SAMPLING AND SAMPLE SIZE CALCULATION
Danaida B. Marcelo, MS Clinical Epidemiology Unit, Research Division De La Salle Health Sciences Institute
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Problem Identification Objective Formulation Review of Related Literature Research Design Sampling Design and Sample Size Data Collection Method Data Analysis Writing the Report Dissemination of Result
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this session, learners should be able to: 1. Understand the concept of sampling, sample size 2. Define sampling and sampling error 3. Know the different sampling methods 4. Know the requirements for sample size calculation 5. Recognize OPEN EPI/EPIINFO for sample size calculation for cross-sectional, cohort and casecontrol studies
What is sampling?
a procedure of drawing a fraction of a population for the purpose of determining certain characteristics of the population
TARGET POPULATION SAMPLE POPULATION
Why do we need to sample?
we cannot study all elements of the population we are interested in Advantages
quicker less expensive more efficient
Basic Concepts in Sampling
target population - group of interest sample population - representative subset sampling frame - list of sampling unit (ex. List of names, or places) sampling unit - the unit of selection elementary unit - unit of measurement
The Concept of Sampling
Example: The researcher wants to determine prevalence of Positive PPD among 1-10 yr old children in Muntinlupa target population - all 1-10 yr old children in Muntinlupa sample population - ex. 100 children (1-10 yrs old) living in Muntinlupa sampling frame - list of names of all 1-10 yr old children or list of the barangays, or list of the households the sampling units sampling unit - the unit of selection barangays or households or the children elementary unit - unit of measurement child, 1-10 yrs old
Sampling Error
SAMPLING ERROR - error due to chance - random error - the difference between the sample value and the unknown true value - cannot be eliminated, but can be minimized
How do we do sampling?
Non-probability sampling
Judgment or purposive Accidental or haphazard Simple random Systematic random Stratified random Cluster random Multi-stage random
Probability sampling
How do we do sampling?
Probability -random selection -sampling frame is needed -can compute for sampling error -results can be generalize Non-probability -non random selection -sampling frame is not required Cant compute sampling error -results cannot be generalize
How do we do sampling?
Non-probability
Judgment or purposive
Expert sampling involves the assembling of a sample of persons with known or demonstrable experience and expertise in some area. In snowball sampling, the process starts by identifying someone who meets the criteria for inclusion in the study. The respondent is then asked to recommend others whom they may know who also meet the criteria.
How do we do sampling?
Probability Sampling
Simple random Systematic random Stratified random Cluster random Multi-stage random
Simple Random Sampling (SRS)
Example: The researcher wants to determine prevalence of Positive PPD among 1-10 yr old children in Muntinlupa
target population - all 1-10 yr old children in Muntinlupa Assume N = 1000 sample population - ex. 100 1-10 yr old children in Muntinlupa sampling frame - list of names of all the 1-10 yr old children (assign numbers - 0001 to 1000) Generate randomly 100 numbers (between 0001 to 1000) By using calculators By using table of random numbers By using softwares
Simple Random Sampling
Stratified random sampling
the population is first divided into groups or strata a Simple Random Sample is then selected from each stratum subgroups of interest are represented adequately
Stratified random sampling
Example: The researcher wants to determine prevalence of benign febrile convulsions among the infants in Dasmarias, Cavite
target population - all 1-10 yr old children in Muntinlupa Assume N = 1000 sample population - ex. 100 1-10 yr old children in Muntinlupa
Sampling frame list of 1-10 yr old children per barangay - N= 1000: Bgy A=500; Bgy B=300; Bgy C=200 From each Barangay - select number of children using SRS - proportionate sampling - n=100: Bgy A=50; Bgy B=30; Bgy C=20
Systematic random sampling
selection of every kth unit in the population k = total # in population calculated sample size
the first unit is selected randomly from among the first k units
Systematic random sampling
Example: The researcher wants to determine prevalence of Positive PPD among 1-10 yr old children in Muntinlupa target population - all 1-10 yr old children in Muntinlupa Assume N = 1000 sample population - ex. 100 1-10 yr old children in Muntinlupa
Sampling frame list of all 1-10 yr old children in Muntinlupa k=1000/100 = 10 Choose the random start (from nos 1 to 10) Chosen Random start= 3; then the child with id no 3 is included in the sample, then 13th in the list, then 23rd
Cluster Sampling
the population is first divided into clusters, usually based on geographical proximity a random sample of such clusters is selected all units in the clusters are selected
Cluster Sampling
Example: The researcher wants to determine prevalence of Positive PPD among 1-10 yr old children in Muntinlupa target population - all 1-10 yr old children in Muntinlupa Assume N = 1000 sample population - ex. 100 1-10 yr old children in Muntinlupa
Clusters=barangay Sampling frame list of barangays Select clusters (barangays) using simple random sampling Include all children living in the selected barangays
Multi-stage sampling design
for sample surveys of wide coverage, i.e. nationwide surveys
15 regions 2 provinces/region 4 towns/province/region 50 elderly/towns/province/region
RANDOM ALLOCATION in EXPERIMENTAL Studies
Random Allocation the process of assigning subjects to different treatments by using random numbers Example:
Effect of Probiotic Treatment of Acute Tonsillopharyngitis in children 2-5 years of age: A randomized double blind trial Assuming sample size calculation 50 per group, which patient will receive probiotic? Use softwares: http://mahmoodsaghaei.tripod.com/Softwares /randalloc.html
What makes a good sample population?
A GOOD SAMPLE must be (1) selected at random to reduce bias (2) representative to improve validity and (3) large enough to increase precision.
How many subjects are to be included in the sample?
SAMPLE SIZE CALCULATION Why calculate?
for planning purposes for power of the study meaningful results
To minimize sampling error
Sample size calculation
Things to know:
type of the study: descriptive or analytic (cohort, case-control, clinical trial)? study objective: proportions or means? usual values? amount of deviation from the true value? Clinically important difference? confidence level? power? one-tailed or two-tailed hypotheses?
Confidence level, Power
Errors in Hypothesis Testing
DATA Support TRUTH Groups are the same Do not reject Ho: Groups are the same Reject Ho: Groups differ OK Type I error E Groups differ Type II error F
OK (1-F) or power
Confidence level, Power
Type I error -- rejecting a true Ho E -- probability of committing Type I error 1- E -- the confidence level usual values: E= 0.05, 1- E = .95 Type II error -- not rejecting a false Ho F -- probability of committing Type II error 1- F -- power of the study; ability to detect a true difference usual values: F= 0.20, 1- F = 0.80
How do we calculate sample size?
-- Using formulas -- Using tables of sample sizes -- Using statistical calculators (StatCalc of EpiInfo, Open EPI)
How do we calculate sample size?
A.J. Dobsons formula (SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLE)
Sample size for descriptive studies
1. Estimation of a population proportion
p(100 p) n! v f (1E ) 2 (
where n = computed sample size p = estimate of the proportion ( = the desired width of the confidence interval 1- E = confidence level
Sample size for descriptive studies
1. Estimation of a population proportion
Table 1 Values for f(1-E) for various confidence levels 100 (1-E) %
(1-E)
0.8
0.9
0.95 0.99
f(1-E)* 1.642 2.706 3.842 6.635
* f(1-E) is the square of the upper 1/2 E point of the std. Normal Distribution
Sample size for descriptive studies
1. Estimation of a population proportion
A researcher wants to estimate the prevalence of positive PPD among 1-10 yr old children in Muntinlupa . What is the sample size if it is expected that prevalence is 15%, and a 95% confidence interval will be used for an interval of 4% (11-19%)?
p(100 p) n! v f (1E ) 2 (
Sample size for descriptive studies
1. Estimation of a population proportion
Table 1 Values for f(1-E) for various confidence levels 100 (1-E) %
(1-E)
08
09
0 95 0 99
f(1 E)* 1 642 2 706 3 842 6 635
* f(1-E) is the square of the upper 1/2 E point of the std. Normal Distribution
Sample size for descriptive studies
1. Estimation of a population proportion
A researcher wants to estimate the prevalence of positive PPD among 1-10 yr old children in Muntinlupa . What is the sample size if it is expected that prevalence is 15%, and a 95% confidence interval will be used for an interval of 4% (11-19%)?
p(100 p) n! v f (1E ) 2 (
15(100 15) n! v 3.842 2 4 n ! 306
Sample size for descriptive studies
1. Estimation of a population proportion
A researcher wants to estimate the prevalence of positive PPD among 1-10 yr old children in Muntinlupa . What is the sample size if it is expected that prevalence is 15%, and a 95% confidence interval will be used for an interval of 4% (11-19%)?
n ! 306
To estimate the prevalence of positive PPD among 1-10 yr old children in Muntinlupa with a 4% margin of error at a 95% confidence level, assuming that the population prevalence is 15%, 306 children should be included in the sample.
Sample size calculation using EPI-Info6
http://www.cdc.gov/epiinfo/Epi6/ei6.htm
STATCALC program
http://www.openepi.com/Menu/OpenEpiMenu.htm
Calculate sample size: RCT
Example: Efficacy of VCO as an adjunct in primary TB Therapy among children ages 2-9 years old Objective: To compare resolution of radiologic signs for patients given with VCO and those with placebo
+ resolution
VCO group (Exposed)
(-) resolution + resolution
Placebo group (Unexposed)
(-) resolution
Calculate sample size: RCT
Example: Efficacy of VCO as an adjunct in primary TB Therapy among children ages 2-9 years old Objective: To compare resolution of radiologic signs for patients given with VCO and those with placebo
VCO group (Exposed)
+ resolution
75% (from related literature)
(-) resolution + resolution
50% (from related literature)
Placebo group (Unexposed)
(-) resolution
50% with (+) resolution in Placebo group
75% with (+) resolution in VCO group
SUMMARY
Statistical inference allows us to generalize sample results to the target population random sampling ensures the representativeness of the sample sample size is based on the research objectives/design sample estimates, variability from previous studies power, level of confidence operational constraints (time, resources)
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