Article I  Legislative Branch

• Overview of Article I, Legislative Branch
• Section 1 Legislative Vesting Clause
  • Overview of Legislative Vesting Clause
  • Historical Background
    • Origin of Limits on Federal Power
    • Origin of a Bicameral Congress
    • The Great Compromise of the Constitutional Convention
    • Legislative Power and the Executive and Judicial Branches
  • Legislative Power in the Constitutional Framework
    • Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances
    • Functional and Formalist Approaches to Separation of Powers
    • Enumerated, Implied, Resulting, and Inherent Powers
    • Bicameralism
  • Delegations of Legislative Power
    • Overview of Delegations of Legislative Power
    • Historical Background on Delegating Legislative Power
    • Delegating Legislative Power to Fill Up the Details
    • Contingent Delegations and Nondelegation Doctrine
  • Nondelegation Doctrine
    • Overview of Nondelegation Doctrine
    • Historical Background on Nondelegation Doctrine
    • Origin of Intelligible Principle Standard
    • Nature and Scope of Intelligible Principle Standard
    • Agency Discretion and Chevron Deference
    • Major Questions Doctrine and Canons of Statutory Construction
  • Categories of Legislative Power Delegations
    • Criminal Statutes and Nondelegation Doctrine
    • Delegations of Foreign and Military Affairs to the President
    • States and Legislative Power Delegations
    • Quasi-Governmental Entities and Legislative Power Delegations
    • Private Entities and Legislative Power Delegations
    • Taxes and Delegations of Legislative Power Delegations
    • Individual Liberties and Delegations of Legislative Power
• Section 2 House of Representatives
  • Clause 1 Composition
    • Congressional Districting
    • Voter Qualifications for House of Representatives Elections
  • Clause 2 Qualifications
    • Overview of House Qualifications Clause
    • Ability of Congress to Change Qualifications for Members
    • Ability of States to Add Qualifications for Members
  • Clause 3 Seats
    • Enumeration Clause and Apportioning Seats in the House of Representatives
  • Clause 4 Vacancies
    • House Vacancies Clause
  • Clause 5 Impeachment
    • Overview of Impeachment
    • Historical Background on Impeachment
    • Impeachment Doctrine
    • Alternatives to Impeachment
• Section 3 Senate
  • Clause 1 Composition
    • Equal Representation of States in the Senate
    • Historical Background on State Voting Rights in Congress
    • Selection of Senators by State Legislatures
    • Six-Year Senate Terms
  • Clause 2 Seats
    • Staggered Senate Elections
    • Senate Vacancies Clause
  • Clause 3 Qualifications
    • Overview of Senate Qualifications Clause
    • When Senate Qualifications Requirements Must Be Met
    • Congress's Ability to Change Qualifications Requirements for Senate
    • States' Ability to Change Qualifications Requirements for Senate
  • Clause 4 President
    • President of the Senate
  • Clause 5 Officers
    • Senate Officers
  • Clause 6 Impeachment Trials
    • Overview of Impeachment Trials
    • Historical Background on Impeachment Trials
    • Impeachment Trial Practices
    • Oath or Affirmation Requirement in Impeachment Trials
    • Impeaching the President
  • Clause 7 Impeachment Judgments
    • Overview of Impeachment Judgments
    • Doctrine on Impeachment Judgments
• Section 4 Congress
  • Clause 1 Elections Clause
    • Historical Background on Elections Clause
    • States and Elections Clause
    • Congress and Elections Clause
  • Clause 2 Assembly
    • When Congress Shall Assemble
• Section 5 Proceedings
  • Clause 1 Authority
    • Congressional Authority over Elections, Returns, and Qualifications
    • Quorums in Congress
  • Clause 2 Rules
    • Congressional Proceedings and the Rulemaking Clause
    • Punishments and Expulsions from Congress
      • Overview of Expulsion Clause
      • Historical Background on Expulsion Clause
      • Judicial Interpretations of Expulsion Clause
      • Misconduct That Occurred in Office
      • Misconduct Occurring Prior to Election or Reelection
      • House of Representatives Treatment of Prior Misconduct
      • Senate Treatment of Prior Misconduct
  • Clause 3 Records
    • Requirement that Congress Keep a Journal
  • Clause 4 Sessions
    • Adjournment of Congress
• Section 6 Rights and Disabilities
  • Clause 1 Pay, Privileges, and Immunities
    • Compensation of Members of Congress
    • Privilege from Arrest
    • Speech or Debate
      • Overview of Speech or Debate Clause
      • Historical Background on Speech or Debate Clause
      • Activities to Which Speech or Debate Clause Applies
      • Distraction Rationale and Speech or Debate Clause
      • Communications Outside the Legislative Process
      • Subpoena Power and Congress
      • Persons Who Can Claim the Speech or Debate Privilege
  • Clause 2 Bar on Holding Federal Office
    • Overview of Federal Office Prohibition
    • Ineligibility Clause (Emoluments or Sinecure Clause) and Congress
    • Incompatibility Clause and Congress
• Section 7 Legislation
  • Clause 1 Revenue
    • Origination Clause and Revenue Bills
  • Clause 2 Role of President
    • Overview of Presidential Approval or Veto of Bills
    • Veto Power
    • Line Item Veto
    • Legislative Veto
  • Clause 3 Process
    • Presentation of Senate or House Resolutions
• Section 8 Enumerated Powers
  • Overview of Congress's Enumerated Powers
  • Clause 1 General Welfare
    • Taxing Power
      • Overview of Taxing Clause
      • Historical Background on Taxing Power
      • Uniformity Clause and Indirect Taxes
      • Taxes to Regulate Conduct
      • Intergovernmental Tax Immunity Doctrine
    • Spending Power
      • Overview of Spending Clause
      • Historical Background on Spending Clause
      • Early Spending Clause Jurisprudence
      • Modern Spending Clause Jurisprudence Generally
      • Clear Notice Requirement and Spending Clause
      • Anti-Coercion Requirement and Spending Clause
      • General Welfare, Relatedness, and Independent Constitutional Bars
  • Clause 2 Borrowing
    • Borrowing Power of Congress
  • Clause 3 Commerce
    • Overview of Commerce Clause
    • Meaning of Commerce
    • Meaning of Among the Several States in the Commerce Clause
    • Meaning of Regulate in the Commerce Clause
    • Historical Background
      • Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 and Sugar Trust Case
      • Current of Commerce Concept and 1905 Swift Case
      • Packers and Stockyards Act of 1921 and Grain Futures Act of 1922
      • New Deal Legislation Generally
      • National Industrial Recovery and Agricultural Adjustment Acts of 1933
      • Railroad Retirement and Securities Exchange Acts of 1934
      • Public Utility Holding Company and Bituminous Coal Conservation Acts of 1935
      • National Labor Relations Act of 1935
      • Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act of 1937
      • Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938
      • Dual Federalism and Commerce Clause
    • Modern Doctrine
      • United States v. Lopez and Interstate Commerce Clause
      • Channels of Interstate Commerce
      • Persons or Things in and Instrumentalities of Interstate Commerce
      • Intrastate Activities Having a Substantial Relation to Interstate Commerce
      • Limits on Federal Regulation of Intrastate Activity
      • Regulation of Activity Versus Inactivity
      • Regulation of Interstate Commerce to Achieve Policy Goals
      • Civil Rights and Commerce Clause
      • Criminal Law and Commerce Clause
    • Dormant Commerce Clause
      • Overview of Dormant Commerce Clause
      • Historical Background on Dormant Commerce Clause
      • Early Dormant Commerce Clause Jurisprudence
      • Modern Dormant Commerce Clause Jurisprudence Generally
      • General Prohibition on Facial Discrimination
      • State Proprietary Activity (Market Participant) Exception
      • Congressional Authorization of Otherwise Impermissible State Action
      • Facially Neutral Laws and Dormant Commerce Clause
      • Local Laws and Traditional Government Functions
      • Foreign Commerce and State Powers
      • State Taxation
        • Overview of State Taxation and Dormant Commerce Clause
        • Early Dormant Commerce Clause Jurisprudence and State Taxation
        • Modern Dormant Commerce Clause Jurisprudence and State Taxation
        • Nexus Prong of Complete Auto Test for Taxes on Interstate Commerce
        • Apportionment Prong of Complete Auto Test for Taxes on Interstate Commerce
        • Discrimination Prong of Complete Auto Test for Taxes on Interstate Commerce
        • Benefit Prong of Complete Auto Test for Taxes on Interstate Commerce
    • Foreign
      • Overview of Foreign Commerce Clause
      • Instruments of Commerce
    • Indian Tribes
      • Scope of Commerce Clause Authority and Indian Tribes
      • Restrictions on State Powers, Indian Tribes, and Commerce Clause
  • Clause 4 Uniform Laws
    • Naturalization
      • Overview of Naturalization Clause
      • Post-1900 Naturalization Doctrine Generally
      • Historical Background
        • British and American Colonial Naturalization
        • Constitutional Convention and Naturalization
        • Early U.S. Naturalization Laws
        • Naturalization as an Exclusive Power of Congress
        • Collective Naturalization (1800–1900)
      • Children
        • Citizenship and Children Born Abroad
        • Naturalization and Rogers v. Bellei
        • Naturalization and Sessions v. Morales-Santana
      • Denaturalization
        • Denaturalization (Revoking Citizenship) Generally
        • Early Denaturalization Jurisprudence
        • Limits to Congress's Denaturalization Power
        • Unlawful Procurement of Citizenship
        • Concealing Material Facts When Procuring Citizenship
      • Expatriation
        • Expatriation (Termination of Citizenship) Generally
        • Development of Expatriation Doctrine
        • Expatriation Legislation
        • Judicial Recognition of Congress's Expatriation Power
        • Judicial Limits on Congress's Expatriation Power
    • Bankruptcy
      • Overview of Bankruptcy Clause
      • Historical Background on Bankruptcy Clause
      • Scope of Federal Bankruptcy Clause
      • Expansion of the Scope of Bankruptcy Power
      • Constitutional Limits on Bankruptcy Power
      • Restrictions on State Bankruptcy Power
  • Clause 5 Standards
    • Congress's Coinage Power
  • Clause 6 Counterfeiters
    • Congress's Power to Punish Counterfeiting
  • Clause 7 Post Offices
    • Historical Background on Postal Power
    • Power to Protect the Mails
    • Power to Prevent Harmful Use of Postal Facilities
    • Exclusive Power Over Post Offices as an Adjunct to Other Powers
    • Restrictions on State Power Over Post Offices
  • Clause 8 Intellectual Property
    • Overview of Congress's Power Over Intellectual Property
    • Federal Power Over Trademarks
    • State Regulation of Intellectual Property
    • Historical Background
      • English Origins of Intellectual Property Law
      • Framing and Ratification of Intellectual Property Clause
    • Copyrights
      • Authorship, Writings, and Originality
      • Limited Times for Copyrights and the Progress of Science
      • Copyright and the First Amendment
    • Patents
      • Inventorship and Utility
      • Patent-Eligible Subject Matter
      • Constitutional Constraints on Congress's Power Over Granted Patents
  • Clause 9 Courts
    • Inferior Federal Courts
  • Clause 10 Maritime Crimes
    • Historical Background on Maritime Crimes
    • Definition of Maritime Crimes and Offenses
    • Extraterritorial Reach
  • Clause 11 War Powers
    • Source of Congress's War Powers
    • Scope of Congress's War Powers
    • Declarations of War
    • Enemy Property and Congress's War Powers
    • Prizes of War and Congress's War Powers
  • Clause 12 Army
    • Historical Background on Congress's Authority to Raise and Support Armies
    • Time Limits on Appropriations for Army
    • Conscription
  • Clause 13 Navy
    • Congress's Naval Powers
  • Clause 14 Land and Naval Forces Rules
    • Care of Armed Forces
    • Trial and Punishment of Servicemen (Courts-Martial)
    • Trial and Punishment of Civilians and Dependents (Courts-Martial)
  • Clause 15 Calling Militias
    • Congress's Power to Call Militias
  • Clause 16 Organizing Militias
    • Congress's Power to Organize Militias
  • Clause 17 Enclave Clause
    • The Capitol
      • Historical Background on Seat of Government Clause
      • Seat of Government Doctrine
    • Places Purchased
      • Overview of Places Purchased Clause
      • Federal Jurisdiction Over Places Purchased
      • State Jurisdiction Over Places Purchased
  • Clause 18 Necessary and Proper Clause
    • Overview of Necessary and Proper Clause
    • Historical Background on Necessary and Proper Clause
    • Necessary and Proper Clause Early Doctrine and McCulloch v. Maryland
    • Nineteenth Century Evolution of Necessary and Proper Clause Jurisprudence
    • Modern Necessary and Proper Clause Doctrine
    • Meaning of Proper
    • Investigations and Oversight
      • Overview of Congress's Investigation and Oversight Powers
      • Historical Background on Congress's Investigation and Oversight Powers
      • Congress's Investigation and Oversight Powers (1787–1864)
      • Congress's Investigation and Oversight Powers (1865–1940)
      • Congress's Investigation and Oversight Powers (1940–1970)
      • Rules-Based Limits of Congress's Investigation and Oversight Powers
      • Constitutional Limits of Congress's Investigation and Oversight Powers
      • Watergate, Church, and Pike Investigations of Congress
      • Congress's Investigatory Powers Generally
      • Congress's Investigatory Powers and the President
    • Immigration
      • Overview of Congress's Immigration Powers
      • English Common Law on Immigration
      • Colonial Period, Constitutional Convention, and Immigration
      • Early Federal Laws on Immigration
      • Immigration Jurisprudence (1837–1889)
      • Immigration Jurisprudence (1889–1900)
      • Plenary Power
        • Overview of Immigration Plenary Power Doctrine
        • Aliens in the United States
        • Aliens Seeking to Enter the United States
      • Modern Era
        • Overview of Modern Immigration Jurisprudence
        • Exclusion of Aliens
        • Kerry v. Din and Trump v. Hawaii
        • Federal Laws Relating to Aliens
        • Immigration-Related State Laws
• Section 9 Powers Denied Congress
  • Clause 1 Migration or Importation
    • Restrictions on the Slave Trade
  • Clause 2 Habeas Corpus
    • Suspension Clause and Writ of Habeas Corpus
  • Clause 3 Nullification
    • Historical Background on Bills of Attainder
    • Bills of Attainder Doctrine
    • Ex Post Facto Laws
      • Overview of Ex Post Facto Laws
      • Historical Background on Ex Post Facto Laws
      • Retroactivity of Ex Post Facto Laws
      • Ex Post Facto Law Prohibition Limited to Penal Laws
      • Increasing Punishment and Ex Post Facto Laws
      • Imposing Criminal Liability and Ex Post Facto Laws
      • Civil Commitment, Sex Offender Registration, and Ex Post Facto Laws
      • Procedural Changes and Ex Post Facto Laws
      • Employment Qualifications and Ex Post Facto Laws
      • Retroactive Taxes and Ex Post Facto Laws
      • Ex Post Facto Prohibition and Judicial Decisions
      • Ex Post Facto Laws, Deportation, and Related Issues
  • Clause 4 Direct Taxes
    • Overview of Direct Taxes
    • Historical Background on Direct Taxes
    • Early Jurisprudence on Direct Taxes
    • Direct Taxes and the Sixteenth Amendment
  • Clause 5 Exports
    • Export Clause and Taxes
  • Clause 6 Ports
    • No-Preference Clause for Ports
  • Clause 7 Appropriations
    • Overview of Appropriations Clause
    • Historical Background on Appropriations Clause
    • Appropriations Clause Generally
  • Clause 8 Titles of Nobility and Foreign Emoluments
    • Overview of Titles of Nobility and Foreign Emoluments Clauses
    • Historical Background on Foreign Emoluments Clause
    • Foreign Emoluments Clause Generally
    • Titles of Nobility and the Constitution
• Section 10 Powers Denied States
  • Clause 1 Proscribed Powers
    • Foreign Policy by States
    • Coining Money by States
    • Legal Tender Issued by States
    • State Bills of Attainder
    • State Ex Post Facto Laws
    • Contracts
      • Overview of Contract Clause
      • Historical Background on Contract Clause
      • Evolution of Contract Clause's Use
      • State Contracts
        • Early Cases on State Modifications to State Contracts
        • State Sovereign Powers and Contracts
        • Modern Doctrine on State Changes to State Contracts
      • Private Contracts
        • Early Cases on State Changes to Private Contracts
        • Blaisdell Case and State Modifications to Private Contracts
        • State Laws Creating New Contractual Obligations
        • Public Interest and State Modifications to Private Contracts
  • Clause 2 Import-Export
    • Overview of Import-Export Clause
    • Historical Background on Import-Export Clause
    • Import-Export Clause Generally
    • Whether a Good Qualifies as an Import or Export
    • Whether a Charge Qualifies as an Impost or Duty
    • State Inspection Charges
  • Clause 3 Acts Requiring Consent of Congress
    • States and Military Affairs
    • Duties of Tonnage
      • Overview of Duties of Tonnage
      • Historical Background on Duties of Tonnage
      • Determining Whether a Measure Qualifies as a Duty of Tonnage
      • Personal Property Taxes and Duties of Tonnage
    • Compact Clause
      • Overview of Compact Clause
      • Historical Background on Compact Clause
      • Subject Matter of Compacts
      • Congressional Consent to Compacts
      • Requirement of Congressional Consent to Compacts
      • Legal Effect and Interpretation of Compacts