Conakry]] ([[Conakry]], {{Flag|Guinea}}) (1961–1963)<ref name="Novosti: Pulig"/>
*Military Navy Port and residential area ([[Al-Khums]], {{Flag|Libya}})<ref name="Novosti: Pulig"/>
*[[Kirirom 1 Hydropower Dam]] ([[Kirirom National Park]], {{Flag|Cambodia}})<ref name="Gašpert">{{cite thesis |last=Gašpert |first=Maja |date=2018 |title=Pol Potova Kampućija i Titova Jugoslavija Crveni Kmeri, Jugoslavija i pokret nesvrstanih zemalja |type=Thesis |publisher=[[University of Zagreb]] |url=http://darhiv.ffzg.unizg.hr/id/eprint/10439/1/DIPLOMSKI%20RAD%20-%20Maja%20Ga%C5%A1pert.pdf |access-date=14 March 2021}}</ref>
*[[Yekatit 12 monument]] ([[Addis Ababa]], {{Flag|Ethiopia}})

==Post-breakup developments==
After the end of the [[Cold War]] and [[Yugoslav Wars]] during the [[breakup of Yugoslavia]], its six successor states showed various levels of interest in participation in the Non-Aligned Movement, with four of the six ([[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Croatia]], [[Montenegro]] and [[Serbia]]) presently recognized as observer states of NAM. Neither of them is a full member state of NAM with Bosnia and Herzegovina's application being refused in 1995.<ref name="MFA.GOV.RS.NAM">{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.rs/sr/index.php/spoljna-politika/multilaterala/pnz?lang=lat |title=Republika Srbija u Pokretu Nesvrstanih Zemalja (PNZ) |publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Serbia)]] |access-date=8 April 2020 }}</ref> [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] ([[Serbia and Montenegro]]), one of the five immediate successor states to the former SFR Yugoslavia, asserted itself as the sole legal successor entitled to automatic memberships in international organisations and agreements of SFR Yugoslavia. This claim was disputed in its exclusivity by [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 777|UNSCR 777]] and suspended in 1992 without official removal from membership.<ref name="MFA.GOV.RS.NAM"/> In 2001 at the Coordination Bureau and subsequent Ministerial Meeting that same year FR Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) was recognized as an observer state of NAM.<ref name="MFA.GOV.RS.NAM"/> FR Yugoslavia was renamed Serbia and Montenegro in 2003 and itself broke up in 2006, with Montenegro and Serbia retaining their observer status each.

{{As of|2023}}, Croatia, Montenegro, [[North Macedonia]] and [[Slovenia]] are all member states of [[NATO]], Bosnia and Herzegovina is a recognized candidate while Serbia asserts itself as a militarily [[neutral state]]. Croatia and Slovenia are member states of the [[European Union]] and the rest are official candidates. Earlier European NAM member states left the group once they joined EU ([[Cyprus]] and [[Malta]]). In addition to six Yugoslav republics, since 2008 province of [[Kosovo]] declared unilateral independence. {{As of|2023}} the vast majority of NAM member states did not recognize Kosovo including some of the largest member states such as [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Cuba]], [[South Africa]], etc. yet there is no common stance within the NAM on the [[Kosovo independence precedent]].

[[File:Serbian National Assembly building in Belgrade (747112184).jpg|thumb|[[House of the National Assembly of the Republic of Serbia]] was the venue of the 2011 and previous conferences.]]
* {{flag|Serbia}}: In 2010, for the first time after the end of Yugoslav Wars, Serbia initiated a scholarship program called "''World in Serbia - 100 Scholarships for Students from Non-Aligned Movement Member States''".<ref name="MFA.GOV.RS.NAM"/> On 5–6 September 2011 the Non-Aligned Movement [[50th Anniversary Additional Commemorative Non-Aligned Meeting|celebrated its 50th anniversary in Belgrade]] in the [[House of the National Assembly of the Republic of Serbia]] which hosted the first NAM conference.<ref name="RTS-NAM">{{cite web|url=http://www.rts.rs/page/stories/sr/story/9/Politika/950474/Nesvrstani%20ponovo%20u%20Beogradu.html|title=Nesvrstani ponovo u Beogradu|first=RTS, Radio televizija Srbije, Radio Television of|last=Serbia|access-date=18 September 2016}}</ref><ref name="UN-NAM">{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/sg/statements/index.asp?nid=5488|title=Secretary-General's Message to Additional Commemorative Meeting of the Non-Aligned Movement – United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon|access-date=18 September 2016|date=5 September 2011}}</ref> 106 delegations confirmed their participation in the 2011 Belgrade NAM Conference.<ref name="RTS-NAM"/> United Nations Secretary-General's message to Additional Commemorative Meeting of the Non-Aligned Movement was delivered by [[Kassym-Jomart Tokayev]].<ref name="UN-NAM"/> The idea for meeting was proposed by the [[President of Serbia]] [[Boris Tadić]] during his participation at 15th conference in [[Sharm el-Sheikh]].<ref name="Vojvodina-Tadić-NAM">{{cite web |url=http://www.rtv.rs/sr_ci/politika/tadic-nesvrstani-ponovo-u-beogradu-2011._138118.html |title=Tadić: Nesvrstani ponovo u Beogradu 2011. |date=16 July 2009 |publisher=[[Radio Television of Vojvodina]] |access-date=8 April 2020 }}</ref> Serbian Minister of Foreign Affairs [[Ivica Dačić]] participated in 17th Conference on the [[Margarita Island]] in [[Venezuela]].<ref name="UN-NAM"/> Ivica Dačić had also participated in the 2018 ministerial conference in [[Azerbaijan]], where he stated that the Non-Aligned Movement is of the highest importance for Serbia given the cherished legacy of the former Yugoslavia and its President Tito. Dačić expressed regret that his country was only an observer state but at the same time was hopeful for more significant engagement in the future.<ref name="Dačić-Novosti.rs-NAM">{{cite web |url=https://www.novosti.rs/vesti/naslovna/politika/aktuelno.289.html:720809-Dacic-Imamo-veliku-podrsku-zemalja-Pokreta-nesvrstanih |title=Nesvrstani su uvek uz nas |last=Milinković |first=Danijelal |date=6 April 2018 |publisher=[[Večernje novosti]] |access-date=8 April 2020 }}</ref>
[[File:Brijunska deklaracija 1956. (spomen-ploča u muzeju).jpg|thumb|Memorial stone plaque dedicated to Brijuni Declaration in the Brijuni Museums, [[Brijuni Islands]].]]
* {{flag|Croatia}}: Deputy Foreign Minister [[Ivan Šimonović]] led the observers delegation of Croatia at the 2003 Summit in [[Kuala Lumpur]] with Foreign Minister [[Miomir Žužul]] attending the following 14th Ministerial Conference of the Non-aligned Movement in [[Durban]] in 2004 and Minister [[Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović]] attending the 2005 Annual Meeting of the Non-Aligned Movement’s foreign ministers in [[New York City]].<ref name="MVEP-2003">{{cite web |url=https://mvep.gov.hr/press-22794/the-republic-of-croatia-is-acting-as-an-observer-at-the-xiii-nonaligned-movement-summit/191438 |title=The Republic of Croatia is acting as an observer at the XIII Nonaligned Movement Summit... |date=24 February 2003 |publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs (Croatia)]] |access-date=8 April 2023 }}</ref><ref name="MVEP-2004">{{cite web |url=https://mvep.gov.hr/press-22794/foreign-minister-miomir-zuzul-is-taking-part-at-the-14th-ministerial-conference-of-the-non-aligned-movement-in-durban/191669 |title=Foreign Minister Miomir Žužul is taking part at the 14th Ministerial Conference of the Non-aligned Movement in Durban |date=19 August 2004 |publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs (Croatia)]] |access-date=8 April 2023 }}</ref><ref name="MVEP-2005">{{cite web |url=https://mvep.gov.hr/press-22794/minister-grabar-kitarovic-held-a-speech-at-the-annual-meeting-of-the-non-aligned-movement-s-foreign-ministers/191998 |title=Minister Grabar-Kitarović held a speech at the Annual Meeting of the Non-Aligned Movement’s foreign ministers |date=21 September 2005 |publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs (Croatia)]] |access-date=8 April 2023 }}</ref> [[Croatian president]] [[Stjepan Mesić]] participated in NAM conferences in [[Havana]] in 2006 and [[Sharm el-Sheikh]] in 2009.<ref name="Mesić-NAM">{{cite web |url=https://slobodnadalmacija.hr/vijesti/hrvatska/nesvrstanima-hrvatski-zbogom-nakon-ulaska-u-eu-91105 |title=Nesvrstanima hrvatski zbogom nakon ulaska u EU |date=7 March 2010 |publisher=[[Slobodna Dalmacija]] |access-date=31 March 2020 }}</ref> President's Office cooperation with NAM member states was facilitated by [[Budimir Lončar]], diplomat with extensive experience from the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Yugoslavia)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Yugoslavia]].<ref name="Mesić-NAM"/> Croatian election to the Eastern European Spot for non-permanent member of the [[United Nations Security Council]] in 2008–2009 (in open competition with [[Czech Republic]] which was member state both of EU and NATO) was ascribed to president's and [[Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs (Croatia)|Croatian Ministry's]] successful lobbying within the Non-Aligned Movement.<ref name="UNSC-NAM">{{cite web |url=https://www.dw.com/hr/hrvatska-izabrana-u-vije%C4%87e-sigurnosti-un-a-kao-nestalna-%C4%8Dlanica/a-2828233 |title=Hrvatska izabrana u Vijeće sigurnosti UN-a kao nestalna članica |last=Avdović |first=Erol |date=17 October 2007 |publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]] |access-date=31 March 2020 }}</ref> Between 27 and 29 September 2021 the [[University of Rijeka]] organized the ''Mine, Yours, Ours: the Non-Aligned'' conference with participation of [[Vijay Prashad]], [[Sara Salem]], [[Budimir Lončar]] and [[Tvrtko Jakovina]] as the keynote speakers and with subsequent exhibition ''Southern Constellations: Poetics of the Non-Aligned'' lasting from 24 September till 15 October 2021.<ref name="UNIRI">{{cite web |url=http://drugo-more.hr/en/mine-yours-ours-2021/ |title=Mine, Yours, Ours: the Non-Aligned |date=2021 |publisher=Drugo more (The Other Sea) |access-date=8 April 2023 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col}}
*[[Yugoslavia and the United Nations]]
*[[Yugoslavia and the European Economic Community]]
*[[Yugoslavia and the Organisation of African Unity]]
*[[India and the Non-Aligned Movement]]
*[[Egypt and the Non-Aligned Movement]]
*[["Josip Broz Tito" Art Gallery of the Nonaligned Countries]]
*[[Informbiro period]]
*[[Titoism]]
*[[World War II in Yugoslavia]]
*[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Yugoslavia)]]
*[[Museum of Yugoslavia]]
*[[Museum of African Art, Belgrade]]
*[[Archives of Yugoslavia]]
*[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Serbia)#Diplomatic Archive|Diplomatic Archive of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Serbia]]
*[[Park of Friendship, New Belgrade]]
*[[Breakup of Yugoslavia]]
*[[Institute of International Politics and Economics]]
*[[Foreign relations of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
*[[Foreign relations of Croatia]]
*[[Foreign relations of Montenegro]]
*[[Foreign relations of North Macedonia]] 
*[[Foreign relations of Serbia]]
*[[Foreign relations of Slovenia]]
{{div col end}}

==Further reading==
===Books===
* Alvin Z. Rubinstein (1970). ''Yugoslavia and the Nonaligned World''. [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]]: [[Princeton University Press]]
* [[Edvard Kardelj|Kardelj, Edvard]] (1975). ''Istorijski koreni nesvrstavanja''. (in Serbo-Croatian) [English: ''The Historical Roots of Non-Alignment'']. [[Belgrade]]: Komunist.
* [[Tvrtko Jakovina|Jakovina, Tvrtko]] (2011). ''Treća strana Hladnog rata''. (in Croatian) [English: ''The Third Side of the Cold War'']. [[Zaprešić]]: Fraktura.<ref name="Treća strana">{{cite web|url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/the-third-side-the-cold-war-movement-the-non-aligned-states-yugoslavia-and-the-world |publisher=[[Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]] |title=The Third Side of the Cold War: Movement of the Non-aligned States, Yugoslavia and the World |date=3 April 2013 |access-date=4 April 2020 }}</ref>
* Kullaa, Rinna (2012). ''Non-alignment and Its Origins in Cold War Europe: Yugoslavia, Finland and the Soviet Challenge''. [[London]]; [[New York City|New York]], N.Y.: [[I.B. Tauris]].
* {{cite book |editor=Paul Stubbs |title=Socialist Yugoslavia and the Non-Aligned Movement: Social, Cultural, Political, and Economic Imaginaries |publisher=[[McGill-Queen's University Press]] |ISBN=9780228014652 |date=2023}}
* Videkanić, Bojana (2020). ''Nonaligned Modernism: Socialist Postcolonial Aesthetics in Yugoslavia  1945–1985''. [[Montreal]]: [[McGill–Queen's University Press]].<ref name="Nonaligned Modernism">{{cite web|url=https://www.mqup.ca/nonaligned-modernism-products-9780773559462.php |publisher=[[McGill–Queen's University Press]] |title=Nonaligned Modernism: Socialist Postcolonial Aesthetics in Yugoslavia 1945–1985 |access-date=24 October 2020 }}</ref>

===Web materials===
* Stubbs, Paul. [http://www.europe-solidaire.org/spip.php?article49341 Socialist Yugoslavia and the Antinomies of the Non-Aligned Movement]. Europe Solidaire Sans Frontières.
* Lazić, Milorad. (20 March 2017). [https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/yugoslavia-gone-its-archives-remain#:~:text=The%20archives%20in%20the%20former,about%20the%20Global%20Cold%20War. Yugoslavia is Gone, But Its Archives Remain]. [[Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]].

===Audiovisual materials===
*{{YouTube|id=2hY_Xa-kqRg|title=The Non-Aligned Movement & Socialist Yugoslavia day 1}} organized by; the Institute for Philosophy and Social Theory of the [[University of Belgrade]], [[Rosa Luxemburg Foundation]] and the Institute of Economics Zagreb. ({{YouTube|id=x50ZOul_Eh0|title=day 2}}, {{YouTube|id=QFBUUlhRdy8|title=day 3}}, {{YouTube|id=5GDOt7pJ3g0|title=day 4}})

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Non-Aligned Movement}}
{{Foreign relations of Yugoslavia}}
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[[Category:Non-Aligned Movement]]
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