Chapter2:RelationalModel
DatabaseSystemConcepts,5thEd.
Silberschatz,KorthandSudarshan [Link]
Chapter2:RelationalModel
s StructureofRelationalDatabases s FundamentalRelationalAlgebraOperations s AdditionalRelationalAlgebraOperations s ExtendedRelationalAlgebraOperations s NullValues s ModificationoftheDatabase
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ExampleofaRelation
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BasicStructure
s Formally,givensetsD1,D2,.Dnarelationrisasubsetof
D1xD2xxDn Thus,arelationisasetofntuples(a1,a2,,an)whereeachaiDi
s Example:If
q
customer_name={Jones,Smith,Curry,Lindsay,} /*Setofallcustomernames*/ customer_street={Main,North,Park,}/*setofallstreetnames*/ customer_city={Harrison,Rye,Pittsfield,}/*setofallcitynames*/ (Smith,North,Rye), (Curry,North,Rye), (Lindsay,Park,Pittsfield)} isarelationover customer_namexcustomer_streetxcustomer_city
q q
Thenr={(Jones,Main,Harrison),
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AttributeTypes
s Eachattributeofarelationhasaname s Thesetofallowedvaluesforeachattributeiscalledthedomainofthe
attribute
q
s Attributevaluesare(normally)requiredtobeatomic;thatis,indivisible
[Link], butcannotbeasetofaccountnumbers
s Domainissaidtobeatomicifallitsmembersareatomic s Thespecialvaluenullisamemberofeverydomain s Thenullvaluecausescomplicationsinthedefinitionofmanyoperations
q
Weshallignoretheeffectofnullvaluesinourmainpresentationand considertheireffectlater
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RelationSchema
s A1,A2,,Anareattributes s R=(A1,A2,,An)isarelationschema
Example: Customer_schema=(customer_name,customer_street,customer_city)
s r(R)denotesarelationrontherelationschemaR
Example: customer(Customer_schema)
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RelationInstance
s Thecurrentvalues(relationinstance)ofarelationarespecifiedbya
table
s Anelementtofrisatuple,representedbyarowinatable
customer_name customer_street Jones Smith Curry Lindsay Main North North Park customer
customer_city Harrison Rye Rye Pittsfield
attributes (orcolumns)
tuples (orrows)
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RelationsareUnordered
sOrderoftuplesisirrelevant(tuplesmaybestoredinanarbitraryorder) sExample:accountrelationwithunorderedtuples
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Database
s s
Adatabaseconsistsofmultiplerelations Informationaboutanenterpriseisbrokenupintoparts,witheachrelation storingonepartoftheinformation account:storesinformationaboutaccounts depositor:storesinformationaboutwhichcustomer ownswhichaccount customer:storesinformationaboutcustomers
Storingallinformationasasinglerelationsuchas bank(account_number,balance,customer_name,..) resultsin
q
repetitionofinformation
e.g.,iftwocustomersownanaccount(Whatgetsrepeated?) e.g.,torepresentacustomerwithoutanaccount
theneedfornullvalues
Normalizationtheory(Chapter7)dealswithhowtodesignrelationalschemas
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ThecustomerRelation
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ThedepositorRelation
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Keys
s LetKR s KisasuperkeyofRifvaluesforKaresufficienttoidentifyauniquetupleof
eachpossiblerelationr(R)
q
bypossiblerwemeanarelationrthatcouldexistintheenterprisewe aremodeling. Example:{customer_name,customer_street}and {customer_name} arebothsuperkeysofCustomer,ifnotwocustomerscanpossiblyhave thesamename
Inreallife,anattributesuchascustomer_idwouldbeusedinsteadof customer_nametouniquelyidentifycustomers,butweomitittokeep ourexamplessmall,andinsteadassumecustomernamesareunique.
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Keys(Cont.)
s KisacandidatekeyifKisminimal
Example:{customer_name}isacandidatekeyforCustomer,sinceit isasuperkeyandnosubsetofitisasuperkey. identifyingtupleswithinarelation
q
s Primarykey:acandidatekeychosenastheprincipalmeansof
Shouldchooseanattributewhosevaluenever,orveryrarely, changes. [Link],butmaychange
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ForeignKeys
s Arelationschemamayhaveanattributethatcorrespondstotheprimary
[Link].
q q
E.g.customer_nameandaccount_numberattributesofdepositorare foreignkeystocustomerandaccountrespectively. Onlyvaluesoccurringintheprimarykeyattributeofthereferenced relationmayoccurintheforeignkeyattributeofthereferencing relation.
s Schemadiagram
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QueryLanguages
s Languageinwhichuserrequestsinformationfromthedatabase. s Categoriesoflanguages
q q
Procedural Nonprocedural,ordeclarative Relationalalgebra Tuplerelationalcalculus Domainrelationalcalculus
s Purelanguages:
q q q
s Purelanguagesformunderlyingbasisofquerylanguagesthatpeople
use.
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RelationalAlgebra
s Procedurallanguage s Sixbasicoperators
q q q q q q
select: project: union: setdifference: Cartesianproduct:x rename:
s Theoperatorstakeoneortworelationsasinputsandproduceanew
relationasaresult.
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SelectOperationExample
s Relationr
C 1 5 12
D 7 7 3
23 10
A=B^D>5(r)
C 1
D 7
23 10
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SelectOperation
s s s
Notation:p(r) piscalledtheselectionpredicate Definedas: p(r)={t|trandp(t)} Wherepisaformulainpropositionalcalculusconsistingofterms connectedby:(and),(or),(not) Eachtermisoneof: <attribute> op <attribute>or<constant>
whereopisoneof:=,,>,.<.
s
Exampleofselection:
branch_name=Perryridge(account)
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ProjectOperationExample
s Relationr:
B 10 20 30 40
C 1 1 1 2
A,C(r)
C 1 1 1 2 =
C 1 1 2
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ProjectOperation
s Notation:
A ,A ,,A (r )
1 2 k
whereA1,A2areattributenamesandrisarelationname.
s Theresultisdefinedastherelationofkcolumnsobtainedbyerasing
thecolumnsthatarenotlisted
s Duplicaterowsremovedfromresult,sincerelationsaresets s Example:Toeliminatethebranch_nameattributeofaccount
account_number,balance(account)
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UnionOperationExample
s Relationsr,s:
B 1 2 r 1
B 2 3 s
A
s rs:
B 1 2 1 3
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UnionOperation
s Notation:rs s Definedas:
rs={t|trorts}
s Forrstobevalid.
1.r,smusthavethesamearity(samenumberofattributes) [Link](example:2ndcolumn ofrdealswiththesametypeofvaluesasdoesthe2nd columnofs)
s Example:tofindallcustomerswitheitheranaccountoraloan
customer_name(depositor)customer_name(borrower)
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SetDifferenceOperationExample
s Relationsr,s:
B 1 2 1 r
B 2 3 s
s rs:
B 1 1
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SetDifferenceOperation
s Notationrs s Definedas:
rs={t|trandts}
s Setdifferencesmustbetakenbetweencompatible
relations.
q q
randsmusthavethesamearity attributedomainsofrandsmustbecompatible
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CartesianProductOperationExample
s Relationsr,s: A B 1 r 2 C D 10 10 20 10 s A B 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 C D 10 10 20 10 10 10 20 10 E a a b b a a b b
Silberschatz,KorthandSudarshan
E a a b b
s rxs:
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CartesianProductOperation
s Notationrxs s Definedas:
rxs={tq|trandqs}
s Assumethatattributesofr(R)ands(S)aredisjoint.(Thatis,RS=). s Ifattributesofr(R)ands(S)arenotdisjoint,thenrenamingmustbe
used.
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CompositionofOperations
s Canbuildexpressionsusingmultipleoperations s Example:A=C(rxs) s rxs
B 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 B 1 2 2
D 10 10 20 10 10 10 20 10 D
E a a b b a a b b E a a b
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s A=C(rxs)
10 10 20
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RenameOperation
s Allowsustoname,andthereforetoreferto,theresultsofrelational
algebraexpressions.
s Allowsustorefertoarelationbymorethanonename. s Example:
x(E)
returnstheexpressionEunderthenameX
s IfarelationalalgebraexpressionEhasarityn,then
x ( A1 , A2 ,..., An )
(E )
returnstheresultofexpressionEunderthenameX,andwiththe attributesrenamedtoA1,A2,.,An.
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BankingExample
branch(branch_name,branch_city,assets) customer(customer_name,customer_street,customer_city) account(account_number,branch_name,balance) loan(loan_number,branch_name,amount) depositor(customer_name,account_number) borrower(customer_name,loan_number)
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ExampleQueries
s Findallloansofover$1200
amount>1200(loan)
s Findtheloannumberforeachloanofanamountgreaterthan
$1200
loan_number(amount>1200(loan))
s Findthenamesofallcustomerswhohavealoan,anaccount,orboth,
fromthebank
customer_name(borrower)customer_name(depositor)
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ExampleQueries
s FindthenamesofallcustomerswhohavealoanatthePerryridge
branch.
customer_name(branch_name=Perryridge (borrower.loan_number=loan.loan_number(borrowerxloan)))
sFindthenamesofallcustomerswhohavealoanatthe
Perryridgebranchbutdonothaveanaccountatanybranchof thebank.
customer_name(branch_name=Perryridge (borrower.loan_number=loan.loan_number(borrowerxloan))) customer_name(depositor)
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ExampleQueries
s FindthenamesofallcustomerswhohavealoanatthePerryridgebranch.
Query1
customer_name(branch_name=Perryridge(
borrower.loan_number=loan.loan_number(borrowerxloan)))
q
Query2
customer_name(loan.loan_number=borrower.loan_number(
(branch_name=Perryridge(loan))xborrower))
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ExampleQueries
s
Findthelargestaccountbalance
q
Strategy:
Findthosebalancesthatarenotthelargest Renameaccountrelationasdsothatwecancompareeach accountbalancewithallothers
Usesetdifferencetofindthoseaccountbalancesthatwerenotfound intheearlierstep.
Thequeryis:
balance(account)[Link] ([Link]<[Link](accountxd(account)))
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FormalDefinition
s Abasicexpressionintherelationalalgebraconsistsofeitheroneofthe
following:
q q
Arelationinthedatabase Aconstantrelation
s LetE1andE2berelationalalgebraexpressions;thefollowingareall
relationalalgebraexpressions:
q q q q q
E1E2 E1E2 E1xE2
p(E1),PisapredicateonattributesinE1
s(E1),SisalistconsistingofsomeoftheattributesinE1
x 1 DatabaseSystemConcepts5thEdition,June15,2005
(E ),xisthenewnamefortheresultofE1 2.<number>
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AdditionalOperations
Wedefineadditionaloperationsthatdonotaddanypowertothe relationalalgebra,butthatsimplifycommonqueries.
s Setintersection s Naturaljoin s Division s Assignment
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SetIntersectionOperation
s Notation:rs s Definedas: s rs={t|trandts} s Assume:
q q
r,shavethesamearity attributesofrandsarecompatible
s Note:rs=r(rs)
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SetIntersectionOperationExample
s Relationr,s:
AB r 1 2 1
AB s 2 3
s rs
AB 2
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NaturalJoinOperation
sNotation:rs s LetrandsberelationsonschemasRandSrespectively.
q q
Then,rsisarelationonschemaRSobtainedasfollows: Considereachpairoftuplestrfromrandtsfroms. IftrandtshavethesamevalueoneachoftheattributesinRS,adda tuplettotheresult,where
thasthesamevalueastronr thasthesamevalueastsons
s Example:
R=(A,B,C,D) S=(E,B,D)
q q
Resultschema=(A,B,C,D,E) rsisdefinedas:
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DatabaseSystemConcepts5thEdition,June15,2005
NaturalJoinOperationExample
s Relationsr,s:
B 1 2 4 1 2
D a a b a b
B 1 3 1 2 3
D a a a b b s
s rs
B 1 1 1 1 2
D a a a a b
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DivisionOperation
s Notation: s Suitedtoqueriesthatincludethephraseforall. s LetrandsberelationsonschemasRandSrespectively
rs
where
q q
R=(A1,,Am,B1,,Bn) S=(B1,,Bn)
Theresultofrsisarelationonschema RS=(A1,,Am) rs={t|tRS(r)us(tur)} Wheretumeanstheconcatenationoftuplestanduto produceasingletuple
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DivisionOperationExample
s Relationsr,s: A B 1 2 3 1 1 1 3 4 6 1 2 r B 1 2 s
s rs:
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AnotherDivisionExample
s Relationsr,s: A B a a a a a a a a C D a a b a b a b b E 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 D a b E 1 1
s rs:
r
A
B a a
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DivisionOperation(Cont.)
s
Property
q q
Letq=rs Thenqisthelargestrelationsatisfyingqxsr
Definitionintermsofthebasicalgebraoperation Letr(R)ands(S)berelations,andletSR rs=RS(r)RS((RS(r)xs)RS,S(r)) Toseewhy
q
RS,S(r)simplyreordersattributesofr RS(RS(r)xs)RS,S(r))givesthosetuplestin RS(r)suchthatforsometupleus,tur.
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AssignmentOperation
s
Theassignmentoperation()providesaconvenientwaytoexpress complexqueries.
q
Writequeryasasequentialprogramconsistingof
aseriesofassignments followedbyanexpressionwhosevalueisdisplayedasaresultof thequery.
Assignmentmustalwaysbemadetoatemporaryrelationvariable. temp1RS(r) temp2RS((temp1xs)RS,S(r)) result=temp1temp2 Theresulttotherightoftheisassignedtotherelationvariableon theleftofthe. Mayusevariableinsubsequentexpressions.
Example:Writersas
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BankExampleQueries
s Findthenamesofallcustomerswhohavealoanandanaccountat
bank.
customer_name(borrower)customer_name(depositor)
s Findthenameofallcustomerswhohavealoanatthebankandthe
loanamount
customer_name,loan_number,amount(borrowerloan)
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BankExampleQueries
s FindallcustomerswhohaveanaccountfromatleasttheDowntown
andtheUptownbranches. q Query1
customer_name(branch_name=Downtown(depositoraccount)) customer_name(branch_name=Uptown(depositoraccount))
q
Query2 customer_name,branch_name(depositoraccount) temp(branch_name)({(Downtown),(Uptown)})
NotethatQuery2usesaconstantrelation.
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BankExampleQueries
s Findallcustomerswhohaveanaccountatallbrancheslocatedin
Brooklyncity.
customer_name,branch_name(depositoraccount) branch_name(branch_city=Brooklyn(branch))
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ExtendedRelationalAlgebraOperations
s GeneralizedProjection s AggregateFunctions s OuterJoin
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GeneralizedProjection
s Extendstheprojectionoperationbyallowingarithmeticfunctionstobe
usedintheprojectionlist.
F ,F ,..., F (E )
1 2 n
s Eisanyrelationalalgebraexpression s EachofF1,F2,,Fnarearearithmeticexpressionsinvolvingconstants
andattributesintheschemaofE.
s Givenrelationcredit_info(customer_name,limit,credit_balance),find
howmuchmoreeachpersoncanspend:
customer_name,limitcredit_balance(credit_info)
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AggregateFunctionsandOperations
s Aggregationfunctiontakesacollectionofvaluesandreturnsasingle
valueasaresult.
avg:averagevalue min:minimumvalue max:maximumvalue sum:sumofvalues count:numberofvalues
s Aggregateoperationinrelationalalgebra
G1,G2 ,,Gn
F ( A ),F ( A ,,F ( A ) (E )
1 1 2 2 n n
Eisanyrelationalalgebraexpression
q q q
G1,G2,Gnisalistofattributesonwhichtogroup(canbeempty) EachFiisanaggregatefunction EachAiisanattributename
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AggregateOperationExample
s Relationr:
C 7 7 3 10
s gsum(c)(r)
sum(c) 27
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AggregateOperationExample
s Relationaccountgroupedbybranchname:
branch_name account_number Perryridge Perryridge Brighton Brighton Redwood A102 A201 A217 A215 A222
balance 400 900 750 750 700
branch_nameg sum(balance)(account)
branch_name Perryridge Brighton Redwood
sum(balance) 1300 1500 700
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AggregateFunctions(Cont.)
s Resultofaggregationdoesnothaveaname
q q
Canuserenameoperationtogiveitaname Forconvenience,wepermitrenamingaspartofaggregate operation
branch_nameg sum(balance)assum_balance(account)
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OuterJoin
s Anextensionofthejoinoperationthatavoidslossofinformation. s Computesthejoinandthenaddstuplesformonerelationthatdoesnot
matchtuplesintheotherrelationtotheresultofthejoin.
q
q
s Usesnullvalues:
nullsignifiesthatthevalueisunknownordoesnotexist
Allcomparisonsinvolvingnullare(roughlyspeaking)falseby definition.
Weshallstudyprecisemeaningofcomparisonswithnullslater
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OuterJoinExample
s Relationloan
loan_number branch_name L170 L230 L260
s Relationborrower
amount 3000 4000 1700
Downtown Redwood Perryridge
customer_name loan_number Jones Smith Hayes L170 L230 L155
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OuterJoinExample
s Join
loanborrower loan_number L170 L230
sLeftOuterJoin
branch_name Downtown Redwood
amount customer_name 3000 4000 Jones Smith
loanborrower loan_number L170 L230 L260 branch_name Downtown Redwood Perryridge amount customer_name 3000 4000 1700 Jones Smith null
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OuterJoinExample
sRightOuterJoin
loanborrower loan_number L170 L230 L155
sFullOuterJoin
branch_name Downtown Redwood null
amount customer_name 3000 4000 null Jones Smith Hayes
loanborrower loan_number L170 L230 L260 L155 branch_name Downtown Redwood Perryridge null amount customer_name 3000 4000 1700 null Jones Smith null Hayes
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NullValues
s Itispossiblefortuplestohaveanullvalue,denotedbynull,forsome
oftheirattributes
s nullsignifiesanunknownvalueorthatavaluedoesnotexist. s Theresultofanyarithmeticexpressioninvolvingnullisnull. s Aggregatefunctionssimplyignorenullvalues(asinSQL) s Forduplicateeliminationandgrouping,nullistreatedlikeanyother
value,andtwonullsareassumedtobethesame(asinSQL)
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NullValues
s Comparisonswithnullvaluesreturnthespecialtruthvalue:unknown
q
Iffalsewasusedinsteadofunknown,thennot(A<5) wouldnotbeequivalenttoA>=5 OR:(unknownortrue)=true, (unknownorfalse)=unknown (unknownorunknown)=unknown AND:(trueandunknown)=unknown, (falseandunknown)=false, (unknownandunknown)=unknown NOT:(notunknown)=unknown InSQLPisunknownevaluatestotrueifpredicatePevaluatesto unknown
s Threevaluedlogicusingthetruthvalueunknown:
q
q q
s Resultofselectpredicateistreatedasfalseifitevaluatestounknown
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ModificationoftheDatabase
s Thecontentofthedatabasemaybemodifiedusingthefollowing
operations:
q q q
Deletion Insertion Updating
s Alltheseoperationsareexpressedusingtheassignment
operator.
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Deletion
s Adeleterequestisexpressedsimilarlytoaquery,except
insteadofdisplayingtuplestotheuser,theselectedtuplesare removedfromthedatabase. particularattributes
s Candeleteonlywholetuples;cannotdeletevaluesononly s Adeletionisexpressedinrelationalalgebraby:
rrE whererisarelationandEisarelationalalgebraquery.
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DeletionExamples
s DeleteallaccountrecordsinthePerryridgebranch.
accountaccount branch_name=Perryridge(account)
sDeleteallloanrecordswithamountintherangeof0to50
loanloan amount 0 andamount50(loan)
sDeleteallaccountsatbrancheslocatedinNeedham.
r1 branch_city=Needham(accountbranch) r2account_number,branch_name,balance(r1) r3customer_name,account_number(r2depositor) accountaccountr2 depositordepositorr3
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Insertion
s Toinsertdataintoarelation,weeither:
q q
specifyatupletobeinserted writeaquerywhoseresultisasetoftuplestobeinserted rrE
s inrelationalalgebra,aninsertionisexpressedby:
whererisarelationandEisarelationalalgebraexpression.
s TheinsertionofasingletupleisexpressedbylettingEbeaconstant
relationcontainingonetuple.
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InsertionExamples
s InsertinformationinthedatabasespecifyingthatSmithhas$1200in
accountA973atthePerryridgebranch.
accountaccount{(A973,Perryridge,1200)} depositordepositor{(Smith,A973)}
sProvideasagiftforallloancustomersinthePerryridge
branch,a$[Link] astheaccountnumberforthenewsavingsaccount.
r1(branch_name=Perryridge(borrowerloan)) accountaccountloan_number,branch_name,200(r1) depositordepositorcustomer_name,loan_number(r1)
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Updating
s Amechanismtochangeavalueinatuplewithoutchargingallvaluesin
thetuple
s Usethegeneralizedprojectionoperatortodothistask
r F1,F2 ,,Fl , ( r )
s EachF iseither i
q q
theIthattributeofr,iftheIthattributeisnotupdated,or, iftheattributeistobeupdatedFiisanexpression,involvingonly constantsandtheattributesofr,whichgivesthenewvalueforthe attribute
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UpdateExamples
s Makeinterestpaymentsbyincreasingallbalancesby5percent.
accountaccount_number,branch_name,balance*1.05(account)
sPayallaccountswithbalancesover$10,0006percentinterest
andpayallothers5percent
accountaccount_number,branch_name,balance*1.06(BAL>10000(account))
account_number,branch_name,balance*1.05(BAL10000(account))
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EndofChapter2
DatabaseSystemConcepts,5thEd.
Silberschatz,KorthandSudarshan [Link]
[Link]
DatabaseSystemConcepts5thEdition,June15,2005
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Figure2.6:Theloanrelation
DatabaseSystemConcepts5thEdition,June15,2005
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Figure2.7:Theborrowerrelation
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Resultofbranch_name=Perryridge(loan) Resultof
Figure2.9
DatabaseSystemConcepts5thEdition,June15,2005
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Figure2.10: Loannumberandtheamountoftheloan
DatabaseSystemConcepts5thEdition,June15,2005
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Figure2.11:Namesofallcustomerswho haveeitheranaccountoranloan
DatabaseSystemConcepts5thEdition,June15,2005
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Figure2.12: Customerswithanaccountbutnoloan
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Figure2.13:Resultofborrower|X|loan
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Figure2.14
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Figure2.15
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Figure2.16
DatabaseSystemConcepts5thEdition,June15,2005
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Figure2.17 Largestaccountbalanceinthebank
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Figure2.18:Customerswholiveonthe samestreetandinthesamecityas Smith
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Figure2.19:Customerswithbothan accountandaloanatthebank
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Figure2.20
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Figure2.21
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Figure2.22
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Figure2.23
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Figure2.24:Thecredit_inforelation
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Figure2.25
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Figure2.26:Thept_worksrelation
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Figure2.27 Thept_worksrelationafterregrouping
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Figure2.28
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Figure2.29
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Figure2.30 Theemployeeandft_worksrelations
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Figure2.31
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Figure2.32
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Figure2.33
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Figure2.34
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