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{{Short description|Biblical character}}
{{Short description|Biblical character}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
'''Theophilus''' {{IPAc-en|θ|i|ˈ|ɒ|f|ᵻ|l|ə|s}} is the name or honorary title of the person to whom the [[Gospel of Luke]] and the [[Acts of the Apostles]] are addressed ([[Luke 1:3]], [[Acts 1:1]]). It is thought that both works were written by the same author, and often argued that the two books were originally [[Luke–Acts|a single unified work]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Dulle|first1=Jason|url=http://www.onenesspentecostal.com/lukeacts.htm|title=The Complementary Messages of The Gospel of Luke and Acts|access-date=31 March 2016}}</ref> Both were written in a refined [[Koine Greek]], and the name {{lang|grc-x-koine|θεόφιλος}} ("Theophilos"), as it appears therein, means ''friend of God''<ref>[http://cf.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=G2321&Version=KJV Strong's G2321] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071021134426/http://cf.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=G2321&Version=KJV |date=21 October 2007 }}</ref> or ''(be)loved by God'' or ''loving God''<ref>[[Bauer lexicon]], 2nd edition, 1958, page 358</ref> in the Greek language. The true identity of Theophilus is unknown, with several conjectures and traditions around an identity. In [[English language|English]] Theophilus is also written "Theophilos", both a common name and an honorary title among the learned (academic) [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] and [[Jew]]s of the era. The life of Theophilus would coincide with the writing of [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]] and the author of the Acts.
'''Theophilus''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Θεόφιλος) is the name or honorary title of the person to whom the [[Gospel of Luke]] and the [[Acts of the Apostles]] are addressed ([[Luke 1:3]], [[Acts 1:1]]). It is thought that both works were written by the same author, and often argued that the two books were originally [[Luke–Acts|a single unified work]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Dulle|first1=Jason|url=http://www.onenesspentecostal.com/lukeacts.htm|title=The Complementary Messages of The Gospel of Luke and Acts|access-date=31 March 2016}}</ref> Both were written in a refined [[Koine Greek]], and the name {{lang|grc-x-koine|Θεόφιλος}} (Theophilos), as it appears therein, means ''friend of God''<ref>[http://cf.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=G2321&Version=KJV Strong's G2321] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071021134426/http://cf.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=G2321&Version=KJV |date=21 October 2007 }}</ref> or ''(be)loved by God'' or ''loving God''<ref>[[Bauer lexicon]], 2nd edition, 1958, page 358</ref> in the Greek language. The true identity of Theophilus is unknown, with several conjectures and traditions around an identity. In [[English language|English]] Theophilus is also written "Theophilos", both a common name and an honorary title among the learned (academic) [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] and [[Jews]] of the era. The life of Theophilus would coincide with the writing of [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]] and the author of the Acts.


== Theories about who Theophilus was ==
== Theories about who Theophilus was ==
Line 7: Line 7:
=== Coptic view ===
=== Coptic view ===


[[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic]] tradition asserts that Theophilus was a person and not an honorary title. The Coptic Church claims that the person was a [[Jews of Alexandria|Jew of Alexandria]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2011}} Similarly, [[John Wesley]] in his Notes on the New Testament recorded that Theophilus was "a person of eminent quality at Alexandria", which he understood to be the tradition 'of the ancients'.<ref>John Wesley, Notes on The Gospel According to St Luke, 1:3</ref>
[[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic]] tradition asserts that Theophilus was a person and not an honorary title. The Coptic Church claims that the person was a [[Jews of Alexandria|Jew of Alexandria]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2011}} Similarly, [[John Wesley]] in his ''Notes on the New Testament'' recorded that Theophilus was "a person of eminent quality at Alexandria", which he understood to be the tradition 'of the ancients'.<ref>John Wesley, Notes on The Gospel According to St Luke, 1:3</ref>


=== Roman official ===
=== Roman official ===
Luke addresses Theophilus as "Most excellent" ({{langx|el|κράτιστε}} {{transliteration|el|kratiste}}, {{langx|la|optime}}), a form also used in Acts to address Roman governors. Some biblical interpreters have concluded that he was a Roman official who had been initiated into the church's teachings, for whom Luke now provided a full narrative.<ref>{{cite web|last=Reardon|first=Patrick|url=https://www.touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=15-10-026-c|title=Most Excellent Theophilus|publisher=Touchstone Magazine|date=December 2002|access-date=13 September 2020}}</ref> However, since it is not certain whether the {{lang|el|κράτιστε}} was meant as a technically correct form of address for a Roman nobleman or merely as a general honouring statement about Theophilus, it is not possible to prove that he belonged to the upper class.<ref>Weiß, Alexander. "Soziale Elite und Christentum. Studien zu ordo-Angehörigen unter den frühen Christen." Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter (2015), 104–105.</ref>

Others<ref>{{Cite web |title=Who was Theophilus at the beginning of Luke and Acts? |url=https://www.gotquestions.org/Theophilus-Luke-Acts.html |access-date=2022-11-15 |website=GotQuestions.org |language=en}}</ref> say that Theophilus was probably a Roman official of some sort, because Luke referred to him as kratistos, "κράτιστε" – ''optime'' in the [[Latin]] [[Vulgate]] translation – meaning "most excellent" ([[Luke 1:3]]),<ref>{{cite web|last=Reardon|first=Patrick|url=https://www.touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=15-10-026-c|title=Most Excellent Theophilus|publisher=Touchstone Magazine|date=December 2002|access-date=September 13, 2020}}</ref> although in the parallel introduction to Acts he is simply referred to as 'O Theophilus'.


=== Honorary title ===
=== Honorary title ===


Honorary title (academia) tradition maintains that Theophilus was not a person. The word in Greek means "Friend of God" and thus both Luke and Acts were addressed to anyone who fits that description. In this tradition the author's targeted audience, as with all other canonical Gospels, were the learned (academic) but unnamed men and women of the era. Likewise the non-canonical [[Gospel of Thomas]], [[Gospel of Peter]], and [[Gospel of James]] are not addressed to any particular gender, or any specific person.<ref>Redford, Doug. "The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels, vol. 1." Standard ReferenceLibrary: New Testament. Cincinnati, OH: Standard (2007), 15.</ref>
One tradition maintains that Theophilus was not a person. The word in Greek means "Friend of God" and thus both Luke and Acts were addressed to anyone who fits that description. In this tradition the author's targeted audience, as with all other canonical Gospels, were the learned (academic) but unnamed men and women of the era. Likewise the non-canonical [[Gospel of Thomas]], [[Gospel of Peter]], and [[Gospel of James]] are not addressed to any particular gender, or any specific person.<ref>Redford, Doug. "The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels, vol. 1." Standard ReferenceLibrary: New Testament. Cincinnati, OH: Standard (2007), 15.</ref>


=== Paul's lawyer ===
=== Paul's lawyer ===


Some theologians (Ex. David Pawson) believe that Theophilus could have been [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]]'s lawyer during his trial period in [[Rome]].<ref name=Mauck>Mauck, 2001</ref> To support this claim people appeal to the formal legalese present in the prologue to the Gospel such as "eye witnesses," "account," "carefully investigated," "know the certainty of things which you have been instructed." The conclusion of the Book of Acts ends with Paul still alive and under arrest awaiting trial, suggesting it was the intention of the author to update Theophilus on Paul's history to provide for an explanation of his travels and preaching and serve as evidence in support of his innocence under Roman law. Some also point to the parallel between the account of Jesus' trial before Pontius Pilate narrated in Luke's Gospel with the account of Paul's trials before Roman judges in the Book of Acts. In total, Jesus was declared innocent 3 times by Pontius Pilate as was Paul before various judges.<ref name=Mauck />
Some theologians (e.g., [[David Pawson]]) believe that Theophilus could have been [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]]'s lawyer during his trial period in [[Rome]].<ref name=Mauck>Mauck, 2001</ref> To support this claim people appeal to the formal legalese present in the prologue to the Gospel such as "eye witnesses," "account," "carefully investigated," "know the certainty of things which you have been instructed." The conclusion of the Book of Acts ends with Paul still alive and under arrest awaiting trial, suggesting it was the intention of the author to update Theophilus on Paul's history to provide for an explanation of his travels and preaching and serve as evidence in support of his innocence under Roman law. Some also point to the parallel between the account of Jesus' trial before Pontius Pilate narrated in Luke's Gospel with the account of Paul's trials before Roman judges in the Book of Acts. In total, Jesus was declared innocent three times by Pontius Pilate as was Paul before various judges.<ref name=Mauck />


=== Jewish priest ===
=== Jewish priest ===


Some scholars<ref>The earliest known person to suggest that most excellent Theophilus was none other than the High Priest was [https://books.google.com/books?id=RJoRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA523 Theodore Hase] (1682-1731) who contributed an article in 1725 to the [https://books.google.com/books?id=uQoXAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA45 Bibliotheca Historico-Philogico-Theologica], referenced as the Bibliotheca Bremensissome in the [https://books.google.com/books?id=sLAXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA238 Introduction to the New Testament] by [[J. D. Michaelis|Johann David Michaelis]] tr. and augmented with notes by [[Herbert Marsh]], although Hase proposed that Luke was written to Theophilus after his years as High Priest. Christian apologist and philosopher [[William Paley]] (1743-1805) accepted this identification in his [https://books.google.com/books?id=pmAsAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA163 Horae Paulinae]. In recent years contributions are in David L. Allen, Lukan Authorship of Hebrews (2010); Richard H. Anderson, Who are Theophilus and Johanna? The Irony of the Intended Audience (2010); "Theophilus: A Proposal," Evangelical Quarterly 69:3 (1997) 195-215; "The Cross and Atonement from Luke to Hebrews," Evangelical Quarterly71:2 (1999), 127-149; "Luke and the Parable of the Wicked Tenants," The Journal of Biblical Studies, January–March 2001, Vol. 1, No. 1; "A la recherche de Theophile," Dossiers d'Archeolgie, December 2002 – January 2003; Josep Rius-Camps, Jenny Read-Heimerdinger, The message of Acts in Codex Bezae: a comparison with the Alexandrian tradition, Volume 4, (2009) 3-4 and prior volumes</ref> point to [[Theophilus ben Ananus]], [[Kohen Gadol|High Priest]] of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] from 37 to 41. In this tradition Theophilus would have been both a [[kohen]] and a [[Sadducee]]. That would make him the son of [[Annas]] and brother-in-law of [[Caiaphas]], raised in the [[Second Temple|Jewish Temple]]. Adherents claim that Luke's Gospel was targeted at Sadducee readers. This might explain a few features of Luke. He begins the story with an account of [[Zechariah (priest)|Zacharias]] the righteous priest who had a Temple vision of an [[angel]] ({{bibleverse-nb|Luke|1:5-25|KJV}}). Luke quickly moves to account [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Mary]]'s purification ([[niddah]]), [[Jesus]]' Temple redemption ([[Pidyon HaBen|pidyon ha-ben]]) rituals ({{bibleverse-nb|Luke|2:21-39|KJV}}), and then to Jesus' [[pilgrimage]] to the Temple when he was twelve ({{bibleverse-nb|Luke|2:46|KJV}}), possibly implying his [[bar mitzvah]]. He makes no mention of Caiaphas' role in Jesus' [[crucifixion]] and emphasizes Jesus' literal [[resurrection]] ({{bibleverse-nb|Luke|24:39|KJV}}), including an ascension into heaven as a realm of spiritual existence ({{bibleverse-nb|Luke|24:52|KJV}}; [[Acts 1:1]]). Luke also seems to stress Jesus' arguments with the Sadducees on points like legal grounds for divorce, the existence of angels, spirits, and an [[afterlife]] (Sadducees did not believe in the resurrection of the dead). If this was the case then Luke is trying to use Jesus' rebuttals and teachings to break down Theophilus' Sadducean philosophy, maybe with the hope that Theophilus would use his influence to get the Sadducees to cease their persecution of the Christians. One could also look at Luke's Gospel as an allegorical (רֶמֶז remez) reference to Jesus as "the man called the Branch" prophesied in {{bibleverse|Zechariah|3:8|KJV}}; {{bibleverse-nb|Zechariah|6:12-13|KJV}}, who is the ultimate high priest foreshadowed by the Levitical priesthood.
Some scholars<ref>The earliest known person to suggest that most excellent Theophilus was none other than the High Priest was [https://books.google.com/books?id=RJoRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA523 Theodore Hase] (1682-1731) who contributed an article in 1725 to the [https://books.google.com/books?id=uQoXAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA45 Bibliotheca Historico-Philogico-Theologica], referenced as the Bibliotheca Bremensissome in the [https://books.google.com/books?id=sLAXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA238 Introduction to the New Testament] by [[J. D. Michaelis|Johann David Michaelis]] tr. and augmented with notes by [[Herbert Marsh]], although Hase proposed that Luke was written to Theophilus after his years as High Priest. Christian apologist and philosopher [[William Paley]] (1743-1805) accepted this identification in his [https://books.google.com/books?id=pmAsAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA163 Horae Paulinae]. In recent years contributions are in David L. Allen, Lukan Authorship of Hebrews (2010); Richard H. Anderson, Who are Theophilus and Johanna? The Irony of the Intended Audience (2010); "Theophilus: A Proposal," Evangelical Quarterly 69:3 (1997) 195-215; "The Cross and Atonement from Luke to Hebrews," Evangelical Quarterly71:2 (1999), 127-149; "Luke and the Parable of the Wicked Tenants," The Journal of Biblical Studies, January–March 2001, Vol. 1, No. 1; "A la recherche de Theophile," Dossiers d'Archeolgie, December 2002 – January 2003; Josep Rius-Camps, Jenny Read-Heimerdinger, The message of Acts in Codex Bezae: a comparison with the Alexandrian tradition, Volume 4, (2009) 3-4 and prior volumes</ref> point to [[Theophilus ben Ananus]], [[Kohen Gadol|High Priest]] from 37 to 41. In this tradition Theophilus would have been both a [[kohen]] and a [[Sadducee]]. That would make him the son of [[Annas]] and brother-in-law of [[Caiaphas]], raised in the [[Second Temple]] period. Adherents claim that Luke's Gospel was targeted at Sadducee readers. This might explain some features of Luke's text. He begins the story with an account of [[Zechariah (priest)|Zacharias]] the righteous priest who had a Temple vision of an [[angel]] ({{bibleverse-nb|Luke|1:5-25|KJV}}). Luke quickly moves to account [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Mary]]'s purification ([[niddah]]), [[Jesus]]' Temple redemption ([[Pidyon HaBen|pidyon ha-ben]]) rituals ({{bibleverse-nb|Luke|2:21-39|KJV}}), and then to Jesus' [[pilgrimage]] to the Temple when he was twelve ({{bibleverse-nb|Luke|2:46|KJV}}). Some have suggested that this implied Jesus' [[bar mitzvah]], though the modern method of celebrating ''bar mitzvah'' did not exist in that period and is not mentioned in sources until the Middle Ages. Luke makes no mention of Caiaphas' role in Jesus' [[crucifixion]] and emphasizes Jesus' literal [[resurrection]] ({{bibleverse-nb|Luke|24:39|KJV}}), including an ascension into heaven as a realm of spiritual existence ({{bibleverse-nb|Luke|24:52|KJV}}; [[Acts 1:1]]). Luke also seems to stress Jesus' arguments with the Sadducees on points like legal grounds for divorce, the existence of angels, spirits, and an [[afterlife]] (Sadducees did not believe in the resurrection of the dead). If this was the case then Luke is trying to use Jesus' rebuttals and teachings to break down Theophilus' Sadducean philosophy, maybe with the hope that Theophilus would use his influence to persuade the Sadducees to cease their persecution of the Christians. Some have suggested that Luke's Gospel could be seen as an allegorical ({{lang|he|רֶמֶז}} {{transliteration|he|remez}}) reference to Jesus as "the man called the Branch" prophesied in {{bibleverse|Zechariah|3:8|KJV}}; {{bibleverse-nb|Zechariah|6:12-13|KJV}}, who is the ultimate high priest foreshadowed by the Levitical priesthood.


Most, if not all, of the commentaries on the Gospel of Luke say the "Question about the Resurrection" [[pericope]] presented in Lk. 20:27-40 is the only account in Luke of Jesus confronting the Sadducees. It is true that Luke only mentions the Sadducees by name once but it is not true that this [[pericope]] is the only one concerning the Sadducees. The Parables about the Good Samaritan, the Unjust Steward, the Rich Man and Lazarus and the Wicked Tenants are directed to the Sadducees who controlled the temple establishment. These parables are about unfaithful priests. They are the wicked sons of Eli.<ref name="Anderson">Anderson, Who are Theophilus and Johanna?: The Irony of the Intended Audience of the Gospel of Luke.</ref>{{Self-published inline|date=October 2022}}
Most, if not all, of the commentaries on the Gospel of Luke consider that the "Question about the Resurrection" [[pericope]] presented in Lk. 20:27-40 is the only account in Luke of Jesus confronting the Sadducees. It is true that Luke only mentions the Sadducees by name once but it is not true that this [[pericope]] is the only one concerning the Sadducees. The Parables about the Good Samaritan, the Unjust Steward, the Rich Man and Lazarus and the Wicked Tenants are directed to the Sadducees who controlled the temple establishment. These parables are about unfaithful priests. They are the wicked sons of Eli.<ref name="Anderson">Anderson, Who are Theophilus and Johanna?: The Irony of the Intended Audience of the Gospel of Luke.</ref>{{Self-published inline|date=October 2022}}


All of the New Testament passages concerning alms and almsgiving, except one in Matthew, are in Luke-Acts. Therefore, these parables may be about alms, almsgiving and the proper use of the wealth controlled by the temple authorities. Luke's criticism focuses on the use of these temple resources by the religious aristocracy for their own selfish purposes. This means that the religious authorities controlled tremendous wealth that had been in times past properly distributed to the people as part of the institutional form of almsgiving. The priests in these parables are unfaithful, dishonest and disobedient because, inter alia, they have not invited the poor, the maimed, the lame and the blind to the banquet table. Once the office of the High Priest became non-hereditary, and available to the highest bidder, the institutional role of almsgiving was abandoned or reduced as the purchaser had to recoup his purchase price.<ref name="Anderson" />{{Self-published inline|date=October 2022}}
All of the New Testament passages concerning alms and almsgiving, except one in Matthew, are in Luke–Acts. Therefore, these parables may be about alms, almsgiving and the proper use of the wealth controlled by the temple authorities. Luke's criticism focuses on the use of these temple resources by the religious aristocracy for their own selfish purposes. This means that the religious authorities controlled tremendous wealth that had been in times past properly distributed to the people as part of the institutional form of almsgiving. The priests in these parables are unfaithful, dishonest and disobedient because, inter alia, they have not invited the poor, the maimed, the lame and the blind to the banquet table. Once the office of the High Priest became non-hereditary, and available to the highest bidder, the institutional role of almsgiving was abandoned or reduced as the purchaser had to recoup his purchase price.<ref name="Anderson" />{{Self-published inline|date=October 2022}}


A minority view{{who|date=December 2020}} identifies Theophilus as a later high priest: [[Mattathias ben Theophilus]] who served from 65 to 66. Note that Luke refers to high priest Joseph ben Caiaphas simply as "Caiaphas".<ref>Luke 3:2.</ref> Thus, the reasoning goes, Luke used this pattern when addressing Theophilus.
A minority view{{who|date=December 2020}} identifies Theophilus as a later high priest: [[Mattathias ben Theophilus]], who served from 65 to 66. Note that Luke refers to high priest Joseph ben Caiaphas simply as "Caiaphas".<ref>Luke 3:2.</ref> Thus, the reasoning goes, Luke used this pattern when addressing Theophilus.


==References==
==References==
Line 35: Line 34:


==Further reading==
==Further reading==
* Maier, Paul L. ''The Flames of Rome.'' (Kregel Publications, Grand Rapids, MI, 1981).
* Maier, Paul L. ''The Flames of Rome.'' ([[Kregel Publications]], Grand Rapids, MI, 1981).
* Mauck, John W. ''Paul on Trial.'' (Thomas Nelson Publishers, Nashville, TN, 2001) <br>[https://abev.wordpress.com/2005/01/16/review-of-paul-on-trial-the-book-of-acts-as-a-defense-of-christianity/ Review of Paul on Trial: The Book of Acts as a Defense of Christianity] ABEV: a bird's eye view.
* Mauck, John W. ''Paul on Trial.'' ([[Thomas Nelson (publisher)|Thomas Nelson Publishers]], Nashville, TN, 2001) <br>[https://abev.wordpress.com/2005/01/16/review-of-paul-on-trial-the-book-of-acts-as-a-defense-of-christianity/ Review of Paul on Trial: The Book of Acts as a Defense of Christianity] ABEV: a bird's eye view.


==External links==
==External links==
* "''[http://www.htmlbible.com/sacrednamebiblecom/kjvstrongs/STRGRK23.htm Theophilos.]''". Strong's Greek Dictionary.
* "''[http://www.htmlbible.com/sacrednamebiblecom/kjvstrongs/STRGRK23.htm Theophilos.]''". Strong's Greek Dictionary.
* {{CathEncy|wstitle=Gospel of Saint Luke}}
* {{CathEncy|wstitle=Gospel of Saint Luke}}
* {{CathEncy|wstitle=Acts of the Apostles}}
* {{CathEncy|wstitle=Acts of the Apostles}}

Latest revision as of 21:49, 4 November 2024

Theophilus (Greek: Θεόφιλος) is the name or honorary title of the person to whom the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles are addressed (Luke 1:3, Acts 1:1). It is thought that both works were written by the same author, and often argued that the two books were originally a single unified work.[1] Both were written in a refined Koine Greek, and the name Θεόφιλος (Theophilos), as it appears therein, means friend of God[2] or (be)loved by God or loving God[3] in the Greek language. The true identity of Theophilus is unknown, with several conjectures and traditions around an identity. In English Theophilus is also written "Theophilos", both a common name and an honorary title among the learned (academic) Romans and Jews of the era. The life of Theophilus would coincide with the writing of Luke and the author of the Acts.

Theories about who Theophilus was

[edit]

Coptic view

[edit]

Coptic tradition asserts that Theophilus was a person and not an honorary title. The Coptic Church claims that the person was a Jew of Alexandria.[citation needed] Similarly, John Wesley in his Notes on the New Testament recorded that Theophilus was "a person of eminent quality at Alexandria", which he understood to be the tradition 'of the ancients'.[4]

Roman official

[edit]

Luke addresses Theophilus as "Most excellent" (Greek: κράτιστε kratiste, Latin: optime), a form also used in Acts to address Roman governors. Some biblical interpreters have concluded that he was a Roman official who had been initiated into the church's teachings, for whom Luke now provided a full narrative.[5] However, since it is not certain whether the κράτιστε was meant as a technically correct form of address for a Roman nobleman or merely as a general honouring statement about Theophilus, it is not possible to prove that he belonged to the upper class.[6]

Honorary title

[edit]

One tradition maintains that Theophilus was not a person. The word in Greek means "Friend of God" and thus both Luke and Acts were addressed to anyone who fits that description. In this tradition the author's targeted audience, as with all other canonical Gospels, were the learned (academic) but unnamed men and women of the era. Likewise the non-canonical Gospel of Thomas, Gospel of Peter, and Gospel of James are not addressed to any particular gender, or any specific person.[7]

Paul's lawyer

[edit]

Some theologians (e.g., David Pawson) believe that Theophilus could have been Paul's lawyer during his trial period in Rome.[8] To support this claim people appeal to the formal legalese present in the prologue to the Gospel such as "eye witnesses," "account," "carefully investigated," "know the certainty of things which you have been instructed." The conclusion of the Book of Acts ends with Paul still alive and under arrest awaiting trial, suggesting it was the intention of the author to update Theophilus on Paul's history to provide for an explanation of his travels and preaching and serve as evidence in support of his innocence under Roman law. Some also point to the parallel between the account of Jesus' trial before Pontius Pilate narrated in Luke's Gospel with the account of Paul's trials before Roman judges in the Book of Acts. In total, Jesus was declared innocent three times by Pontius Pilate as was Paul before various judges.[8]

Jewish priest

[edit]

Some scholars[9] point to Theophilus ben Ananus, High Priest from 37 to 41. In this tradition Theophilus would have been both a kohen and a Sadducee. That would make him the son of Annas and brother-in-law of Caiaphas, raised in the Second Temple period. Adherents claim that Luke's Gospel was targeted at Sadducee readers. This might explain some features of Luke's text. He begins the story with an account of Zacharias the righteous priest who had a Temple vision of an angel (1:5–25). Luke quickly moves to account Mary's purification (niddah), Jesus' Temple redemption (pidyon ha-ben) rituals (2:21–39), and then to Jesus' pilgrimage to the Temple when he was twelve (2:46). Some have suggested that this implied Jesus' bar mitzvah, though the modern method of celebrating bar mitzvah did not exist in that period and is not mentioned in sources until the Middle Ages. Luke makes no mention of Caiaphas' role in Jesus' crucifixion and emphasizes Jesus' literal resurrection (24:39), including an ascension into heaven as a realm of spiritual existence (24:52; Acts 1:1). Luke also seems to stress Jesus' arguments with the Sadducees on points like legal grounds for divorce, the existence of angels, spirits, and an afterlife (Sadducees did not believe in the resurrection of the dead). If this was the case then Luke is trying to use Jesus' rebuttals and teachings to break down Theophilus' Sadducean philosophy, maybe with the hope that Theophilus would use his influence to persuade the Sadducees to cease their persecution of the Christians. Some have suggested that Luke's Gospel could be seen as an allegorical (רֶמֶז remez) reference to Jesus as "the man called the Branch" prophesied in Zechariah 3:8; 6:12–13, who is the ultimate high priest foreshadowed by the Levitical priesthood.

Most, if not all, of the commentaries on the Gospel of Luke consider that the "Question about the Resurrection" pericope presented in Lk. 20:27-40 is the only account in Luke of Jesus confronting the Sadducees. It is true that Luke only mentions the Sadducees by name once but it is not true that this pericope is the only one concerning the Sadducees. The Parables about the Good Samaritan, the Unjust Steward, the Rich Man and Lazarus and the Wicked Tenants are directed to the Sadducees who controlled the temple establishment. These parables are about unfaithful priests. They are the wicked sons of Eli.[10][self-published source?]

All of the New Testament passages concerning alms and almsgiving, except one in Matthew, are in Luke–Acts. Therefore, these parables may be about alms, almsgiving and the proper use of the wealth controlled by the temple authorities. Luke's criticism focuses on the use of these temple resources by the religious aristocracy for their own selfish purposes. This means that the religious authorities controlled tremendous wealth that had been in times past properly distributed to the people as part of the institutional form of almsgiving. The priests in these parables are unfaithful, dishonest and disobedient because, inter alia, they have not invited the poor, the maimed, the lame and the blind to the banquet table. Once the office of the High Priest became non-hereditary, and available to the highest bidder, the institutional role of almsgiving was abandoned or reduced as the purchaser had to recoup his purchase price.[10][self-published source?]

A minority view[who?] identifies Theophilus as a later high priest: Mattathias ben Theophilus, who served from 65 to 66. Note that Luke refers to high priest Joseph ben Caiaphas simply as "Caiaphas".[11] Thus, the reasoning goes, Luke used this pattern when addressing Theophilus.

References

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  1. ^ Dulle, Jason. "The Complementary Messages of The Gospel of Luke and Acts". Retrieved 31 March 2016.
  2. ^ Strong's G2321 Archived 21 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  3. ^ Bauer lexicon, 2nd edition, 1958, page 358
  4. ^ John Wesley, Notes on The Gospel According to St Luke, 1:3
  5. ^ Reardon, Patrick (December 2002). "Most Excellent Theophilus". Touchstone Magazine. Retrieved 13 September 2020.
  6. ^ Weiß, Alexander. "Soziale Elite und Christentum. Studien zu ordo-Angehörigen unter den frühen Christen." Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter (2015), 104–105.
  7. ^ Redford, Doug. "The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels, vol. 1." Standard ReferenceLibrary: New Testament. Cincinnati, OH: Standard (2007), 15.
  8. ^ a b Mauck, 2001
  9. ^ The earliest known person to suggest that most excellent Theophilus was none other than the High Priest was Theodore Hase (1682-1731) who contributed an article in 1725 to the Bibliotheca Historico-Philogico-Theologica, referenced as the Bibliotheca Bremensissome in the Introduction to the New Testament by Johann David Michaelis tr. and augmented with notes by Herbert Marsh, although Hase proposed that Luke was written to Theophilus after his years as High Priest. Christian apologist and philosopher William Paley (1743-1805) accepted this identification in his Horae Paulinae. In recent years contributions are in David L. Allen, Lukan Authorship of Hebrews (2010); Richard H. Anderson, Who are Theophilus and Johanna? The Irony of the Intended Audience (2010); "Theophilus: A Proposal," Evangelical Quarterly 69:3 (1997) 195-215; "The Cross and Atonement from Luke to Hebrews," Evangelical Quarterly71:2 (1999), 127-149; "Luke and the Parable of the Wicked Tenants," The Journal of Biblical Studies, January–March 2001, Vol. 1, No. 1; "A la recherche de Theophile," Dossiers d'Archeolgie, December 2002 – January 2003; Josep Rius-Camps, Jenny Read-Heimerdinger, The message of Acts in Codex Bezae: a comparison with the Alexandrian tradition, Volume 4, (2009) 3-4 and prior volumes
  10. ^ a b Anderson, Who are Theophilus and Johanna?: The Irony of the Intended Audience of the Gospel of Luke.
  11. ^ Luke 3:2.

Further reading

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