MIT Art Design and Technology University

MIT School of Computing, Pune

23CSE2011 -Computer Networks

Class - S.Y. (SEM-II)

Prof. Arun Ghandat

AY 2025-2026 SEM-II
Syllabus: Unit 1
 Course Outcomes

After completion of the course students are able to:

1. Apply the fundamentals of data communication & networking in real life

Applications.

2. Demonstrate various design issues of data link layer.

3. Analyze different routing protocols in network layer & transport layer.

4. Explore various industrial protocols.

 Unit I - Syllabus
Unit I – Introduction to Data Communication 09 hours

• Main Topic-1: Introduction to data communication, Networks: Network

Hardware, Network Software

• Main Topic-2: Internet: Internet history standards and administration,

Protocols & Standards, RFCs

• Main Topic-3: OSI Model, TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Comparison of the OSI
and TCP/IP reference model, Analog & Digital Signals, Transmission
Impairments.
 What is Computer Network?
• Computer Network:- Computer network can be defined as two or more
nodes or devices connected to each other for sharing data and resources.
Applications of computer networks
1. Resource Sharing
A. H/W sharing- printers, Disks, Fax Machines, etc
B. S/W sharing- Oracle VM Virtual Box, Android Studio etc.
[Link] Sharing- WWW, pdf, video, audio
[Link]- Email, calls, message etc.
[Link]- Video, TV/movies , Games.
[Link] Access- Reservation for Hotels, Airplane Booking,
Home Banking, Automated Newspaper, Automated Library etc
6. Home applications
7. Social media -
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 Introduction to data communication

• Data communication means the exchange of data between

two devices via some form of transmission medium such as
a wire cable.
• The effectiveness of a data communication system depend
on four characteristics:
1. Delivery: correct Destination
2. Accuracy: Data must be accurately delivered
3. Timelines: Deliver data in timely manner
4. Jitter: Variation in packet arrival time.

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 Components of Data Communication

Fig. components of Data communication

1. Message
2. Sender
3. Receiver
4. Medium
5. Protocol
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 Components of Data Communication
1. Message
The message is the information (data) to be communicated.
Popular forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio,
and video.
2. Sender
The sender is the device that sends the data message.
It can be a computer, workstation, telephone, video camera.
3. Receiver
The receiver is the device that receives the message.
It can be a computer, workstation, telephone, television,& so on.

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 Components of Data Communication
4. Medium
The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver.
Examples of transmission media include twisted-pair, coaxial,
fiber-optic, and radio waves.
5. Protocol
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.
It represents an agreement between the communicating devices.
Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood
by a person who speaks only Japanese.

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 Modes of Communication(Data Flow)

Communication between two devices ie sender and

receiver can be of three types:
1. Simplex
2. Half-Duplex
3. Full-Duplex

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 Modes of Communication(Data Flow)
1. Simplex
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional.
Only one of the devices on a link can transmit, the other can only
receive.
e.g. keyboards, monitorsRadio broadcasting, Television
broadcasting, Computer to printer etc.

Fig . of Simplex mode of communication

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 Modes of Communication(Data Flow)
2. Half-Duplex
In this mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice-versa.
e.g. walkie-talkies, Browsing the internet, Universal Serial Bus (USB) etc.

Fig of Half duplex mode of communication

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 Modes of Communication(Data Flow)
3. Full-Duplex
In full duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously.
One common example of full duplex is the Telephone network.
When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and
listen at the same time.
Ex- Video calls/video conferencing, Audio calls, Live chats

Fig of Full duplex mode of communication

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Animation
[Link]
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Networks: Network Hardware/Network Software

• Network hardware is a set of physical or network devices that are essential for
interaction and communication between hardware units operational on a
computer network.
• The network hardware are the server, client, peer, transmission medium, and
connecting devices.

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 Network Hardware
1. Servers
• High-configuration computers that manage the resources of the network.
• Network operating system
• Ex-file servers, database servers, print servers etc.
2. Clients
• Clients are computers that request and receive service from server.
3. Transmission Media
• It’s a channels through which data is transferred from one device to another
in a network.
• Transmission media may be guided media like coaxial cable, fibre optic
cables etc; or maybe unguided media like microwaves, infra-red waves etc.
4. Connecting Devices

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Network Devices
• What is a network device?
Components used to connect computers as well as other electrical devices
together in order to share resources such as printers and fax machines.
• Hubs
• Switches
• Routers
• Network bridges
• Gateways
• Firewalls
• Wireless AP (Access Points)

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 HUB
• Hub is a networking device that operates on the physical layer.

• Hub connect all devices at central location.

• Hub broadcast the massage to all devices in network.
• Connects the computers in star topology.
• They come in different variants such as 4, 8, and 16 port hubs.
• They cannot filter network traffic.
• They cannot determine best path

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HUB

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 Types of HUB
1. Passive hub
• It is used for just creating a connection between various devices.
2. Active hubs or Multiport repeaters-
• Active Hub is a hub which can amplify or regenerate the information signal.
3. Intelligent Hub
• It can perform tasks of both Active and Passive hubs.
• Also, it can perform some other tasks like Bridging and routing.
• It increases the speed and effectiveness of total network thus makes the performance of
whole network fast and efficient.

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 HUB

Advantages of Hubs:
1. Less expensive. less cost
2. Does not impact network performance.
3. Support different network media.
4. Easily connects with different media.
Disadvantages of Hubs:
2. It cannot find the best/ shortest path of the network.
3. No mechanism for traffic detection.
4. No mechanism for data filtration.
5. Not capable of connecting topologies like token, ring, ethernet, etc.

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 Switch
• Switches are a special type of hub.
• Switch is used as a central device to connect different nodes in
star topology.
• Switch is an intelligent device.
• When switch receives a data packet it reads destination address
stored in the packet.
• It send it to only that node whose destination address matches
with the address contained in the data packet.
• Switches operate at the data link layer of the OSI Model.

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Switch

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 Switch
Advantages of Switch in Computer Network
1. Increased Network Performance by Reducing network congestion and
improving data transfer rates.
2. Improved Security create VLAN, prevent unauthorised access, data
protection.
3. Easy Network Management allowing administrators to configure and
monitor network settings from a single location.
4. Scalability Switches can easily be added or removed from a network,
Disadvantages of Switch in Computer Network
5. Cost more than hub and repeater
6. Complexity to configure and manage.
7. Single Point of Failure If switch fails all NW collapse.
8. Limited Compatibility.
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 Router
• Routers are used to create larger networks by
joining two or more network segments.
• A router derives its name from the fact that it can route data it
receives from one network onto another.
• When a router receives a packet of data, it determines the
destination address.
• And then, it looks in its routing table to determine, how to reach
the destination.
• Routers work at the OSI layer 3 (network layer)

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Router

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 Function of Router

The core function of router is interconnecting networks and data

forwarding.
1. Routing：building route table and refreshing
2. Switching：forwarding packet between networks.
3. Insulate broadcast packets.
4. Define access rule.
5. Connecting different kinds of networks.
6. Rate adapting between networks. change data rate

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 Advantage and Disadvantage of Routers
Advantage of Routers
1. Network Connectivity connect devices and network.
2. Increased Security use of Firewall, data encryption.
3. Quality of Service (QoS)
4. Easy to Set Up and Manage
Disadvantage of Routers
1. Limited Bandwidth
2. Vulnerability to Cyberattacks
3. Limited Range
4. Cost

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Difference between Switch, Hub and Routers

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 Bridge

• Bridge works under data link layer on OSI model.

• Bridges are used to increase the network capacity.
• It used to divide LAN into multiple segments.
• It can be used as repeaters to extend a network.
• It can check the destination address of a frame and decide if the frame
should be forwarded or dropped.
• It stores the MAC address of PC available in a network.
• The bridge is used to reduce network traffic.

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Bridge

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 Function of Bridge

• To increase the network capacity using repeater.

• Store MAC address in PC for reducing network traffic.
• Divide local area networks into multiple segments.
• Connect different network into single network.
• Maintains MAC address table to discover new segments.
• Used in load filtering of network traffic by separating it into
segments or packets.

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 Bridge
• Advantages of using a bridge
– Extend physical network
– Reduce network traffic with minor segmentation
– Reduce collisions
– Connect different architecture
• Disadvantages of using bridges
– Slower than repeaters due to filtering
– Do not filter broadcasts
– More expensive than repeaters
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Gateway

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 Gateway
•A gateway is used to connects two networks using different
protocols together.
• It also acts as a “gate” between two networks.
• The gateway node acts like a proxy server and firewall.

• The gateway uses forwarding tables to determine where packet

are to be sent.
• On the Internet a node or stopping point can be a gateway.
• The computers controlling traffic within a network by gateway.
•A gateway is also associated with a router.

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 Gateway
Advantages of Gateway
• Connectivity Expand the network.
• Security Authentication process
• Filtering Process Inspection of each packet
• Domain Control Avoid data collision.
• Protocol Conversion convert data as platform change.
Disadvantages of Gateway
• Implementation Complex to install and configure.
• Configuration Require special administrator for install.
• Time Delay because of protocol coversion.
• Connection Failure
• Troubleshooting
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 Gateway
Advantages of Gateway
• Connectivity Expand the network.
• Security Authentication process
• Filtering Process Inspection of each packet
• Domain Control Avoid data collision.
• Protocol Conversion convert data as platform change.
Disadvantages of Gateway
• Implementation Complex to install and configure.
• Configuration Require special administrator for install.
• Time Delay because of protocol coversion.
• Connection Failure
• Troubleshooting
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 Network Software
• For networking there is software.
• Further software there is set of rules and protocols that we have to
follow
• Network software having some design issues like
1. Communication Protocol Hierarchies
2. Design issues of layers.
3. Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services
4. Service Primitives
5. The Relationship of Services to Protocols

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Network Software: Protocol Hierarchies
• Layers, protocols, and interfaces
• Conversation between layer n
on one machine with layer n on
another machine: the rules and
conventions used in this conversation
are collectively known as the
layer n protocol
• A set of layers and protocols is
called a network architecture
• A list of the protocols used by a certain
system, one protocol per layer, is called a
protocol stack
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Design Issues for the Layers
A number of design issues exist for the layer to layer approach of
computer networks
• Reliability Notification of data transmission.
• Scalability congestion, platform support,
• Addressing Large size nw difficult to find dedicated user
• Error Control
• Flow Control
• Resource Allocation
• Routing Multiple path
• Security proper tools use of tools for security.

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Network Software: Protocol Hierarchies
• Communication Flow
• Definition 1: A protocol is an
agreement between the
communicating parties on
how communication is to
proceed
• Definition 2: A protocol is a set
of communication "rules"
between two processes

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Network Software: Connection-Oriented
• Connection is established, the sender, receiver, and subnet conduct a negotiation
about the parameters to be used, such as
• Maximum message size
• Quality of service required, and other issues
• Typically, one side makes a proposal and the other side can accept it, reject it, or
make a counter proposal.
• A circuit is another name for a connection with associated resources (after the
telephone model …)
• Reliability: do not lose data – e.g., the receiver acknowledge the receipt of each
message
• so the sender is sure that it arrived
• TCP – Transmission Control Protocol is connection oriented
• Text documents, email, image attachments
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Network Software: Connectionless Services
• In contrast to connection-oriented service, connectionless service is modeled
after the postal system
• Each message (letter/package) carries the full destination address and each
one is routed through the intermediate nodes inside the system independent of
all the subsequent messages
• UDP – User Datagram Protocol – unreliable
• Unreliable (meaning not acknowledged) connectionless service is often called
datagram service, in analogy with telegram (service, which also does not
return an acknowledgement to the sender)
• Video streaming, Video conference, VOIP, Digital TV transmission (Idan+)

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Difference between Connection-Oriented Connectionless Services
[Link] Connection-oriented Service Connectionless Service

1 Connection-oriented service is related to the telephone system. Connection-less service is related to the postal system.

Connection-oriented service is preferred by long and steady Connection-less Service is preferred by bursty
2.
communication. communication.

3. Connection-oriented Service is necessary. Connection-less Service is not compulsory.

4. Connection-oriented Service is feasible. Connection-less Service is not feasible.

5. In connection-oriented Service, Congestion is not possible. In connection-less Service, Congestion is possible.

Connection-less Service does not give a guarantee of

6. Connection-oriented Service gives the guarantee of reliability.
reliability.

In connection-less Service, Packets do not follow the same

7. In connection-oriented Service, Packets follow the same route.
route.

8. Connection-oriented services require a bandwidth of a high range. Connection-less Service requires a bandwidth of low range.

9. Ex: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) Ex: UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

10. Connection-oriented requires authentication. Connection-less Service does not require authentication.
Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services

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Connection-oriented Service Primitives
• Minimal example of service primitives that provide a reliable byte stream
• A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available
to user processes to access the service
• These primitives tell the service to perform some action or report on an
action taken by a peer entity (usually as operating system calls)
• Modeled after the Berkeley socket interface

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The Relationship of Services to Protocols
• A service is a set of primitives (operations) that a layer provides to the layer
above it.
• The service defines what operations the layer is prepared to perform or behalf
of its users, but it says nothing at all about how these operations are
implemented.
• A service relates to an interface between two layers, with the lower layer
being the service provider and the upper layer being the service user.
• A service is like an abstract data type or an object in an object-oriented
language.
• It defines operations that can be performed on an object but does not specify
how these operations are implemented.

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The Relationship of Services to Protocols

• A protocol, in contrast, is a set of rules governing the format and meaning

of the frames, packets, or messages that are exchanged by the peer entities
within a layer.
• Entities use protocols in order to implement their service definitions.
• They are free to change their protocols at will, provided they do not change
the service visible to their users.
• In this way, the service and the protocol are completely decoupled
• A protocol relates to the implementation of the service and as such is not
visible to the user of the service

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 Internet: Internet history
Internet :
• Started as DARPNET – scientist and researchers used to communicate and share
file.
• 1965 –MIT developed packet switching network
• 1969 – ARPANET started node to node communication
• 1970 – Robert E Khann and Vinton Cerf invented TCP and IP
• 1980 – Scientist and researcher used network to share files between different
universities and labs
• 1991 –Tim- Berners Lee introduced the WWW : an Internet. He created the first
browser and the Internet
• 1992 – a group of student and researcher developed a browser called Mosaic.
Which was later called Netscape

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 Internet standard and Administration

• Internet Administration is group that coordinates and

guides the Internet with its growth and development.
• It makes sure that all the protocols are followed by the
devices and network for the smooth functioning of the
internetwork.
• Some of the organizations that overlook the growth and
development of the internet are –

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Internet standard and Administration

51
 Internet standard and Administration
1. Internet Society (ISOC) :
• An international, non-profit organization.
• It maintaining and supporting other Internet administrative bodies such as IAB,
IETF, IRTF, and IANA.
2. Internet Architecture Board (IAB) :
• The technical advisor to the ISOC.
• The main purpose is to oversee the continuing development of TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
3. Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) :
• The IETF is a forum of working groups responsible for identifying operational
problems, proposing solutions to them, and developing and reviewing specifications
intended as Internet Standards.
4. Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) :
• The IRTF is a forum of working groups focusing on long-term research topics related
to Internet protocol, technology, applications, and architecture.
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Protocols and Standards
Protocols are rules and regulations.
• It defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when
it is communicated.
• Key elements of protocol are,
• Syntax: Format of data
• Semantics: Meaning of each section of bits
• Timing: When data should sent and how fast?
Standards are agreed rules.
• Essential for creating and maintaining an open and competitive
market for equipment manufactures.
• For national and international interoperability.
• De facto standards: Not been approved by an organized body but
have been adopted as standards through widespread use.
53
Protocols and Standards
• Standard Organizations
▪ Standard Creation Committees
• ISO (International Standard Organization)
• International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T)
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
• Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
▪ Forums
▪ Regulatory Agencies: FCC (Federal Communications Commissions)
• Internet Standards
▪ Internet draft: Lifetime of only 6 month
▪ RFC (Request for Comment): After recommendation from internet authorities, draft will be
converted to RFC.

54
RFCs
• A Request for Comments (RFC) is a formal document from the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) that contains specifications and organizational
notes about topics related to the internet and computer networking, such
as routing, addressing and transport technologies
• An IETF RFC begins with an initial draft, referred to as the Internet-Draft
(I-D). This draft is typically created by an individual or small group. The I-D
is then adopted by a working group that reviews, improves and revises the
document's content.
• RFCs are produced primarily by the Internet Architecture
Board (IAB), Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) and IETF
• After an RFC has gone through the review and revision process, it receives a
final review for errors, as well as for style and editorial issues. Once a
satisfactory document is produced, the RFC Production Center (RPC) assigns
a unique number to the RFC and publishes it through the RFC Editor.
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 OSI Model
• Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model developed by ISO in 1986.
• It is framework not practically implemented like TCP/IP model.
• It contain 7 layers.
• Upper3 layer is Software layer, below 3 layer is Hardware layer and
middle 1 is heart of OSI model.
• The
modern Internet is not based on OSI, but on the simpler TCP/IP
model.
• Ithelps visualize and communicate how networks operate, and helps
isolate and troubleshoot networking problems.

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Seven Layers of OSI

57
Interaction between Layers

58
Physical Layer

• The physical layer converts the data frame received

into bits, i.e., in terms of ones and zeros.
• Actual physical connections and cables that are used
to transmit data between devices.
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 Function of Physical Layer
•The physical layer converts the data frame into bits, i.e., in terms
of ones and zeros.
•Primary function of physical layer is to transmitting data
between devices.
•It Provide Sequential Delivery of Data.
•Also responsible for fault detections in the physical connection.
•Establishing the Physical Connections and Terminating the Physical
Connection.

60
 Data Link Layer
• In the OSI model, the data link layer is a 4th layer from the top
and 2nd layer from the bottom.

• Its major role is to ensure error-free transmission of

information.

• The main work of the data link layer is to convert the data into
the form of frames.

• DLL is also responsible for encoding, decode and organizing

the outgoing and incoming data.
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Data Link Layer

62
Function of Data Link Layer

• The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one
hop (node) to the next
• Framing

• Physical addressing

• Flow control-controlling of flow of data

• Error control-detection & retransmission of damaged or lost

frames.
• Access control.

• Hop-to-hop delivery or node-to-node delivery

63
 Network Layer
• Network Layer is layer 3 of the OSI reference model.
• Thenetwork layer is responsible for the delivery of individual
packets from the source host to the destination host.

• The network layer breaks the larger packets into small packets.

• Thenetwork layer provides two ways of communication

namely - connection-oriented and connectionless.

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Function of Network Layer

• Logical addressing
• Routing
• Source-to-destination delivery

65
Network Layer

• The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual

packets from the source host to the destination host.
• IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4), IPv6 (Internet Protocol version
6), ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol), IPSEC
(IP Security), ARP (Address Resolution Protocol), MPLS
(Multiprotocol Label Switching), etc.

66
 Transport Layer

• In OSI suite, there are 7 layers and all layers provide different services.
• The main role of the transport layer is to provide the communication services
directly to the application processes running on different hosts.
• It provides with end to end connection between the source and the destination
and reliable delivery of the services.
• It provides services as error correction as well as segmenting and
desegmenting data before and after it's sent on the network.
• It also provides the flow control functionality and ensures that segmented
data is delivered across the network in the right sequence.
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Function of Transport Layer
• The Process to Process Delivery
• End-to-End Connection between Hosts
• Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• Congestion Control
• Data integrity and Error correction
• Flow control

68
 Session Layer

• Layer 5 of OSI layer

• Enables applications to establish and maintain sessions
and to synchronize the sessions.
• Ex protocol AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol (ADSP),
Real-time Transport Control Protocol (RTCP),
Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP), Password
Authentication Protocol (PAP), Sockets Direct Protocol
(SDP), Remote Procedure Call Protocol (RPCP).
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 Session Layer
• Session layer in OSI reference model is responsible for establishing,
maintaining, synchronizing, terminating sessions between end-user
applications.
• This layer basically establishes a connection between the session entities.
• It
deals with sessions or interactions between the applications(Live
example of Phone call).
• It
allows users on different machines to establish active communications
sessions between them.
• Incase of a network error, it checks the authenticity and provides
recovery options for active sessions.
• It manages sessions and synchronizes data flow.
70
Functions of the Session Layer:
• Session Establishment: connection maps one-to-many, one-to-one,
and many-to-one.

• Data Transfer full-duplex or half-duplex mode of transmission.

• Dialog Management establish, synchronize, Terminate session

• Synchronization provides a recovery option.

• Authentication process of identification.

• Authorization allow specific user to access system.

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Presentation Layer

• Translation
• Compression
• Encryption.

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 Presentation Layer
• The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer.
• It
takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the receiver
will understand the information(data) and will be able to use the
data.
• It
defines how two devices should encode, encrypt, and compress
data so it is received correctly on the other end.
• Example of Protocols SSL, HTTP/ HTML (agent), FTP (server),
AppleTalk Filing Protocol,Telnet, and so on.

73
 Functions of Presentation Layer
1. Translation It translates data between the formats the network
requires and the format the computer.
2. Encryption encryption at the transmitter and decryption at the
receiver.
3. Compression data compression to reduce the bandwidth.

74
 Application Layer

• 7th Layer of OSI model.

• Consider as software layer.
• Actual communication is initiated.

75
 Application Layer
• Provides a user interface for the users to interact with
application services or network services.
• This layer allows users to send data, access data and use
networks.
• Some service of Application layer web browsing, transferring
files, logging in remotely and emailing clients.
• Users interact with programs and communicate with each
other at the application layer.
• People use the application layer to fill out website forms, use
email services or engage in live chat sessions online.
• Examples of application layer protocols are HTTP, FTP, POP,
SMTP, and DNS.
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 Function of Application Layer

• Identifying communication partners

• Determining resource availability

• Synchronizing communication:

77
Summary of OSI Model

78
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• TCP stands for "Transmission Control Protocol" and IP stands for
"Internet Protocol".
• TCP/IP Reference Model is a four-layered suite of communication
protocols.
• It was developed by the DoD (Department of Defence) in the
1960s.
• It is named after the two main protocols that are used in the model,
namely, TCP and IP.
• Practically implemented and used in network.
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 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• The layers in the TCP/IP protocol
suite do not exactly match those in
the OSI model.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite
was defined as having four layers:
host-to-network, internet, transport,
and application.
• However, when TCP/IP is compared
to OSI, the TCP/IP protocol suite is
made of five layers:
• physical, data link, network,
transport, and application.

80
TCP/IP Protocol Suite

81
 Application Layer
• Application layer interacts with an application program.

• Application layer interacts with software applications to implement a

communicating component.

• Application-layer helps you to identify communication partners,

determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication.

• It allows users to log on to a remote host.

• This layer provides various e-mail services

82
 Transport Layer
• Transport layer helps you to control the reliability of a link through
flow control, error control, and segmentation or de-segmentation.

• It divides the data into segments and numbers them to make a

sequence.

• Transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the

correct process on the destination machine.

• It also makes sure that the entire message arrives without any error
else it should be retransmitted.

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Internet Layer
• It is also known as a network layer.

• It is responsible for selecting the path that the data packets will use for
transmission.

• The main work of this layer is to send the packets from any network.

• The Internet layer is responsible for packaging, addressing, and

routing the data.

• This layer is also responsible for providing IP addresses to the system

for the identification.

84
Host-to-network layer
• It is also called a network interface layer or link layer.

• It
can be considered as the combination of physical layer and
data link layer of the OSI model.

• Network access or Link layer specifies the physical

transmission of data over the network.

• Thislayer handles data transmission between two adjacent

devices on the same network.

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Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP reference model
Sr. OSI reference Model TCP/IP reference model
No
1 TCP/IP model represents the Transmission
OSI represents Open System Interconnection
Control Protocol / Internet Protocol.
2 It contains 7 layers It contains 4 layers
3 It is vertically approached. It is horizontally approached.
4
Delivery of the package is not guaranteed in
Delivery of the package is guaranteed in OSI Model.
TCP/IP Model.

5 It distinguishes between Service, Interface and Does not clearly distinguishes between Service,
Protocol Interface and Protocol
6 OSI model has been developed by ISO (International It was developed by ARPANET i.e. Department
Standard Organization). of defense in USA.
7 Presentation and session layers are present in OSI Presentation and session layers are not present in
model. OSI model.
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Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP reference model
Sr.
OSI reference Model TCP/IP reference model
No

In this model, the network layer provides both

The network layer provides only
8 connection-oriented and connectionless
connectionless service.
service.

9 It provides quality services. It does not provide quality services.

The smallest size of the OSI header is 5 The smallest size of the TCP/IP header is
10
bytes. 20 bytes.

In TCP, physical and data link are both

In the OSI model, the data link layer and
11 combined as a single host-to-network
physical are separate layers.
layer.

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 Analog & Digital Signals
Signal
• When data is send over physical media it needs to first convert
into electromagnetic signal.
• Signal types
1. Analog signal Example is Human Voice
2. Digital signal Example is document, video, pdf etc

88
 Analog & Digital Signals
Analog Signal
• Analog signals were used in many systems to produce signals
to carry information.
• These signals are continuous in both values and time.

89
 Analog & Digital Signals
Digital Signal
• Digital signals were used in many systems to produce
signals to carry information.
• These signals are non-continuous in both values and time.
• But signals are discrete in value and time.

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Difference between Analog and Digital Signal

Analog Signals Digital Signals

Continuous signals Discrete signals

Represented by sine waves Represented by square waves

Human voice, natural sound, analog Computers, optical drives, and other
electronic devices are a few examples electronic devices

Continuous range of values Discontinuous values

Records sound waves as they are Converts into a binary waveform

Only used in analog devices Suited for digital electronics like

computers, mobiles and more
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Transmission Impairment
• When the received signal is not identical to the transmitted one due to
the transmission impairment.

• The quality of the signals will get destroyed due to transmission

impairment.

• Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.

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Attenuation
Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength of the signal
decreases with increasing the distance which causes the loss of
energy.

93
Distortion

Distortion means changes in the form or shape of the signal.

94
Noise
• When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some unwanted signal is
added to it which creates the noise.
• Thermal noise, induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise

95
References

• Client Server Programming - Slide Figures/quotes from Andrew Tanenbaum

Computer Networks book.

96