Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1

Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers

1.2

Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review

1.3

Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction

1.4

Failure Criteria of Materials

1.5

Review

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers 2

Section 1.1
Case Study: Pneumatically
Actuated PDMS Fingers
Problem Description
[2] A single
finger is
studied in this
case.

[1] The pneumatic

fingers are part of a
surgical parallel robot
system remotely
controlled by a
surgeon through the
Internet.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers 3

[3]
Geometric
model.

[4] The strainstress curve of

the PDMS
elastomer used
in this case.

[6] Undeformed
shape.
[5] As air pressure
applies, the finger bends
downward.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers 4

Static Structural
Simulations
[1] Prepare
material
properties.

[4] Set up
loads and
supports.

[2] Create
geometric
model.

[5] Solve the

model.

[3] Generate
finite element
mesh.

[6] View the

results.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers 5

[8] Strains.

[7]
Displacements.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers 6

Buckling and StressStiffening

Stress-stiffening: bending stiffness increases with increasing axial tensile

stress, e.g., guitar string.
The opposite also holds:

bending stiffness decreases with increasing axial

compressive stress.
Buckling: phenomenon when bending stiffness reduces to zero, i.e., the
structure is unstable. Usually occurs in slender columns, thin walls, etc.
Purpose of a buckling
analysis
is to find buckling loads and buckling modes.
[2] The upper
surface
would undergo
compressive stress. It
in turn reduces the
bending stiffness.

[1] If we
apply an
upward
force here...

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers 7

Dynamic Simulations

When the bodies move and

deform very fast, inertia
effect and damping effect
must be considered.
When including these
dynamic effects, it is called
a dynamic simulation.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers 8

Modal
Analysis
A special case of dynamic
simulations is the simulation of
free vibrations, the vibrations of
a structure without any loading.
It is called a modal analysis.
Purpose of a modal analysis is
to find natural frequencies and
mode shapes.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers 9

Structural Nonlinearities
[2] Solution of
the linear
simulation pf the
PDMS finger.

Linear simulations assume

that the response is linearly
proportional to the loading.
When the solution deviates
from the reality, a nonlinear
simulation is needed.
Structural nonlinearities
come from large deformation,
topology changes, nonlinear
stress-strain relationship, etc.

[1] Solution of the

nonlinear
simulation of the
PDMS finger.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review

10

Section 1.2
Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review
Engineering simulation: finding the responses of a problem
domain subject to environmental conditions.
Structural simulation: finding the responses of bodies subject
to environmental conditions.
The bodies are described by geometries and materials.
Environment conditions include support and loading
conditions.
Responses can be described by displacements, strains,
and stresses.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review

11

Displacement
s
[3] An arbitrary
particle of position (X,
Y, Z), before the
deformation.

[1] The body

before
deformation.

[2] The body after

deformation.

[5] The displacement

vector {u} of the
particle is formed by
connecting the
positions before and
after the deformation.

[4] After the

deformation, the
particle moves to
a new position.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review

Stresses

[3] This face is

called negative Xface.

[2] This face is

called X-face, since
the X-direction is
normal to this face.
[5] The Ycomponent of
the stress on Xface.

[4] The Xcomponent of the

stress on X-face.

12

[1] The
reference frame
XYZ.

[6] The Zcomponent of the

stress on X-face.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review

Strains
[5] Translate so

[3] After
deformation,
ABC moves

[4] To compare with

original configuration,

to .

rotate to a new

thatcoincides with A.
The new configuration

configuration .

is . Now is the amount

of stretch of ABC in Yface.

[1] The
reference
frame.

13

A
X

[2] Original
configuration
ABC.

[7] And the vector

describes the twist
of ABC in X-face.

[6] The vector BD

describes the stretch
of ABC in X-face.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review

Physical meaning of strains:

The normal strain is the
percentage of stretch of a
fiber which lies along Xdirection.
The shear strain is the angle
change (in radian) of two
fibers lying on XY-plane and
originally forming a right
angle.
We can define other strain
components in a similar way.

14

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review

Governing Equations

Totally 15 quantities

Equilibrium Equations (3 Equations)

Strain-Displacement Relations (6
Equations)
Stress-Strain Relations (6 Equations)

15

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review

16

Stress-Strain Relations: Hooke's

Law
For isotropic, linearly elastic
materials, Young's modulus (E) and
Poisson's ratio () can be used to
fully describe the stress-strain
relations.
The Hooke's law is called a material
model.
The Young's modulus and the
Poisson's ratio are called the
material parameters of the material
model.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review

17

If temperature changes (thermal

loads) are involved, the coefficient
of thermal expansion, (CTE, ) must
be included.
If inertia forces (e.g., dynamic
simulations) are involved, the mass
density must be included.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction 18

Section 1.3
Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual
Introduction
Basic
Ideas

A basic idea of finite element methods is to divide the structural body

into small and geometrically simple bodies, called elements, so that
equilibrium equations of each element can be written, and all the
equilibrium equations are solved simultaneously
The elements are assumed to be connected by nodes located on the
elements' edges and vertices.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction 19

Another idea is to solve unknown

discrete values (displacements at
the nodes) rather than to solve
unknown functions (displacement
fields).
Since the displacement on each
node is a vector and has three
components (in 3D cases), the
number of total unknown
quantities to be solved is three
times the number of nodes.
The nodal displacement
components are called the
degrees of freedom (DOF's) of the
structure.

In case of the pneumatic finger, the

structural body is divided into 3122
elements. The elements are
connected by 17142 nodes. There
are 3x17142 unknown displacement
values to be solved.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction 20

In static cases, the system of equilibrium equations has

following form:

The displacement vector {D} contains displacements of all

degrees of freedom.
The force vector {F} contains forces acting on all degrees of
freedom.
The matrix [K] is called the stiffness matrix of the structure.
In a special case when the structure is a spring, {F} as
external force, and {D} as the deformation of the spring, then
[K] is the spring constant.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction 21

Basic Procedure of Finite Element Method

Given the bodies' geometries, material properties, support conditions, and
loading conditions.
Divide the bodies into elements.
Establish the equilibrium equation: [K] {D} = {F}
3.1 Construct the [K] matrix, according to the elements' geometries and
the material properties.
3.2 Most of components in {F} can be calculated, according to the
loading conditions.
3.3 Most of components in {D} are unknown. Some component,
however, are known, according to the support conditions.
3.4 The total number of unknowns in {D} and {F} should be equal to the
total number of degrees of freedom of the structure.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction 22

Solve the equilibrium equation. Now, the nodal displacements {d} of

each element are known.
For each element:
5.1 Calculate displacement fields {u}, using an interpolating method,
{u} = [N] {d}. The interpolating functions in [N] are called the shape
functions.
5.2 Calculate strain fields according to the strain-displacement relations.
5.3 Calculate stress fields according to the stress-strain relations (Hooke's
law).

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction 23

Shape Functions
[1] A 2D 4-node
quadrilateral
element

Shape functions serve as

interpolating functions, allowing

d5

d8

the calculation of displacement

fields (functions of X, Y, Z) from
nodal displacements (discrete

d7
Y

d4

values).

For elements with nodes at

vertices, the interpolation must be
linear and thus the shape
functions are linear (of X, Y, Z).

d6

d2
X

d3
d1
[2] This
element's
nodes locate at
vertices.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction 24

For elements with nodes at vertices as well as at middles of edges, the

interpolation must be quadratic and thus the shape functions are
quadratic (of X, Y, Z).
Elements with linear shape functions are called linear elements, firstorder elements, or lower-order elements.
Elements with quadratic shape functions are called quadratic elements,
second-order elements, or higher-order elements.
ANSYS Workbench supports only first-order and second-order elements.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction 25

Workbench Elements
3D Solid
Bodies
[1] 3D 20node
structural
solid. Each
node has 3
translational
degrees of
freedom: DX,
DY, and DZ.

[4] Tetrahedron.

[3]
Quadrilateralbased pyramid.

[2] Trianglebased prism.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction 26

2D Solid Bodies

[5] 2D 8-node
structural
solid. Each
node has 2
translational
degrees of
freedom: DX
and DY.

[6]
Degenerated
Triangle.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction 27

3D Surface Bodies
[8]
Degenerated
Triangle

[7] 3D 4-node
structural shell.
Each node has
3 translational
and 3 rotational
degrees of
freedom: DX,
DY, DZ, RX, RY,
and RZ.

3D Line Bodies
[9] 3D 2-Node
beam. Each
node has 3
translational and
3 rotational
degrees of
freedom: DX, DY,
DZ, RX, RY, RZ.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials

28

Section 1.4
Failure Criteria of Materials
Ductile versus Brittle
Materials
A Ductile material exhibits a large amount of strain
before it fractures.
The fracture strain of a brittle material is relatively
small.
Fracture strain is a measure of ductility.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials

29

Failure Points for Ductile

Materials
Mild steel is a typical ductile material.
For ductile materials, there often exists
an obvious yield point, beyond which

[3] Yield
point.

the deformation would be too large so

that the material is no longer reliable

or functional; the failure is

accompanied by excess deformation.
Therefore, for these materials, we are
most concerned about whether the
material reaches the yield point .

[1] Stressstrain curve

for a ductile
material.

[2] Fracture
point.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials

30

Failure Points for Brittle

Materials
[2] Fracture
point.

Cast iron and ceramics are two

examples of brittle materials.

For brittle materials, there usually

doesn't exist obvious yield point, and
we are concerned about their fracture
point .

[1] Stressstrain curve

for a brittle
material.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials

31

Failure Modes

The fracture of brittle materials is mostly due

to tensile failure.
The yielding of ductile materials is mostly due
to shear failure

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials

Principal
Stresses
A direction in which the shear
stress vanishes is called a

[5] Mohr's
circle.

principal direction.
The corresponding normal
stress is called a principle
stress.

[8] Point
of
maximum
shear
stress.

[4] Other
stress pairs
could be
drawn.

[7] Point
of
minimum
normal
stress.

[1] Stress
state.

[3] Stress in
the direction
that forms
with the base
direction.

[2] Stress in
the base
direction.
(

32

[9] Another
Point of
maximum
shear stress.

[6] Point
of
maximum
normal
stress.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials

33

At any point of a 3D solid, there are three principal

directions and three principal stresses.
The maximum normal stress is called the maximum
principal stress and denoted by .
The minimum normal stress is called the minimum
principal stress and denoted by .
The medium principal stress is denoted by .
The maximum principal stress is usually a positive value, a
tension; the minimum principal stress is often a negative
value, a compression.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials

34

Failure Criterion for Brittle Materials

The failure of brittle materials is a tensile failure. In other
words, a brittle material fractures because its tensile
stress reaches the fracture strength .
We may state a failure criterion for brittle materials as
follows: At a certain point of a body, if the maximum
principal stress reaches the fracture strength of the
material, it will fail.
In short, a point of material fails if

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials

35

Tresca Criterion for Ductile

Materials
The failure of ductile materials is a shear
failure. In other words, a ductile material

It is easy to show (using

Mohr's circle) that

yields because its shear stress reaches

the shear strength of the material.
We may state a failure criterion for

Thus, the material yields if

ductile materials as follows: At a certain

point of a body, if the maximum shear
stress reaches the shear strength of the
material, it will fail.
In short, a point of material fails if

is called the stress

intensity.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials

36

Von Mises Criterion for Ductile

Materials
In 1913, Richard von Mises proposed a theory for predicting the yielding
of ductile materials. The theory states that the yielding occurs when the
deviatoric strain energy density reaches a critical value, i.e.,

It can be shown that the yielding deviatoric energy in uniaxial test is

And the deviatoric energy in general 3D cases is

Chapter 1 Introduction

Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials

37

After substitution and simplification, the criterion reduces to that the

yielding occurs when

The quantity on the left-hand-side is termed von Mises stress or

effective stress, and denoted by ; in ANSYS, it is also referred to as
equivalent stress,

The equivalent strain, or effective strain is defined by