M Radiation by a Infinitesimal (or Elemental) Dipole (Hertzian Dipole)

(or Infinitesimal Current Element)

z z r

x
y
r

z z r R

1
z
O
)) ( ), ( (
) (
r B r E
r A

1
1
1
1
1
z I
+Q
-Q
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
- -
-
-
-
Q j t Q I /
z I
l
<< l
Infinitesimal Herzian Dipole ( << l )
*(neglect time-harmonic term :exp(-jt) )
The magnetic vector potential
) (r A

is given by

,
_

2 /
2 /
) (
4
) (
4
) (
l
l
jkR
V
jkR
z d
R
e
z I z v d
R
e
r J r A

1
1

since
( )

'

< < < <

1 / 1 / r l l r R
I z I
& for
l I
r
e
z
z d I
r
e
z z d
r
e
I z z d
R
e
z I z r A
jkr
l
l
jkr
l
l
jkr
l
l
jkR

,
_

4
) (
4
) (
2 /
2 /
2 /
2 /
2 /
2 /

2003
H.-R. Chuang EE NCKU
13
( ) ( )
( )
( )

1
]
1

,
_

+
+

1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

sin
) 1 (
4

) 1 (
4

) 1 (
0
4

4

4
2
2
2
jkr
jkr
jkr
jkr jkr jkr
e
r
jkr l I
z r e
r
jkr l I
z r e
r
jkr l I
z
r
e
z
r
e l I
r
e
z
l I
A B

) ( ) (
0 ) / (
1
r B r E
J E j t D J B
j

1
1
1
1 1 1 1 1

+

) ( region free - source in Since
()

1
E B r
I l
j
jkr
r
e
I l
j
r
r
jkr
r
e
r r
jkr
r
e
I l
j
r
jkr
r
e
jkr kr
r
e
j
jkr
jkr jkr
jkr jkr

_
,

_
,

_
,

1
]
1

_
,
+
+

1
2
2
2
2
3
2
3
4
1
4
1 1
4
2 1 1

( )
sin

sin
( )
sin

( )
sin

( )
cos

( )
sin

_
,

1
]
1
1

_
,
++

_
,

1
]
1
1

j I l
k
r
r
j k
r
e
r
jk
r
k
r
e
jkr jkr
4
2 2 1
3 2 3 2
2
cos

sin
/ : Note
intrinsic impedance

377 120 /
0 0 0

k
2003
H.-R. Chuang EE NCKU
14
Induction zone (Near-zone):
2 3
1 ~ ; 1 ~ 1 ), ( 1 r H r E e r kr
jkr
& << <<

(
Q j t Q I /
)
[ ]
[ ]

sin
4

sin

cos 2
4
sin

cos 2
4
2
3
3
r
Il
H
r
r
l Q
r
r j
l I
E
i
i

field dipole electric like

Radiation zone (Far-zone) :
r H r E r kr 1 ~ ; 1 ~ ) ( 1 >> >>

(for ) (usually r kr > 5 > 1570 . )*

sin
4

sin
4

r
e
l jkI H
r
e
l kI j E
jkr
r
jkr
r

'

377 120 /
0 0 0
H E
......Hertzian dipole radiation field
* * Note:
magnitude of term
magnitude of term
-1
-2
> 5 r
r
k r
r
kr
r r
>
/
/
.
1
2
1570
2

2003
H.-R. Chuang EE NCKU
15
z I
+Q
-Q
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
- -
-
-
-
Q j t Q I /
z I
) 5 (
4
~ ) , (
>

r
r
e
H E
jkr

1)
r
e
jkr
=> spherical waves () & field strength () ~ r / 1
2)
H r E ( )

: TEM (spherical) wave (here

E H


)
TEM (spherical) wave : transverse wave =>
n
a H E direction n propagatio
1
,
(in spherical coordinates
a r
n

)
3) The radiation directional pattern ()
sin ) ( f

sin
4

; sin
4

r
e
l jkI H
r
e
l kI j E
jkr jkr

=>

'

377 120 /
0 0 0
H E

* Vertical pol.
Constant r
sphere

sin

E
r

r
r a
n

TEM
plane wave
r

H r
e
jkr
spherical wave

H
EX: If
] [ 5 . 4 A I
( W A R I P
t
500 2 / 50 ) 5 . 4 ( 2 /
2 2
power ng transmitti ), determine
E-field [A/m] & B-field [mG] at
o o o
, , m r 170 135 90 10 for
. (f = 900 MHz, l=1 cm)
2003
H.-R. Chuang EE NCKU
16
r
e
jkr
()

Time-average Poynting vector (power density)
[ ] [ ] [ ]
( ) Note *
) expression rigorous (not

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

377 120 / : sin
4 2
sin
4 2
1

) Re(
) (

Re )

Re Re
0 0 0
2 2
2
2
2
1
*
2
1
*
2
1
*
2
1
*
2
1
2
r
l kI
r
r
l kI
r
r E r E E r
E E H E H E p
E
r r r
r r r r r r
av
1 1
1

Radiation power P
rad

( )

,
_

,
_

0
3 2
2
0 0
2 2
2
0 0
2 2
2
sin 2
4 2
sin ) (sin
4 2
sin ) sin
4
(
2
) sin
4
(
2

d
l kI
d d
l kI
d d r
r
kIl
ds
r
kIl
r r ds p n P
s s
av rad

12
) (
2
klI
P
rad
: total power radiated by a Hertzian dipole
Radiation resistance
R
rad
or
R
r

2
2
1
I R P
rad rad

(note : radiation resistance is not input impedance!)
!
( )
( )

2
2 2
2
/ 80
6
) / 2 (
6
2
l
l kl
I
P
R
rad
rad
( ) space free in 120
0 0
* For l 01 . Hertzian dipole : ( ) 9 . 7 1 . 0 80 ) (
2 2
r rad
R R or
Directive gain:
( )
( )
2
2
3 2
12
2
4 2
2
sin ) 4 / ( ) sin (
) 4 (
) , ( ) , (
) , (
2

r
r P
p
G
klI
r
l kI
rad
av
density power radiation average
direction in density power radiation
Directivity:
{ } ( ) { } ( )
dB 76 . 1 ) 5 . 1 log( 10
5 . 1 sin sin ) , (
90
2
2
3 2
2
3



o
Max G Max D

2003
H.-R. Chuang EE NCKU
17
( )
,
_

0
3
3 / 4 sin d

2003
H.-R. Chuang EE NCKU
18
Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon
[Link]
18 July 1853 - 4 Feb 1928 Dutch
He refined Maxwell's electromagnetic theory in his doctoral thesis (1875) and
was appointed professor of mathematical physics at Leiden University in 1878. He
is best known for his work on electromagnetic radiation and the Fitzgerald-Lorentz
contraction, which is a contraction in the length of an object at relativistic speeds.
Before the existence of electrons was proved, Lorentz proposed that light waves
were due to oscillations of an electric charge in the atom. He developed his
mathematical theory of the electron for which he received the Nobel Prize in 1902.
Lorentz transformations, which he introduced in 1904, form the basis of Einstein's
special theory of relativity.
JOC/EFR February 1995
General Solution of Maxwell's Equations in terms of Volume Sources and
Surface Fields (Stratton - Chu Formula) L.-J. Chu
* J. A. Sratton & L. J. Chu,Diffraction Theory of Electromagnetic Waves, Physical Review, Vol.56, pp.99-107, July1 1939.
( , )

J : electric sources ( , )
m m
J

: magnetic sources* (physically non-existent)

It can be proven that the far-zone radiation fields (
r
) are to be TEM plane wave
(TEM wave : transverse EM wave =>
1
E H a r
n
propagation direction
)

( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

+

'

1
]
1

+
+

1
]
1

,
_

377 120 = impedance; intrinsic =

) distance farzone ( for

N
1 = i
0
0 0

) (

4

1

4

r E r E E H
r
e
s d e r K r r K K
v d e r J r r J J
r
e
j E E r E
kr j
r r jk
S
m
r r jk
V
m
kr j
i

r
S

TEM plane
wave
20
M Radiation of a Infinitesimal (electrical) Dipole (Herzian
Dipole) )
(see Ch 14: 14-3)
Infinitesimal (or Elemental) electrical dipole :
An infinitesmal current element (dl or l length) with a uniform current I.

z
z d
r

cos z
z
O ) ( << l d
I
z z r R

Uniform current element

] Re[ cos ) (
t j
Ie t I t i


l d
) ( ) ( r H r E

1
1

Vector potential:

2 /
2 /
) (
4
) (
4
) (
dl
dl
jkR
V
jkR
z d
R
e
z I z v d
R
e
r J r A
1
1
1

since
( )

'

<< <<

dipole) from distance certain a (for and
element current unifrom
1 / 1 / r dl dl r z z r R
I z I

1
=>
dl I
r
e
z z d I
r
e
z r A
jkr
dl
dl
jkr

4
) (
2 /
2 /

21
* ) , ( B E
1
fields can be determined by using the relation (in source-free region):

'

B E J E j E j J B
A B
j
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
1
) 0 ( region free - source in

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

1
]
1

,
_

+
+

1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

sin
) 1 (
4

) 1 (
4

) 1 (
0
4

4

4
2
2 2
jkr
jkr jkr
jkr jkr jkr
e
r
jkr l Id
z r e
r
jkr dl I
z r e
r
jkr dl I
z
r
e
z
r
e dl I
r
e
z
l Id
A B


1
1
]
1

,
_

+ +

,
_

1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

sin
1

cos
2 2

4
sin
) ( 1

cos
) 1 ( 2

4
sin
) 1 ( 1

sin
) 1 (
sin
1

4
sin
) 1 (
4

1 1
2
2 3 2 3
3
2
3
2
2
2
2
jkr jkr
jkr jkr
jkr jkr
jkr
e
r
k
r
jk
r
e
r
k j
r
r
k
l Id j
e
r
kr jkr
e
r
jkr
r
j
Idl
e
r
jkr
r r
e
r
jkr
r
r
j
dl I
e
r
jkr l Id
j
B
j
E
1
impedance intrinsic : Note k :
Radiation zone (Farzone _) for general communication condition :

kr r r >> >> ( ) ( ) 2 1 or
(usually r kr > 5 > 1570 . )*
=> ( r r r 1 / 1 / 1
2 3
<< << )
( )

'

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

) ( )

( )

(
/

; sin
4

sin
1
4

; sin
4

sin
4

2 2
2
E r H r H H E E
E H H
r
e l jkId
e
r
jkr
r
l Id
H
E E
r
e dl jkI
e
r
k
k
l Id j
E
jkr
jkr
jkr
jkr
1 1 1
1
1
& direction n propagatio



Hertzian dipole far-zone field
* Note:
magnitude of term
magnitude of term
-1
-2
> 5 r
r
k r
r
kr
r r
>
/
/
.
1
2
1570
2

22
r
e
r
jkr
s p h e r i c a l
w a v e
23
1)
e
r
jkr

_
,

=> spherical wave with wave velocity

k f u v / 2 ) ( or
and 2 / k
2)
E H


or H r E ( )

: TEM (spherical) wave

TEM wave (transverse EM wave) : k
a H E direction n propagatio
1

(see Chapter 12) (
r a
k

in spherical coordinates )

3) The radiation directional pattern ():
sin ) , ( f
) , (
4

) , (
4

,
_

,
_

f
r
e
l jkI H f
r
e
l kI j E
jkr jkr


for Hertizan dipole
Constant r sphere
(spherical wave)

sin

E
r

H
S
r
r a
k

near-plane wave
24

25

C Maxwell Equations for EM Field Maintained by Primary Sources
( )
1 1
1
J E J
J V
t
+

total current .
impressed sources 0 in ,
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )


+

1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
D r t r t
E r t
B r t
t
H r t J r t
D r t
t
B r t
t
, ,
,
,
, ,
,
,

0
.... general forms of Maxwell equations .
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
J r t J r e E r t E r e
j t j t
, , ,

..... etc. , for time-harmonic excitation ,

t
j
D E
B H
J E J
t

, and
1 1
1 1
1 1 1
..... in the unbounded , simple EM medium .
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )


+ +

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
E r r
E r j B r
B r J r j E r
B r

0
...
( )
( )
Maxwell' s equations for maintained
by , in simple EM medium .
1
1
E B
J
,

t
j
D E
B H
J E J
t

, and
1 1
1 1
1 1 1
1 1
E j A +

EM scalar potential function .

k j
2 2
2
1

_
,

..... defines wavenumber k in the unbounded simple medium
= if = 0

Note : The Helmholtz equations for the Lorentz potentials are INDEPENDENT and
is the source for while

J is the source for

1
A .
H.-R. Chuang EE NCKU


1
A B
.....
required , any convenient choice , leading to the particular
choice of

A
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
+ + + +

_
,

+
+ +

_
,

1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
B J j E A J j j A
A A J j j j A
A k A A
jk
J

2
2 2
2
1
** .
( )
,
1
J V impressed sources 0 in
( , )

1 1 1
J V
J J E
t

+
impressed sources 0 in
(total current) =
( )

_
,
+ +

_
,
( )
v
v
v v v
v
E
H
t t
H
t
J E
D
t

k
2 2
.....wavenumber
1
1 1
E j A
B A

=>
( )
change of dependent variables from EM fields
to potential functions ( , A)
1 1
1
E B ,

( )
( )

+

1 1 1
E
E j A j A

.....
*
from Gauss' s law .
.
2

k
2 2
.....wavenumber k in the unbounded simple medium
with

on conservati charge for
Eq. Continuity
t J
vT T

'

+ +


0 ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
r B
r E j r E r J r H
r H j r E
r r E
i
v

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
Porperties of Maxwell equations :
H.-R. Chuang EE NCKU

1) curl equations couple

E
and
1
B
,
2) charge conservation implicit in field equations ,
3) divergence equations are DEPENDENT, i.e., not independent of curl
equations and conservation of charge .
+

1 1
1
1
H J
D
t
J
t

( ) +
1 1 1
H J
t
D 0

( ) +

t
D
1
0
integration leads to ( ) +
1 1
D C R
CAUSALITY
1
D 0 0 , prior to source turn-on ,
( ) C R
1
0 ,

1
D can be desired from Ampere law .
similarly Faraday law
1
1
1
E
B
t
B

0 , and
4) curl equations represent 6 scalar equations in 6 scalar unknowns

1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1 1
D E
B H
E B t
B J E t

1
J = known , have 6 scalar equations for
E B

,
with
x y z , ,
.
( )
( )
C S
S V
C S
S
E d n
B
t
ds
n D ds dv
H d n J
D
t
ds
n B ds

_
,

1
t
1
1
1 1
t
1
1
1

0
..... large-scale Maxwell equations .
( ) ( )
MOVING OBSERVER in REST
FRAME of due to
1 1 1
E B J , ,

no apparent motion in MOVING
FRAME of circuit.
( )
C C S
E d E u B d n
B
t
ds




1 1
t
1
1
1 1
t
1

1
J
t

..... NECESSARY to conserve charge .

H.-R. Chuang EE NCKU

( )
1 1
H J 0 Ampere law is INCONSISTENT.
1. Maxwell's equations for EM field maintained by electric sources (, J),
2. Electromagnetic potential functions (, A),
3. Green's function solution to the Helmholtz equation,
4. Retarded potentials, and
5. Radiation by a Hertzian dipole.
H.-R. Chuang EE NCKU

For time-harmonic excitation
t j t j t j
e r H t r H e r E t r E e r J t r J

) ( ) , ( , ) ( ) , ( , ) ( ) , (
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
.....

) ( ) (

j
t
( )

'

'

+
J
J j
H
E
v
1
1
1
1
2 2
( )
( )

z t f t
u
z
u
,

1
...
one - dimensional time - domain EM plane wave ( more
details in chapter 8 ) .
( )

1
1 1 1
B
A
B A A
0
0
.. . . . EM vector potential function

2 2
k wavenumber
M Electromagnetic Potential Functions: Helmholtz
Equations

( )

1
1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1
B
A
B A A
E B t j B j A
E j A
0
0
0
..... EM vector potential function .
..... from Faraday's law .

since 0
( )

_
,

1 1
1 1
1
E j A
E j A
A

0
0
EM vector potential function
EM scalar potential function

H.-R. Chuang EE NCKU

1
1 1
E j A
B A

( )
change of dependent variables from EM fields
to EM potential functions ( , A)
1 1
1
E B ,

( ) ( )

+

1 1 1
E
E j A j A

.....
*
from Gauss's law .
.
2

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
+ + + +

_
,

+
+ +

_
,

1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
B J j E A J j j A
A A J j j j A
A k A A
jk
J

2
2 2
2
1
** .
k j
2 2
1

_
,

..... defines wavenumber k in the unbounded simple medium

* (k
2 2
..... for lossless medium = 0)
( )

+
+ +

_
,

'

+
+

'

'

2
or

ae uncoupled !

j A
A k A A
jk
J
k
A k A J
A
A j k
A j k

1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1
1

2 2
2
0
0
2 2
2 2
2
2
,
( ) ( )
Nonhomogeneous Helmholtz equations for , A maintained by , J .
1

z z r R
1

=>
( ) ( )
1
1
1
1
E r B r
j

1

) 0 + J E j E j J B
1 1 1 1 1
( region free - source in =>
B E
j
1

1
H.-R. Chuang EE NCKU

[ ]
( )

E
Ql
r
r I j Q
H
I l
r
i
i
+

4
2
4
3
2

cos

sin

sin
electric dipole field
Induction zone (Nearzone ):
kr r r e
jkr
<< <<

( ) ( ) 2 1 1 or => ( r r r 1 / 1 / 1
2 3
>> >> )
[ ] ( )

sin
4

; sin

cos 2
4
2 3
r
l I
H Q j I r
r
l Q
E
i i

field dipole static like :
( ) ( ) ( ) +

1
1 1
1
1
1
1
B r J j E r j E r J in source - free region ( 0)
=>
( ) ( )
1
1
1
1
E r B r
j

1

( )

1
E B r
I l
j
jkr
r
e
I l
j
r
r
jkr
r
e
r r
jkr
r
e
I l
j
r
jkr
r
e
jkr kr
r
e
j
jkr
jkr jkr
jkr jkr

+

_
,

_
,

_
,

1
]
1

_
,

+
+

1
2
2
2
2
3
2
3
4
1
4
1 1
4
2 1 1

( )
sin

sin
( )
sin

( )
sin

( )
cos

( )
sin

_
,

1
]
1
1

_
,

+ +

_
,

1
]
1
1

j I l
k
r
r
j k
r
e
r
jk
r
k
r
e
jkr jkr
4
2 2 1
3 2 3 2
2
cos

sin
Note : intrinsic impedance
: intrinsic impedance in free space
:



k
0 0 0
120 377
Induction zone (Nearzone ):
kr r r e
jkr
<< <<

( ) ( ) 2 1 1 or
=> (1 1 1
3 2
r r r >> >> )

[ ]
( )

E
Ql
r
r I j Q
H
I l
r
i
i
+

4
2
4
3
2

cos

sin

sin
electric dipole field
Radiation zone (Farzone _):
kr r r >> >> ( ) ( ) 2 1 or

(usually r kr > 5 > 1570 . )*
H.-R. Chuang EE NCKU

=> (1 1 1
2 3
r r r >> >> )
Hertzian dipole radiation field
* Note:
magnitude of term
magnitude of term
-1
-2
> 5 r
r
k r
r
kr
r r
>
/
/
.
1
2
1570
2

H.-R. Chuang EE NCKU

( )

'

,
_

,
_

) ( )

( )

(
/

; sin
4

sin
4

; sin
4

sin
4

E r H r H H E E
E H H
r
e l jkId
r
e
l jkId H
E E
r
e dl jkI
r
e
dl kI j E
jkr jkr
jkr jkr
1 1 1
1
1
& direction n propagatio


r H E direction n propagatio
1
()
2
2
1 *
2
1
| | ] Re[ ) ( E H E S P
av

or
: density Power
()
z z r

x
y
r

r r R
1
1
z
O
)) ( ), ( (
) (
r B r E
r A

1
1
1
1
1
z I
+Q
-Q
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
- -
-
-
-
Q j t Q I /
z I

V
jkR
v d
R
e
r J r A ) (
4
) (

1
1

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1
r B r E r E j r B
j

1
1
1
1
1
1
1

region free - source in

(
r H r E 1 ~ ; 1 ~
)
4)
e
r
jkr
=> spherical waves with wave velocity v k / and 2 / k
H.-R. Chuang EE NCKU

MAXWELL'S & EM WAVE EQUATIONS (~1860)
Antennas for Radiowave experiment by Hertz (1886-1888):
Deutsches Museum Munich
Dynamic (or time-varying) EM field equations in free space
charge magnetic isolated No
Law s re' Ampe
Law s Faraday'
Law s Guass'
0



B
J H
t B E
D

1
1 1
1

'

E D
H B
1

(with continuity equation, t J
vT T

1
, for charge conservation) is modified by
adding a term of displacement current density (), t D t E
1 1
) (
0
, to:
current nt displaceme s Maxwell' with Law s re' Ampe
t
D
J H

1
EM Wave Equations can be derived from above Maxwell's Equations

'

'

,
_

J
t J
H
E
t

1
1
1
2
2
2
EM Wave equations
Wave velocity : 1 v
* In free space: ! speed light m/s
8
0 0
10 3 1
H.-R. Chuang EE NCKU

()
History of Radiowave & Wireless Communication
1873 Maxwell predicts the existence of electromagnetic waves
1888 Hertz demonstrates radio waves
1897 Marconi demonstrates mobile wireless communication to
ships
1924 US police first use mobile communications
1945 Arthur C. Clarke proposes geostationary communication
satellites
1957 Soviet Union launches Sputnik 1 communication satellite
1969 Bell Laboratories in the US invent the cellular concept
1979 NTT cellular system (Japan)
1988 JTACS cellular system (Japan)
1981 NMT (Scandinavia)
1983 AMPS cellular frequencies allocated (US)
1985 TACS (Europe)
1991 USDC (US)
1991 GSM cellular system deployed (Europe)
1993 DECT & DCS (Europe)
1993 PHS cordless system (Japan)
1995 IS95 CDMA (US)
1998 Iridium global satellite system launched
2002IMT- 2000 third- generation cellular mobile systems to be
deployed
H.-R. Chuang EE NCKU

* Simon R, Saunders, Antenna and Propagation for Wireless Communication Systems
H.-R. Chuang EE NCKU

H.-R. Chuang EE NCKU