UNIT-3
SOLID PROPULSION SYSTEMS
By
A.VinothKumar
Assistant Professor
Department of Aerospace Engineering
SRM University
UNIT-3 SYLLABUS
Classifications-
Booster stage and upper stage
rockets.
Hardware components and functions.
Propellant grain configuration and applications.
Burn rate, burn rate index for stable operation
Mechanism of burning, ignition and igniter types.
Action time and burn time.
Factors influencing burn rates.
Thrust vector control.
Numerical problems.
Classification
Booster stage
A booster rocket is the first stage of a multistage launch
vehicle
Boosters are traditionally necessary to launch spacecraft into
low Earth orbit, and are certainly necessary for a space
vehicle to go beyond Earth orbit.
Upper stage rockets
An upper stage is designed to operate at high altitude, with
little or no atmospheric pressure. This allows the use of
lower pressure combustion chambers and engine nozzles
with optimal expansion ratios.
The upper stages are usually tasked with completing orbital
injection and accelerating payloads into higher energy orbits
Solid Rocket Motor Components
Solid
rocket motor consists of
Motor casing
Thermal insulation
Propellant grain
Igniter
Combustion chamber
Exhaust nozzle
Solid Rocket Motor Components
Solid Rocket Motor
The
idea is to increase the surface area of the channel, thereby
increasing the burn area and therefore the thrust.
As the fuel burns, the shape evens out into a circle.
In the case of the SRBs, it gives the engine high initial thrust and
lower thrust in the middle of the flight.
Flexibility of the propellant is controlled by the ratio of binder to
curing agent and the solid ingredients, namely oxidizer and
aluminum.
The solid fuel is actually powdered aluminum a form similar to
the foil wraps in your kitchen mixed with oxygen provided by a
chemical called ammonium perchlorate.
Solid fuel
Solid fuel refers to various types of solid material that are used
as fuel to produce energy and provide heating, usually released
through combustion.
Solid fuels include:
wood (see wood fuel), charcoal, peat, coal, Hexamine fuel
tablets, and pellets made from wood (see wood pellets), corn, wheat,
rye and other grains.
Solid Rocket Motor
Solid rocket motors are widely used in Launch vehicles for
High thrust (high F/W ratio)
High storage density
Ballistic Missiles
Propellant storability
Excellent aging
Quick response
Motor Casing & Thermal Insulation
Design involves:
Analysis of combustion chamber environment
Stagnation temperature
Stagnation pressure
Propellant gases (material compatibility)
Selection of insulation material
Material thickness determination for various areas
of the motor case
For the cylindrical part of the case, the walls are
only exposed to hot combustion gases at the end of
the burn
Propellant Grain
Solid propellant geometry
Shape of combustion channel preprogrammed pressure and thrust profile
13
14
15
Ignition System
Large solid motors typically use a three-stage ignition
system
Initiator: Pyrotechnic element that converts electrical
impulse into a chemical reaction (primer)
Booster charge
Main charge: A charge (usually a small solid motor)
that ignites the propellant grain. Burns for tenths of a
second with a mass flow about 1/10 of the initial
propellant grain mass flow.
Exhaust Nozzle
The steps for design of the nozzle are follows
Throat area determined by desired stagnation
pressure and thrust level
Expansion ratio determined by ambient
pressure or pressure range to allow maximum
efficiency
Major difference for solid propellant nozzles is
the technique used for cooling
Ablation
Fiber reinforced material used in and near the
nozzle throat (carbon, graphite, silica,
phenolic)
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
Simplicity
Low cost
High Thrust to weight ratio
Disadvantages:
Thrust cannot be controlled.
Once ignited, the engine cannot be stopped or restarted
Once a solid rocket is ignited it will consume the entirety of
its fuel, without any option for shutoff or thrust adjustment.
Combustion
The chemical process in which a substance reacts with
oxygen to produce heat is called combustion.
The substance which undergoes combustion is called a
combustible substance. It is also called a fuel.
Sometimes light is also produced during combustion either
as a flame or as a glow.
Air is necessary for combustion.
Ignition temperature
The minimum temperature at which a substance
catches fire and burns is called its ignition
temperature.
A substance will not catch fire and burn if its
temperature is lower than its ignition temperature.
Substances which have very low ignition temperature
and can easily catch fire with a flame are called
inflammable substances.
Eg:- petrol, alcohol, LPG, CNG etc.
Flame
Flame is the zone of combustion of a combustible
substance.
Substances which vaporize during burning produce flames.
E.g. kerosene, wax etc.
Substances which do not vaporize during burning do not
produce flames.
E.g. coal, charcoal etc.
Mechanism of burning
Double-base propellant
Propellant
Preheated zone
Foam
zone
Fizz
zone
Dark
zone
Luminous zone
Foam zone (Ts)
The propellant surface on heating, degrades the propellant exothermally in the
solid phase. This zone of decomposition is known as foam zone.
Fizz zone(Ts-T1)
It is the zone of major gas phase reaction. The temperature increases from Ts to
T1.This zone is highly luminescent.
Dark zone(T1)(under 10MPa)
It is the zone of minor gas phase reaction. T=constant. It limits the heat transfer.
Luminous zone(T1 to Tf)
In this zone the chemical reaction proceeds further with heat liberation.
Temperature rises from T1 to Tf
Mechanism of burning
composite propellant
Pre-mixed Flame(1300K)
discrete oxidiser crystal on heating, decomposes to form oxidising gas.
Pyrolysis of polymeric fuel binder form the fuel hydrocarbon vapour.
This fuel and oxidising vapour mix with each other to form a flame.
Primary Diffusion Flame(Reaction Flame 2800K)
Combustion takes place in the mixing region in the zones where stoichiometric fueloxidiser mixture is formed. In this zone combustion is controlled by diffusion
process.
Final Diffusion Flame(3200K)
This is the zone where complete combustion takes place to form final flame
Burn Rate
The
rate of regression, typically measured in
inches per second (or mm per second), is
termed burning rate (or burn rate)
The burning surface of a rocket propellant
grain recede in a direction perpendicular to
this burning surface.
r aPc
Factors influencing burn rates
Propellant burning rate is influenced by:
Combustion chamber pressure
Initial temperature of the propellant grain
Velocity of the combustion gases flowing parallel to
the burning surface
Local static pressure
Motor acceleration and spin
Size of granules in the propellant.
Factors influencing burn rates
Temperature Sensitivity parameter
It is defined as the fractional variation in the burn rate due to
unit temperature change at constant pressure.
r
T
r
ln r dT
rT 0
T0
r rT 0 exp r T T0
T > T0
T
pressure
dr
r dT
r
r
T
dr
r r T r dT
T0
0
1 dr
r dT
T0
time
Modifying the burning rate
There are a number of ways of modifying the
burning rate:
Increase of Decrease the oxidizer particle size
Increase or reduce the percentage of oxidizer
(greater O/F ratio)
Adding a burn rate catalyst or suppressant
Operate the motor at a lower or higher
chamber pressure
Burn rate catalysts
Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3), copper oxide (CuO),
Manganese Dioxide (MnO2) are commonly used
catalysts in AP based composite propellants, as is
copper chromate (Cu2Cr2O5 or 2CuO Cr2O3).
Potassium dichromate K2Cr2O7 or ammonium
dichromate (NH4)2Cr2O7 for AN based mixtures.
Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3), Iron sulphate (FeSO4) and
potassium dichromate for KN-Sugar propellants
Lampblack (carbon) may slightly increase the burn
rate of most propellants through increased heat
transfer from the combustion flame to the propellant
surface.
Burn rate index for stable operation
m&gen Ab r p
n
&
mgen Ab aPc p
pc At
m&n
c*
dm
m&gen m&n 0
dt accumulation
pc At
Ab aPc p
0
c*
pc At
n
Ab aPc p
c*
Ab a p c *
1 n
pc
At
Ab a p c *
pc
A
t
n must be < 1, preferably 0.5 or lower
1
1 n
Condition for stable operation
n must be < 1, preferably 0.5 or lower
1
n
g
1
p
Specification of coefficient a in burn
rate at reference condition of 7MPa
Length
(unit : mm / s )
time
Burn rate law, r aPc n
Burn rate
Dimension of a becomes unwieldy and its magnitude depends on unit of pressure
P
r a
P
r ef
Pref is the reference pressure
a in the burn rate law will have the unit of mm/s
a=a70 at Pref=7Mpa=70atm
r 7 MPa a70
r a70
Where r is the burn rate at any pressure in MPa
A solid rocket motor has the following operating characteristics:
Sea level thrust 10,000 N
Duration 10 sec
Chamber pressure 70.928 bar
Specific heat ratio 1.26
Chamber temperature 2500 K
Burning rate 6 mm/sec at 70.928 bar
Propellant density 1.67 gm/cc
Molecular mass 22 kg/kg-mol
Assuming a neutral burning (with a cigarette burning grain) and an adapted nozzle at sea level,
find the (a) characteristic velocity, (b) thrust coefficient at optimum expansion, (c) specific
impulse at sea level, (d) nozzle throat area, (e) weight of propellant and (f) burning surface
area.
Given :
T 10000 N
tb 10 s
Pc 70.928bar
1.26
Tc 2500 K
r 6mm / s 70.928bar
b 1670kg / m3
Molecular mass 22kg / kmole
Solution :
RTc
C*
1
2 1
8314
2500
22
1.26
1.26
1
1.26 1
2 1.26 1
1472.87 m / s
P
2 RTc
Vj
1 e
1
Pc
Vj
CF
8314
1.26 1
2500
5
1.26
22
1 1.01325 10
2312.185m / s
1.26 1
70.928 10
2 1.26
Vj
C*
1.5698
F CF Pc At At
F
10000
3 2
0.898
10
m
5
CF Pc 1.5698 70.928 10
I sp
Vj
g0
F
235.69 s
F
10000
I sp wp
42.4274 N / s
I sp 235.69
wp
w p w p tb 42.4274 10 424.274 N
wp
42.4274
mp
4.4249kg / s
g0
9.81
mp
4.3249
2
Ab
0.4316
m
b r 1670 6 103
Tabulate the variation of burning rate with chamber pressure for two propellants with
a1=0.00137, n1=0.9, a2=0.060,n2=0.4, p expressed in Mpa as given in the table
Pressure
Propellant1
a1
14000000 0.00137
10000000 0.00137
7000000 0.00137
5000000 0.00137
n1
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
Propellant2
r1
3.70029
2.733509
1.982936
1.464851
a2
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.06
n2
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
r2
0.043311
0.037857
0.032824
0.028691
4
3.5
3
2.5
Burn rate
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
4000000
6000000
8000000
10000000
Pressure
12000000
14000000
16000000
Following requirements are given for a solid propellant rocket motor:
Sea level thrust=8800 N
Duration =10 sec
Chamber pressure =6.8947 MPa
Propellant Ammonium nitrate-hydrocarbon
Determine the specific impulse, the throat and exit areas, the flow rate, the total propellant
weight, the total impulse, the burning area, Properties of this propellant are:
= 1.26; T1= 1755 K; r = 0.254 cm/sec at 6.8947 Mpa; c*= 1219.2 m/sec; b= 1550 kg/m3;
molecular mass = 22 kg/kg-mol.
Given :
Tsea level 8800 N
tb 10s
Pc 6.89 MPa
1.26
Tc 1750 K
r .25cm / s 6.89MPa
C* 1219m / s
b 1550kg / m3
Molecular mass 22kg / kmole
Solution :
1
P
2 RTc
Vj
1 e
1
Pc
Vj
I sp
8314
1.26 1
1750
5
1.26
1.01325
10
22
1
1932.25m / s
1.26 1
6.89 10
2 1.26
Vj
g0
Vj
1932.25
196.96 s
9.81
1932.25
1.5851
C*
1219
F
8800
3
2
F CF Pc At At
0.805
10
m
CF Pc 1.5851 6.89 106
CF
2
1
1 2
Pc
Pe
P
2
1 e
1
Pc
7.99
Ae 7.99 At 6.4319 10 3 m 2
F
F
8800
I sp wp
44.6791N / s
I sp 196.96
wp
w p wp tb 44.679110 446.791N
I t Ftb 8800 10 88000 Ns
wp
44.6791
mp
4.5544kg / s
g0
9.81
mp
4.5544
2
Ab
1.1753
m
b r 1550 2.5 103
The grain in a solid propellant rocket is a hollow cylinder bonded to the casing so that
it burns only on its inner cylindrical surface. Its density is 1650 kg/m3, and its burning
rate is characterized by r=0.0153 P0.7mm/s where P1is in Mpa. At a point in the burning
period when P1= 0.7 Mpa at 0.65m dia, the grain d/D = 0.4 and L/D = 6, L being the
grain length and, d and D being its inner and outer diameters. Determine the rate of
change of chamber pressure, assuming the gas temperature stays constant at 2750 K
and that the gas specific heat ratio is 1.24 , D = 1.5 m and molecular mass=22kg/kmole.
Given :
b 1650kg / m3
r 0.0153P 0.7
Pc1 0.7 MPa at 0.65m diameter
d / D 0.4
L/D6
D 1.5m
1.24
Tc 2750 K
Molecular mass 22kg / kmole
solution :
C*
RTc
2
1
2 1
1.24
1.24
1
1
1 n
Ab1a p c *
pc1
A
t
Ab1a p c *
At
1 n
P
c
Abi a p c *
pci
A
t
1
1 n
Abo a p c *
pco
A
t
P pco pci
1
1 n
8314
2750
22
1.24 1
2 1.24 1
IGNITION SYSTEMS
Solid propellant ignition consists of a series of complex rapid events,
which start on receipt of a signal (usually electric) and include :
Heat generation
Transfer of the heat from the igniter to the motor grain surface,
Spreading the flame over the entire burning surface area,
Filling the chamber free volume (cavity)with gas,
Elevating the chamber pressure without serious abnormalities such
as overpressures, combustion oscillations, damaging shock waves,
hang fires(delayed ignition), extinguishment, and chuffing.
The igniter in a solid rocket motor generates the heat and gas
required for motor ignition.
PHASES OF IGNITION
Phase
I, local Ignition time: the period from the
moment the igniter receives a signal until the
first bit of grain surface burns.
Phase II, Flame-spreading interval: the time
from first ignition of the grain surface until the
complete grain burning area has been ignited.
Phase III, Chamber-filling interval: the time for
completing the chamber filling process and for
reaching equilibrium chamber pressure and flow.
IGNITION SYSTEMS
Satisfactory attainment of equilibrium chamber pressure
with full gas flow is dependent on :
Characteristics of the igniter and the gas temperature,
composition and flow issuing from the igniter,
Motor propellant composition and grain surface
ignitability,
Heat transfer characteristics by radiation and
convection between the igniter gas and grain surface,
Grain flame spreading rate, and
The dynamics of filling the motor free volume with hot
gas
IGNITION SYSTEMS
Ignitability of a propellant is affected by many factors, including
The propellant formulation,
The initial temperature of the propellant grain surface
The surrounding pressure
The mode of heat transfer
Grain surface roughness
Age of the propellant
The composition and hot solid particle content of the igniter
gases
The igniter propellant and its initial temperature
The velocity of the hot igniter gases relative to the grain surface
The cavity volume and configuration.
PYROTECHNIC IGNITER
PYROTECHNIC IGNITER
In
industrial practice, pyrotechnic igniters are
defined as igniters using
solid explosives or
energetic propellant-like chemical
formulations (usually small pellets of
propellant which give a large burning surface
and a short burning time) as the heatproducing material.
PYROTECHNIC IGNITER
The
common pellet-basket design is typical of
the pyrotechnic igniters.
A special form of pyrotechnic igniter is the
surface-bonded or grain-mounted igniter.
Such an igniter has its initiator included within
a sandwich of flat sheets; the layer touching
the grain is the main charge of pyrotechnic.
This form of igniter is used with multipulse
motors with two or more end-burning grains.
Pyrogen Igniters
Pyrogen Igniters
A pyrogen
igniter is basically a small rocket motor that is used to
ignite a larger rocket motor.
The pyrogen is not designed to produce thrust.
All use one or more nozzle orifices, both sonic and supersonic
types, and most use conventional rocket motor grain formulations
and design technology.
In pyrogen igniters, the initiator and the booster charge are very
similar to the designs used in pyrotechnic igniters.
Heat transfer from the pyrogen to the motor grain is largely
convective, with the hot gases contacting the grain surface as
contrasted to a highly radiative energy emitted by pyrotechnic
igniters.
Reaction products from the main charge impinge on the surface of
the rocket motor grain, producing motor ignition
LOCATIONS FOR IGNITER
INSTALLATIONS
SPR- NOZZLE CLASSIFICATION
1. Fixed Nozzle. Simple and used frequently in tactical weapon
propulsion systems for short-range air-, ground-, and sealaunched missiles, also as strap-on propulsion for space launch
vehicles such as Atlas and Delta, and in spacecraft motors for
orbital transfer.
Typical throat diameters are between 0.25 and 5 in. for tactical
missile nozzles and approximatelyI0 in. for strap-on motors.
Fixed nozzles are generally not submerged(see below) and do not
provide thrust vector control (although there are exceptions).
2. Movable Nozzle. Provides thrust vector control for the flight
vehicle. movable nozzle can provide pitch and yaw control and
two are needed for roll control. Movable nozzles are typically
submerged and use a flexible sealed joint or bearing with two
actuators 90 degrees apart to achieve omni axial motion.
SPR- NOZZLE CLASSIFICATION
Movable
nozzles are primarily used in long-range strategic
propulsion ground- and sea launched systems
Typical throat diameters are 7 to 15 in. for the first stage and 4
to 5 in. for the third stage) and in
large space launch boosters such as the Space Shuttle reusable
solid rocket motor, Titan boost rocket motor, and Ariane V
solid rocket booster, with throat diameters in the 30 to 50 in.
range.
3. Submerged Nozzles. A significant portion of the nozzle
structure is submerged within the combustion chamber or case,.
Submerging the nozzle reduces the overall motor length
somewhat, which in turn reduces the vehicle length and its inert
mass.
NOZZLE TYPES
