 Unidirectional- at any specified time the value of the

voltage or current is the same

Most commonly known as Direct Current Signal
 Periodic- the voltage or current signals recur at a
regular time interval

 Aperiodic- the waveform has no recurrence

 Alternating Current Signal-the voltage or current
is continuously changing as a function of time
 electric charge periodically reverses direction
 DC current flow is unidirectional.
AC current flow is back and forth.
“Whenever lines of flux is cut by a conductor, emf is
induced in it”
-Michael Faraday(1791-1867)
 DC AC

Can be stored Cannot be stored

*portable gadgets

Easier to produce

High cost of materials to produce Cheaper than DC in transmitting

DC
Can be produced in bulk

Voltage cannot be changed Voltage value can be change

through the use of transformers
 The sine wave is the fundamental type of
alternating current (ac) and alternating
voltage. It is also referred to as a sinusoidal wave,
or, simply, sinusoid. The electrical service
provided by the power companies is in the form of
sinusoidal voltage and current.

 Sine waves are produced by two types of sources:

rotating electrical machines (ac generators) or
electronic oscillator circuits, which are used in
instruments commonly known as electronic signal
generators.
 A sine wave varies with time (t) in a definable
manner.

 The time required for a given sine wave to

complete one full cycle is called the period
(T).
 Frequency is the number of cycles that a sine wave
completes in one second.

 The more cycles completed in one second, the higher the

frequency.

 Frequency (f) is measured in units of hertz. One hertz (Hz) is

equivalent to one cycle per second
 The relationship between frequency and period is
important.
 The formulas for this relationship are as follows:

 There is a reciprocal relationship between f and T

The peak value of a sine wave is the value of voltage (or
current) at the positive or the negative maximum (peaks)
with respect to zero.

Since the peaks are equal in magnitude, a sine wave is

characterized by a single peak value, For a given sine
wave, the peak value is constant and is represented by Vp
or Ip.
voltage (or current) from the positive peak to the negative
peak. It is always twice the peak value as expressed in the
following equations. Peak-to-peak values are represented
by Vpp or Ipp.

Vpp = 2Vp
Ipp = 2Ip
 The average value of a sine wave is defined
over a half-cycle rather than over a full cycle
 The RMS value is also referred to as the effective

value. The RMS value is the equivalent heating

effect of AC signal to that of DC
T

Ym 2
Y ave = Ym
Π
Y p−p Y rms =
1
Y m=Y eff
2
Y  t  =Y m sin  ωt φ  Where Ym=max value of the V/I
ω=2πf (rad/sec) =angular velocity
f=frequency
t=any time t(sec)
φ= phase angle
φA φB
Ym Ym

A B
A leading by φA Y  t  =Y m sin  ωtφ A 

B lagging by φB Y  t  =Y m sin  ωt−φ B 

 Given:
v  t  =150sin  1000 t45 o  V m=150V
Vm 150
V eff = = =106. 07V
2 2
V p−p =2V m =300V
2
V ave = V m =95.49 V
Π
ω=1000 rps
45 o ω 1000
150V f= = =159 Hz
2Π 2Π
1 −3
period= =6 .28 x 10 sec
300V f

6.28ms
1. Resistor
V
I

V=iR

the voltage and the

current waveforms are in
phase
v  t  =V m sin  ωt 
Vm
i t = sin  ωt 
R
2. Inductor- stores energy in each magnetic field
-inductance (L) unit is Henry(H)


N

S
−
Inductor

V V L =L
di

I dt

dt
i L =∫ V L
L
−V m cos ωt
¿
ωL
Vm o
= sin  ωt −90 
ωL

Voltage leads the current by 90o

Current lags the voltage by 90o
3. Capacitor - stores energy in each electric field
- capacitance(C) unit is Farad (F)

 plates

    
     Gap or
− − − − −
insulation
− − − − −

−
Capacitor
dt
V C =∫ i
V C

dv
i C =C
I dt
d  V msin ωt 
¿C
dt
=ω CV m sin  ωt 90o


Current leads the voltage by 90o

Voltage lags the current by 90o
 Inductor Capacitor

LT =L1 L2Ln 1 1 1 1
Series =  
CT C1 C2 C n

Parallel
1 1 1 1 C T =C 1C 2 C n
=  
LT L1 L2 Ln
 Resistor Inductor Capacitor

i C  t =ω CV m sin  ωt90 o 

Vm Vm
i t = sin  ωt  i L t = sin  ωt −90 o 
R ωL

Im
v  t  =RI m sin  ωt  v L  t  =ω LI m sin  ωt90 o
 v C t =
ωC
sin  ωt −90o 

jX L = j2Π fL= jωL − jX C =− j

1
=− j
1
R o
2ΠfC ωC
¿ X L ∠90 ¿ X C ∠−90 o

Where R=resistance
Xc =capacitive reactance
XL =inductive rectance
 j o
Z ∠θ =R± jX
Z 2 2 2
X Z =R X
θ
R
R θ=tan
Where
−1

X
R

Z= impedance
−j R= resistance
X=reactance
Θ=impedance angle
If the reactance (X) is positive, Z is inductive in nature.
Else, Z is capacitive in nature
R-L Circuit R-C Circuit

R
Z
XL θ
R θ XC
R Z
R
Z ∠ θ o=R jX L − jX C
jX L Z ∠−θ o=R− jX C
XL
θ=tan −1 θ=tan −1
XC
R R

 XL is positive  Xc is negative
 Theta (θ) is negative
 Theta (θ) is positive
L-C Circuits

If the total reactance is

− jX C negative, the load is more
X T = X L− X C capacitive.
If the total reactance is
jX L positive the load is more
inductive

Inductive Capacitive
X T ∠90 o= jX T X T ∠−90 o=− jX T
 j
Z Where j=i= −1
X 2
θ j =−1
R 3
j =− j
R 4
j =1
−j

R jX=Z  cos θ j sin θ  =Zcis θ=Z ∠θ

 Z 1 =R 1 jX 1 Z 2 =R 2 jX 2

1. Addition/ Subtraction
Z 3= Z 1 Z 2 *for polar: change to
rectangular form then
¿  R 1R 2   j  X 1 X 2  add or subtract

5. Multiplication
Z 3= Z 1 Z 2=  R 1 jX 1  R 2 jX 2 
¿  R 1 R 2− X 1 X 2  j  X 1 R 2 X 2 R 1 

Z 3 ∠ θ3 =Z 1 Z 2 ∠  θ 1 θ 2 
3. Division

Z 3=
Z1
=
 R 1  jX 1   R2 − jX 2 
¿
Z2  R2 jX 2  R2 − jX 2 
=
 R1 R 2 X 1 X 2   j  X 1 R 2− X 2 R 1 
2 2
R 2 X 2

Z1
Z 3 ∠ θ3 = ∠  θ 1 −θ 2 
Z2
 Z 1=12− j 18
Z 2 =4 j 15
Z 3 =25

Z1 Z2  12− j 18  4 j 15 
Z 4= =
Z 1 Z 2 12− j 184 j 15
48270− j 72 j 180 318 j 108
= =
16− j3 16− j3
 318 j 108   16 j3  4764 j 2682
= =
16− j3  16 j3  265
=17.98 j 10 .12 
 Z4 Z 3  17.98 j 10 .12  25 
Z ab= =
Z 4 Z 3 17 .98 j 10.1225
449.5 j 253  449.5 j 253   42 .98− j 10.12 
= =
42. 98 j 10.12  42 .98 j 10. 12   42 .98− j 10.12 
21858.38 j 6330 .61
=
1949. 69
=11.21 j3. 25
10.33 a 100Ω resistor and a 500µF capacitor are in series.
The voltage across the resistor is Vr=300sin 100t.
Determine the (a) current, (b) the voltage across the
capacitor and (c)impedance

(a) VR
300sin100 t
I= =
R 100
¿ 3sin100 tA
Phasor form
300
V R= ∠ 0o =212.1 ∠0o V
2
VR 212 .1 ∠0o o
I= = =2 . 12∠0 A
R 100
 −j 1
(b) − jX C=− j =
ωC 100500 μ 
¿− j 20 
I
V C =− jX C I =− j
ωC

¿ 20 3 sin  100 t −90o  

V
¿
C
= X c I=
I

ωC

¿ 60 sin  100 t −90 o  V

Phasor form
V C =X C I=  20 ∠−90o  2.12 ∠0o 
¿ 42 .4∠−90 o V

(c) Z t =R− jX C
¿ 100− j 20
11.60 Determine the voltages across each impedance

V 1=120

5∠60 o
5∠60 o10 ∠30o 15∠−40 o 
¿ 120
 5∠60o
22. 65∠−0.79 o  =120  0.22 ∠60 .79 

¿ 26. 4∠60 .79V

V 2=120
 10 ∠30o
22 .65 ∠−0.79o 
¿ 120  0.44 ∠30.79 
¿ 52. 8∠30.79 V

V 3=120
 15 ∠−40 o
22 .65 ∠−0.79o 
¿ 120  0.66∠−39 .21 
¿ 79. 2∠−39.21 V
Z P=Real Power, Watts
X function of resistance, R
θ
Q=Reactive Power, VAR(Volt-
R
Ampere-Reactance)
function of reactance, X
S S=Apparent Power, VA (Volt-
Q Ampere)
θ
function of impedance, Z
P
 Z ∠θ o=R± jX
Z
X Z 2 =R 2X 2
θ
R
θ=tan −1

X
R
Angle of Impedance

S∠ θ o =P± jQ
S
Q S2=P 2Q2
θ
P θ=tan−1 Q
P Power Factor Angle
*phase angle difference
between the voltage and
current
P=Scos θ
Q=S sin θ
P
cos θ= Power Factor
S
P=I 2R R S=I 2Z Z
2
V 2R VZ
Watts VA
¿ ¿
R Z
¿ VI cos θ ¿ VI
S∠ θ pf =V I¿
Q=I 2X X
V 2X VAR, inductive (lagging pf)
¿ VAR, capacitive (leading pf)
X
S
¿ VI sin θ Q
θ
P
 Where:
θ= phase angle difference of the voltage
P
pf =cos θ= and current (θV –θI )
S pf = Power Factor or the ratio of the real
power to the apparent power
Q rf =Reactive Factor or the ratio of the
rf =sin θ= reactive power to the apparent power
S

Power Factor/ Reactive Factor:

Lagging- inductive
Leading- capacitive
Unity- resistive (cosθ=1 or sinθ=0)
11.89 The load at a certain factory consists of the
following: (i) 10kW, pf=0.6 lagging (ii)15kW,
rf=0.5 lagging, (iii) 25kVA, pf=0.75 lagging
(iv)22kVA, rf=0.65 lagging (v)15kvar pf=0.8
lagging and (vi)5kVAR, pure capacitance. (a)
Determine the total true power, total reactive
power and the total apparent power
(i) pf=0.6 lagging θ=cos−1  0 .6  =53.13 o
P=10kW Q
tan53.13=
10
Q=13.33 kVAR

(ii) rf=0.5 lagging θ=sin−1  0 .5 =30 o

P=15kW Q
tan30=
15
Q=8 .66 kVAR
 −1 o
(iii) pf=0.75 lagging θ=cos  0 .75  =41 .41
S=25kVA P Q
cos 41 .41= sin 41 . 41=
25 25
P=18 .75 kW Q=16. 54 kVAR

(iv) rf=0.65 lagging θ=sin−1  0 .65  =40 .54 o

S=22kVA P Q
cos 40 .54= sin 40 . 54=
22 22
P=16 .72 kW Q=14. 3 kVAR
 −1 o
(v) pf=0.8 lagging θ=cos  0 .8  =36.87
Q=15kVAR 15
tan 36.87=
P
P=20 kW

(vi) Q= 5kVAR
pure capacitance
P T =P 1P 2P 3P 4P 5P 6
¿ 101518 .7516 .72200
¿ 80. 47 kW
Q T =Q 1Q2 Q 3Q 4 Q 5Q6
¿ 13. 338.6616. 5414 .315−5
¿ 62. 83kVAR
ST = P 2Q 2 =  80.47 62.83
 2 2
T T
¿ 102.09 kVA
The power factor is to be corrected to 0.9 lagging.
(b) determine the kVAR rating of pure capacitors
needed to accomplish this.
θ=tan −1
 62 . 87

80 . 47 
=37 . 98 o
θ=cos−1  0.9  =25.84 o

80 .47 kW
25 .84 o
37 .98o
62 .83 kVAR
102. 09kVA QC
 80.47kW
25.84 o 80.47kW
37.98o
62.83kVAR 25.84 o
62.83−Q C
102. 09kVA QC

Q T −Q C 62 .83−Q C
tan25.84= =
PT 80 .47
38 .97=62.83−Q C
Q C=23. 86kVAR
11.8 Two impedances Z1=10∠45 and Z2=12∠30
are in series across a voltage source. The total
reactive power Q is 2060 VAR. Determine the
total true power and the total apparent power.
Determine the applied voltage.
Given: Z T =Z 1 Z 2
Z 1=10∠ 45o o
o
¿ 21. 81∠36 .81 
Z 2 =12∠ 30
Q T =2060 VAR
*Since Z=V/I, θz would be equal to the
phase angle difference of the voltage
and current.

S
o
2060 VAR
36 .81

P
 2060
sin 36. 81=
S
S S=3438 .13 VA
2060 VAR 2060
36 .81 o tan36.81=
P
P P=2752 .66 W

V2
S=
Z
V = SV = 3438 .13×21.81
¿ 273.84 V