Examine individual changes

'{{Infobox anatomy | Name = Maxillary sinus | Latin = sinus maxilliaris | Greek = | GraySubject = 223 | GrayPage = 999 | Image = Gray1199 en.svg | Caption = Outline of bones of face, showing position of air sinuses. Maxillary sinus is shown in blue. | Width = | Image2 = Maxillary sinus - medial view.png | Caption2 = Left maxilla, medial view. Maxillary sinus shown in red. | ImageMap = | MapCaption = | Precursor = | System = | Artery = [[infraorbital artery]], [[posterior superior alveolar artery]] | Vein = | Nerve = [[posterior superior alveolar nerve]], [[middle superior alveolar nerve]], [[anterior superior alveolar nerve]], and [[infraorbital nerve]] | Lymph = | MeshName = Maxillary+Sinus | MeshNumber = A04.531.621.578 | Code = | Dorlands = | DorlandsID = }} The pyramid-shaped '''maxillary sinus''' (or [[antrum]] of [[Nathaniel Highmore (surgeon)|Highmore]]) is the largest of the [[paranasal sinus]]es, and drains into the [[middle meatus]] of the nose.<ref name=":2">Human Anatomy, Jacobs, Elsevier, 2008, page 209-210</ref> ==Structure== It is the largest air sinus in the body. Found in the [[body of the maxilla]], this sinus has three recesses: an alveolar recess pointed inferiorly, bounded by the [[alveolar process]] of the maxilla; a zygomatic recess pointed laterally, bounded by the [[zygomatic bone]]; and an infraorbital recess pointed superiorly, bounded by the inferior [[Orbital surface of the body of the maxilla|orbital surface of the maxilla]]. The medial wall is composed primarily of [[cartilage]]. The ostia for drainage are located high on the medial wall and open into the [[semilunar hiatus]] of the lateral [[nasal cavity]]; because of the position of the ostia, gravity cannot drain the maxillary sinus contents when the head is erect (see pathology). The ostium of the maxillary sinus is high up on the medial wall and on average is 2.4&nbsp;mm in diameter; with a mean volume of about 10 ml.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Stand near the person during an extraoral examination to visually inspect and bilaterally palpate the maxillary sinuses.<ref name=":0">Illustrated Anatomy of the Head and Neck, Fehrenbach and Herring, Elsevier, 2012, page 67</ref> The sinus is lined with [[mucoperiosteum]], with cilia that beat toward the ostia. This membrane is also referred to as the "[[Schneiderian membrane|Schneiderian Membrane]]", which is [[histologically]] a bilaminar membrane with ciliated [[columnar epithelial cell]]s on the internal (or cavernous) side and [[periosteum]] on the [[Osseous tissue|osseous]] side. The size of the sinuses varies in different [[skull]]s, and even on the two sides of the same skull.<ref name=":1">Bell, G.W., et al. Maxillary sinus disease: diagnosis and treatment, ''British Dental Journal'' 210, 113 - 118 (2011) at http://www.nature.com/bdj/journal/v210/n3/full/sj.bdj.2011.47.html</ref> The [[infraorbital canal]] usually projects into the cavity as a well-marked ridge extending from the roof to the anterior wall; additional ridges are sometimes seen in the posterior wall of the cavity and are caused by the [[alveolar canals]].{{cn|date=July 2015}} ==Innervation== The mucous membranes receive their [[postganglionic]] [[parasympathetic]] nerve innervation for [[mucus|mucous]] [[secretion]] originating from the [[greater petrosal nerve]] (a branch of the [[facial nerve]]). The superior alveolar (anterior, middle, and posterior) nerves, branches of the [[maxillary nerve]] provide [[sensory innervation]].{{cn|date=July 2015}} ===Nasal wall/base=== Its nasal wall, or base, presents, in the disarticulated bone, a large, irregular aperture, communicating with the [[nasal cavity]].{{cn|date=July 2015}} In the articulated skull this aperture is much reduced in size by the following bones: * the [[uncinate process of ethmoid bone|uncinate process of the ethmoid]] above, * the ethmoidal process of the [[inferior nasal concha]] below, * the vertical part of the [[palatine bone|palatine]] behind, * and a small part of the [[lacrimal bone|lacrimal]] above and in front. The sinus communicates through an opening into the [[semilunar hiatus]] on the lateral nasal wall.{{cn|date=July 2015}} ===Posterior wall=== On the posterior wall are the [[alveolar canals]], transmitting the [[posterior superior alveolar artery|posterior superior alveolar vessels]] and [[posterior superior alveolar nerve|nerves]] to the [[Molar (tooth)|molar]] teeth.{{cn|date=July 2015}} ===Floor=== [[File:Pneumatized max sinus.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The maxillary sinus can normally be seen above the level of the premolar and molar teeth in the [[maxilla|upper jaw]]. This [[dental radiography|dental x-ray film]] shows how, in the absence of the second premolar and first molar, the sinus became ''pneumatized'' and expanded towards the crest of the alveolar process (location at which the bone meets the gum tissue).]] The floor is formed by the [[alveolar process of maxilla|alveolar process of the maxilla]], and, if the sinus is of an average size, is on a level with the floor of the nose; if the sinus is large it reaches below this level.{{cn|date=July 2015}} Projecting into the floor of the antrum are several conical processes, corresponding to the roots of the first and second maxillary [[molar teeth]]; in some cases the floor can be perforated by the apices of the teeth.{{cn|date=July 2015}} ===Roof=== The roof is formed by floor of the orbit. It is traversed by infraorbital nerves and vessels.{{cn|date=July 2015}} ===Development=== It is present at birth as rudimentary air cells, and develops throughout childhood. ==Clinical significance== ===Maxillary sinusitis=== Maxillary [[sinusitis]] is [[inflammation]] of the maxillary sinuses. The [[symptom]]s of sinusitis are headache, usually near the involved sinus, and foul-smelling nasal or pharyngeal discharge, possibly with some systemic signs of infection such as fever and weakness. The skin over the involved sinus can be tender, hot, and even reddened due to the inflammatory process in the area. On radiographs, there is opacification (or cloudiness) of the usually translucent sinus due to retained mucus.<ref name=":0" /> Maxillary sinusitis is common due to the close anatomic relation of the frontal sinus, anterior[[ethmoid sinus|ethmoidal sinus]] and the maxillary teeth, allowing for easy spread of infection. Differential diagnosis of dental problems needs to be done due to the close proximity to the teeth since the pain from sinusitis can seem to be dentally related.<ref name=":2" /> Furthermore, the drainage orifice lies near the roof of the sinus, and so the maxillary sinus does not drain well, and infection develops more easily. The maxillary sinus may drain into the [[mouth]] via an abnormal opening, an oroantral [[fistula]], a particular risk after tooth extraction. ====Sinusitis treatment==== Traditionally the treatment of acute maxillary sinusitis is usually prescription of a broad-spectrum cephalosporin antibiotic resistant to beta-lactamase, administered for 10 days. Recent studies have found that the cause of chronic sinus infections lies in the nasal mucus, not in the nasal and sinus tissue targeted by standard treatment. This suggests a beneficial effect in treatments that target primarily the underlying and presumably damage-inflicting nasal and sinus membrane inflammation, instead of the secondary bacterial infection that has been the primary target of past treatments for the disease. Also, surgical procedures with chronic sinus infections are now changing with the direct removal of the mucus, which is loaded with toxins from the inflammatory cells, rather than the inflamed tissue during surgery. Leaving the mucus behind might predispose early recurrence of the chronic sinus infection. If any surgery is performed, it is to enlarge the ostia in the lateral walls of the nasal cavity, creating adequate drainage.<ref name=":0" /> ===Cancer=== [[Carcinoma]] of the maxillary sinus may invade the palate and cause dental pain. It may also block the nasolacrimal duct. Spread of the tumor into the orbit causes [[proptosis]].<ref name=":2" /> <gallery> File:Diagram showing maxillary sinus cancer that has spread to the brain CRUK 167.svg|Maxillary sinus cancer that has spread to the brain File:Diagram showing maxillary sinus cancer that has spread to the lymph nodes CRUK 168.svg|Maxillary sinus cancer that has spread to the lymph nodes </gallery> ===Age=== With age, the enlarging maxillary sinus may even begin to surround the roots of the maxillary posterior teeth and extend its margins into the body of the zygomatic bone. If the maxillary posterior teeth are lost, the maxillary sinus may expand even more, thinning the bony floor of the alveolar process so that only a thin shell of bone is present.<ref name=":0" /> ==History== The maxillary sinus was first discovered and illustrated by [[Leonardo da Vinci]], but the earliest attribution of significance was given to [[Nathaniel Highmore (surgeon)|Nathaniel Highmore]], the British surgeon and anatomist who described it in detail in his 1651 treatise.<ref>Merriam-Webster's Medical Desk Dictionary Revised Ed. 2002, pg 49.</ref> ==Additional Images== <gallery> File:Maxillary sinus - animation02.gif|Animation. Maxillary sinus shown in red. File:Maxillary sinus - animation03.gif|Maxilla shown in semi-transparent. Maxillary sinus shown in red. File:Slide15hhhh.JPG|Right maxilla. Medial view. File:Slide9hhhh.JPG|Right maxilla. Posterior view. </gallery> ==See also== {{Anatomy terms}} *[[Ohngren's line]] *[[Tripod fracture|Zygomatic complex fracture]] ==References== {{Reflist|1}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Maxillary sinuses}} * {{SUNYRadiology|Headneck|17Maxill}} * {{ViennaCrossSection|skull/x-front}} * {{NormanAnatomy|lesson9}} ({{NormanAnatomyFig|latnasalwall3}}, {{NormanAnatomyFig|nasalcavitfrontsec}}) * Maxillary Sinus: Normal Anatomy & Variants at http://uwmsk.org/sinusanatomy2/Maxillary-Normal.html * Cancer in the maxillary sinus, Stanford University at http://cancer.stanford.edu/headneck/sinus/sinus_max.html {{Facial bones}} {{Nose anatomy}} [[Category:Bones of the head and neck]]'