ROBOTIC ENGINEERING

MODULE - I
Comprehensive Study Guide for Semester Exam

Topics Covered:
History of Robots | Types | Subsystems | DOF | Configurations | Mechanisms
End Effectors | Grippers | Actuators | Applications | Specifications
1. BRIEF HISTORY OF ROBOTICS
The word 'Robot' was first coined by Czech playwright Karel Capek in his 1920 play 'R.U.R.' (Rossum's
Universal Robots), derived from the Czech word 'robota' meaning forced labor or drudgery.

Key Milestones in Robotics History

1920: Karel Capek introduces the word 'Robot' in his play R.U.R.
1942: Isaac Asimov formulates the Three Laws of Robotics in his story 'Runaround'.
1954: George Devol invents the first programmable robot 'Unimate' - the world's first industrial robot.
1961: Unimate is installed at General Motors plant in New Jersey for die casting and welding.
1966: Stanford Research Institute develops 'Shakey' - the first mobile robot with AI and vision.
1969: Victor Scheinman designs the Stanford Arm - first electrically powered computer-controlled robot
arm.
1973: KUKA develops FAMULUS - first industrial robot with 6 electromechanically driven axes.
1974: Cincinnati Milacron introduces T3 (The Tomorrow Tool) - first minicomputer-controlled robot.
1978: Unimation introduces PUMA (Programmable Universal Machine for Assembly).
1979: Stanford Cart navigates chair-filled room autonomously.
1981: Takeo Kanade builds first direct-drive arm with motors built into joints.
1986: Honda begins development of humanoid robot ASIMO (completed in 2000).
1997: NASA's Pathfinder mission lands Sojourner robot on Mars.
2000: Honda unveils ASIMO - advanced humanoid robot that can walk, run, and climb stairs.
2002: iRobot introduces Roomba, the first mass-market autonomous vacuum cleaner.
2011: NASA launches Robonaut 2 to the International Space Station.
2016: Boston Dynamics unveils Handle - a wheeled humanoid robot.
2020s: Collaborative robots (Cobots), AI-driven robots, and autonomous vehicles dominate robotics
landscape.
Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics:
• A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to
harm.
• A robot must obey orders given by human beings except where such orders would conflict with
the First Law.
• A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First
or Second Law.
2. TYPES OF ROBOTS
2.1 Classification Based on Application
A. Industrial Robots
Industrial robots are programmable manipulators used in manufacturing environments for tasks like
welding, painting, assembly, pick and place, and inspection.
• Examples: KUKA KR 6, ABB IRB 120, Fanuc LR Mate 200iD, PUMA 560
• Applications: Automotive manufacturing, electronics assembly, food processing, pharmaceutical
packaging

B. Service Robots
Service robots assist humans in domestic, medical, and commercial environments.
• Domestic: Roomba vacuum cleaner, Lawnbott lawn mower
• Medical: Da Vinci Surgical System, exoskeleton rehabilitation robots
• Military: iRobot PackBot, BigDog by Boston Dynamics
• Space: Curiosity Mars Rover, Canadarm2 on ISS

C. Mobile Robots
Mobile robots can move around their environment and are not fixed in one place.
• Wheeled Robots: Pioneer 3-DX, Roomba
• Legged Robots: ASIMO (Honda), Spot (Boston Dynamics)
• Aerial Robots (Drones): DJI Phantom, military UAVs
• Underwater Robots: AUVs (Autonomous Underwater Vehicles) like REMUS 100

D. Humanoid Robots
Robots designed to resemble and replicate human body structure and motion.
• Examples: ASIMO (Honda), NAO (Softbank Robotics), Atlas (Boston Dynamics), Pepper
• Applications: Research, education, entertainment, customer service

E. Collaborative Robots (Cobots)

Designed to work safely alongside humans without traditional safety guards.
• Examples: Universal Robots UR5, UR10; Rethink Robotics Baxter and Sawyer
• Applications: Small-scale manufacturing, laboratory automation, packaging

2.2 Classification Based on Geometry / Configuration

Cartesian (Gantry): 3 linear joints (PPP), workspace is rectangular box
Cylindrical: 1 rotary + 2 linear joints (RPP), workspace is cylindrical
Spherical (Polar): 2 rotary + 1 linear joints (RRP), workspace is spherical
SCARA: 2 rotary + 1 linear joints (RRP), selective compliance in horizontal plane
Articulated (Revolute): 3 rotary joints (RRR), most common industrial robot
Parallel (Delta): Multiple chains connecting end effector to base, high speed, high precision
2.3 Classification Based on Intelligence
• Pre-programmed (Fixed) Robots: Perform exact same movements repeatedly
• Teleoperated Robots: Controlled by human operator (bomb disposal, surgical robots)
• Autonomous Robots: Sense environment and make decisions (Mars Rover, self-driving cars)
• AI-Integrated Robots: Use machine learning and computer vision
3. OVERVIEW OF ROBOT SUBSYSTEMS
A robot is an integrated system consisting of several interconnected subsystems that work together to
perform tasks autonomously or semi-autonomously.

3.1 Mechanical Structure (Body)

The physical framework of the robot including links, joints, and the kinematic chain.
• Links: Rigid bodies connecting joints
• Joints: Allow relative motion between links (rotary, prismatic, spherical)
• Base: Fixed or mobile platform supporting the entire robot
• End Effector: Tool attached at the end of the robot arm (gripper, welding torch, etc.)

3.2 Actuator System

Converts energy into mechanical motion to drive joints and links.
• Electric Actuators: DC motors, stepper motors, servo motors (most common in modern robots)
• Hydraulic Actuators: High force, used in heavy-duty robots
• Pneumatic Actuators: Fast, lightweight, used for simple pick-and-place tasks

3.3 Sensor System

Provides feedback about the robot's state and its environment.
• Proprioceptive Sensors (internal): Encoders, tachometers, accelerometers - measure robot's
own state
• Exteroceptive Sensors (external): Cameras, LIDAR, force/torque sensors - measure
environment
• Common sensors: Position encoders, force/torque sensors, proximity sensors, vision cameras,
tactile sensors

3.4 Controller / Computer System

The brain of the robot that processes sensor data and generates control signals.
• Motion Controller: Generates joint trajectories
• Main Computer: High-level decision making, path planning
• Microcontrollers: Low-level servo control
• Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS): Ensure time-critical operations

3.5 Power Supply

• Electric: AC/DC power from mains or batteries
• Hydraulic: Hydraulic pump and reservoir
• Pneumatic: Compressed air supply and compressor

3.6 End Effector

The device at the end of a robotic arm designed to interact with the environment.
 • Grippers: Mechanical, vacuum, magnetic
• Tools: Welding torch, spray gun, drill, milling cutter
• Sensors: Force/torque sensors, cameras mounted at end

3.7 Programming / Software Interface

• Robot Programming Languages: VAL, RAPID (ABB), KRL (KUKA), Karel (Fanuc)
• Teach Pendant: Hand-held device for programming robot by moving it manually
• Offline Programming: Simulate and program robot in virtual environment
4. RESOLUTION, REPEATABILITY AND ACCURACY
4.1 Spatial Resolution
Spatial resolution is the smallest increment of movement that a robot can achieve. It depends on the
feedback device (encoder) resolution and the control system.
Resolution = Smallest incremental movement the robot can detect and reproduce
Formula: Resolution = (Total Range of Motion) / (Number of Steps)
Example: If a joint has 360 degrees range and 3600 encoder counts, resolution = 360/3600 = 0.1
degrees per count.
Two components:
• Mechanical Resolution: Limited by mechanical components (gears, screws, backlash)
• Control Resolution: Set by the number of bits in the D/A converter or encoder

4.2 Accuracy
Accuracy is the ability of a robot to position its end effector at a desired target point. It measures how
close the robot reaches to the programmed position.
Accuracy = How close the robot gets to the target/commanded position
• High accuracy means the robot reaches very close to the intended position
• Accuracy is generally worse than repeatability in industrial robots
• Affected by: mechanical errors, gear backlash, thermal expansion, calibration errors
• Typical accuracy of industrial robots: ±0.1 mm to ±1.0 mm
Example: If a robot is commanded to go to position (100, 100, 100) mm and it actually reaches (100.3,
99.8, 100.1) mm, the accuracy is the deviation from the target.

4.3 Repeatability
Repeatability is the ability of a robot to return to the same position repeatedly when given the same
input commands. It measures consistency, not absolute correctness.
Repeatability = Ability to reach the same position over and over again
• Repeatability is generally BETTER than accuracy in industrial robots
• Typical repeatability: ±0.01 mm to ±0.1 mm
• Affected by: mechanical stiffness, thermal stability, play in joints
Example: If a robot goes to the same position 100 times and each time it arrives within ±0.05 mm of the
same spot, its repeatability is ±0.05 mm.

4.4 Comparison Table

Parameter Accuracy Repeatability
Definition How close to the target position How consistent the position is
Measures Absolute positioning error Relative consistency of motion
Typical Value ±0.1 mm to ±1.0 mm ±0.01 mm to ±0.1 mm
Which is better? Usually worse Usually better
Key Factor Calibration & mechanical errors Mechanical stiffness & play
5. DEGREES OF FREEDOM (DOF) OF ROBOTS
Degrees of Freedom (DOF) refers to the number of independent motions or parameters required to
completely specify the position and orientation of a rigid body or robot in space.

5.1 DOF in Space

A rigid body in 3D space has 6 DOF:
• 3 Translational (Linear): Movement along X, Y, Z axes
• 3 Rotational (Angular): Rotation about X (Roll), Y (Pitch), Z (Yaw) axes
To position and orient the end effector anywhere in 3D space, a robot needs at least 6 DOF.

5.2 Robot DOF

• Each joint of a robot contributes 1 DOF (either rotary or prismatic)
• 3 DOF: Position only (X, Y, Z) - cannot control orientation
• 6 DOF: Position + Orientation - can reach any pose in its workspace
• 7 DOF: Redundant robot - has extra DOF for obstacle avoidance (like human arm)

5.3 Types of Joints and DOF

Joint Type Symbol DOF Motion
Revolute (R) R 1 Rotation about axis
Prismatic (P) P 1 Linear translation
Cylindrical (C) C 2 Rotation + Translation
Spherical (S) S 3 3 Rotations (ball joint)
Planar E 3 2 Translations + 1
Rotation

5.4 Grubler's Formula for DOF

DOF = 6(n-1) - 5j1 - 4j2 - 3j3 - 2j4 - j5
Where: n = number of links (including base), j1 = number of joints with 1 DOF, j2 = joints with 2 DOF,
etc.
For a simple robot arm with n links and n-1 one-DOF joints: DOF = n-1
6. ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS AND WORKSPACE
6.1 Cartesian / Rectangular Robot (PPP)
Three prismatic joints providing linear motion along X, Y, and Z axes.
• DOF: 3 | Joint Notation: PPP | Workspace: Rectangular box/cuboid
• Advantages: Simple programming, high accuracy, rigid structure, easy to calculate position
• Disadvantages: Large footprint, limited reach, no orientation control
• Applications: CNC machines, pick and place, 3D printing (FDM printers), palletizing
• Examples: Gantry robots, bridge cranes, Makeblock XY Plotter

6.2 Cylindrical Robot (RPP)

One rotary joint at the base and two prismatic joints providing cylindrical coordinate motion.
• DOF: 3 | Joint Notation: RPP | Workspace: Hollow cylinder
• Advantages: Rigid structure, easy to program, good reach
• Disadvantages: Cannot reach around obstacles, limited workspace
• Applications: Machine loading/unloading, spot welding, assembly operations
• Examples: Versatran robot, early industrial assembly robots

6.3 Spherical / Polar Robot (RRP)

Two rotary joints and one prismatic joint providing spherical coordinate motion.
• DOF: 3 | Joint Notation: RRP | Workspace: Spherical (with inner void)
• Advantages: Large working envelope relative to size
• Disadvantages: Complex kinematics, difficult to program
• Applications: Die casting, investment casting, gas welding
• Examples: Unimate (first industrial robot), Stanford Arm variation

6.4 SCARA Robot (RRP - Selective Compliance Articulated Robot Arm)

Two revolute joints in horizontal plane and one prismatic joint for vertical motion.
• DOF: 3-4 | Joint Notation: RRP | Workspace: Cylindrical
• Advantages: Very fast, high accuracy in horizontal plane, rigid in vertical direction
• Disadvantages: Limited to planar tasks, not suitable for tasks requiring complex orientation
• Applications: Electronics assembly (PCB insertion), pick and place, packaging, small parts
assembly
• Examples: Epson T6, Fanuc SR-6iA, Adept SCARA

6.5 Articulated / Revolute Robot (RRR)

Three or more rotary joints providing the most flexible motion, resembling a human arm.
• DOF: 6 (typically) | Joint Notation: RRR... | Workspace: Complex spherical/irregular
• Advantages: Most flexible, largest working envelope, can reach around obstacles
• Disadvantages: Complex kinematics, expensive, programming is more challenging
 • Applications: Arc welding, spot welding, painting, assembly, material handling - most versatile
robot
• Examples: KUKA KR 6, ABB IRB 120, Fanuc M-20iA, Yaskawa Motoman

6.6 Parallel / Delta Robot

Multiple kinematic chains connect the base to the end effector. Known for very high speed and
precision.
• DOF: 3-6 | Workspace: Limited dome-shaped workspace
• Advantages: Extremely high speed, high precision, high stiffness, low inertia
• Disadvantages: Limited workspace, complex control, limited payload
• Applications: High-speed pick and place (food industry), pharmaceutical packaging, 3D printing
• Examples: ABB FlexPicker, Fanuc M-1iA, Adept Quattro
7. MECHANISMS AND TRANSMISSION
7.1 Purpose of Transmission Systems
Transmission systems transfer motion and force from actuators (motors) to the robot joints/links. They
modify speed, torque, and direction of motion.

7.2 Gear Trains

Gears are used to transmit torque, change speed, and change direction of rotation.
• Spur Gears: Simple, used for parallel shaft power transmission
• Helical Gears: Quieter than spur gears, used for high-speed applications
• Bevel Gears: Transmit power between intersecting shafts (90 degree)
• Worm Gears: High reduction ratios, self-locking, used in joint drives
• Planetary Gears: Compact, high torque, used in robot joints and servo actuators
• Harmonic Drive (Strain Wave Gear): Zero backlash, very high reduction ratio (50:1 to 320:1),
lightweight - used extensively in robot joints

7.3 Timing Belts and Pulleys

Flexible synchronous belt drives used to transmit motion between parallel shafts. Low inertia,
lightweight, no backlash.
• Applications: SCARA robots, parallel robots, 3D printers

7.4 Lead Screws and Ball Screws

• Lead Screw: Converts rotary motion to linear motion, simple, low cost but lower efficiency (20-
80%)
• Ball Screw: Same function but uses ball bearings, very high efficiency (90-95%), low friction,
precise
• Applications: Cartesian robots, CNC machines, precision linear stages

7.5 Cables and Tendons

Flexible cables routed through pulleys to transmit force. Very low weight since actuators can be remote.
• Applications: Lightweight robot arms, surgical robots, robotic hands (anthropomorphic)
• Disadvantage: Stretch, require pretensioning, complex routing

7.6 Linkage Mechanisms

Four-bar linkages and other planar mechanisms used for specific motion patterns.
• Four-Bar Linkage: Used for approximate straight-line motion, force multiplication
• Pantograph: Used for copying/scaling motion
• Applications: Robot legs, gripper mechanisms, parallel robots
7.7 Chain Drive
Roller chains transmit power between sprockets. High power transmission, used where belt drive is
unsuitable.
8. END EFFECTORS AND GRIPPERS
An end effector (also called End-of-Arm Tooling or EOAT) is the device at the end of a robotic arm
designed to interact with the environment. It determines what tasks the robot can perform.

8.1 Types of End Effectors

• Grippers: Hold and manipulate objects
• Process Tools: Welding guns, spray guns, drills, milling cutters
• Sensing Devices: Cameras, force/torque sensors
• Combined Tools: Multi-tool end effectors

8.2 Mechanical Grippers

Use mechanical fingers/jaws actuated by motors or pneumatic cylinders to grasp objects.

Types of Mechanical Grippers:

Two-Finger (Parallel Jaw) Gripper: Most common, two fingers move parallel to each other. Used for
prismatic objects. Example: Robotiq 2F-85, OnRobot RG2
Three-Finger Gripper: Used for cylindrical objects and power grasps. Example: Robotiq 3-Finger
Gripper
Angular (Pivot) Gripper: Fingers rotate about a pivot point, like pliers
Internal Gripper: Expands inside a hollow object to grip from inside
Multi-Finger / Anthropomorphic Hand: Mimics human hand with 5 fingers. Example: Shadow
Dexterous Hand, Festo BionicCobot Hand
Grasp Types:
• Power Grasp: Entire hand/fingers wrap around object for strong grip
• Precision Grasp: Fingertips hold object for fine manipulation

8.3 Vacuum Grippers (Suction Cups)

Use negative air pressure (suction) to hold objects. Best for flat, smooth, non-porous surfaces.
• Working Principle: Vacuum pump creates suction through cup pressed against surface;
atmospheric pressure holds object
• Types: Flat suction cups, bellows cups (for curved surfaces), oval cups
• Advantages: No mechanical contact damage, fast engagement/release, handles delicate
objects
• Disadvantages: Only works on smooth, non-porous surfaces; fails on rough or porous materials
• Applications: Glass handling (automotive, construction), electronics (PCB, displays), food
packaging, sheet metal handling
• Examples: Schmalz vacuum grippers, Piab suction cups, SMC ZP series

8.4 Magnetic Grippers

Use magnetic force (permanent magnet or electromagnet) to hold ferromagnetic objects.
• Permanent Magnets: Hold without power, need mechanical release mechanism
 • Electromagnets: Grip/release by switching current on/off - more controllable
• Advantages: Very fast gripping, no mechanical contact needed, simple mechanism
• Disadvantages: Only for ferromagnetic materials (iron, steel), leaves magnetized workpieces
• Applications: Metal stamping, sheet metal handling, automotive body panels, steel plate
stacking

8.5 Pneumatic Grippers

Grippers actuated by compressed air. Fast, lightweight, and commonly used in industry.
• Parallel Pneumatic Grippers: Air cylinders move jaws parallel to each other
• Rotary Pneumatic Grippers: Air rotates jaws through an arc
• Advantages: Fast acting, high grip force, clean and simple, low cost
• Disadvantages: Need compressed air supply, difficult to control force precisely
• Examples: SMC MHZ2, Festo DHPS, Schunk MPG-plus

8.6 Other Gripping Methods

Bernoulli Grippers: Use high-speed airflow to create low pressure (Bernoulli effect) to lift objects
without contact. Used for fragile items like wafers and glass.
Electrostatic Grippers: Use electrostatic force to hold non-conductive materials like plastic film, paper.
Adhesive Grippers: Use gecko-inspired dry adhesives or pressure-sensitive adhesives for gripping.
Freezing Grippers: Use liquid CO2 or cold air to freeze and grip items (experimental).
Soft Grippers: Made from soft silicone or rubber, can grip irregularly shaped or delicate objects.
Example: Festo BionicSoftHand
Jaw Chucks: Spring/air collet chucks for gripping cylindrical workpieces in manufacturing
9. ACTUATORS
Actuators convert energy (electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic) into mechanical motion to drive robot
joints and mechanisms.

9.1 Pneumatic Actuators

Use compressed air (typically 6-8 bar) as the energy source to produce linear or rotary motion.

Types:
• Linear Pneumatic Cylinders: Piston moves in cylinder by air pressure; single or double acting
• Rotary Pneumatic Actuators: Convert air pressure to rotation (rack-and-pinion, vane type)
• Pneumatic Muscles (McKibben Actuator): Expand radially under air pressure, contract axially

Characteristics:
• Power-to-Weight Ratio: High (very lightweight for the power produced)
• Speed: Very fast (high speed motion)
• Force Control: Difficult (air is compressible)
• Precision: Low to medium (spongy feel due to air compressibility)
• Cost: Low (cheap compressed air)
• Cleanliness: Clean if no oil lubricant used

Advantages:
• Fast response, lightweight, simple and reliable, fire-safe, clean environment

Disadvantages:
• Poor position control, air is compressible so positioning is less precise, noise from exhaust

Applications:
• Grippers, simple pick-and-place robots, light assembly, food and pharmaceutical (clean room)
• Example: SMC, Festo pneumatic cylinders

9.2 Hydraulic Actuators

Use pressurized oil (100-350 bar) as the energy source. Produce very high forces.

Types:
• Hydraulic Linear Cylinders: Piston driven by oil pressure for linear motion
• Hydraulic Rotary Motors: Convert oil pressure to rotary motion
• Hydraulic Servo Valves: Precisely control oil flow for accurate positioning

Characteristics:
• Power-to-Weight Ratio: Excellent (highest force density of all actuator types)
• Force: Very high (can lift tons)
• Speed: Medium to high
• Precision: Good with servo valves
 • Cost: High (pump, valves, seals, oil system)

Advantages:
• Very high force, high power density, good stiffness, can hold loads without power

Disadvantages:
• Oil leaks (messy, fire hazard, environmental issues), need pump/reservoir, maintenance
intensive

Applications:
• Heavy-duty robots, construction equipment, large manipulators, aerospace testing
• Examples: Caterpillar construction robots, Boeing wing assembly robots

9.3 Electric Actuators

Use electrical energy to produce motion. The most common type in modern robots.

Types:
DC Servo Motors: Used with encoders for precise position control. Most common in robot arms.
Examples: Maxon, Pittman motors.
AC Servo Motors: High performance, high efficiency, used in industrial robots. Examples: Fanuc,
Yaskawa servo motors.
Stepper Motors: Move in discrete steps, open-loop position control (no encoder needed). Used in 3D
printers, CNC machines.
Brushless DC Motors (BLDC): Efficient, long life, no brush maintenance needed. Used in cobots and
modern robots.
Linear Motors: Direct linear drive, no conversion from rotary needed. High precision, used in pick-and-
place robots.
Piezoelectric Actuators: Use piezo effect, extremely precise (nanometer resolution), limited travel,
used in precision positioning.

Characteristics:
• Clean, quiet, precise, easily controlled, widely available, no leaks
• Lower force density than hydraulic but much cleaner and more controllable

Advantages:
• Precise position control, easy to program, clean, low maintenance, energy efficient

Disadvantages:
• Lower force compared to hydraulic for same size, batteries limit mobile robots, heat generation

Applications:
• All modern industrial robots (KUKA, ABB, Fanuc use electric servo motors), collaborative
robots, medical robots

9.4 Comparison of Actuators

Parameter Pneumatic Hydraulic Electric
Force Low-Medium Very High Medium
Speed Very High Medium High
Precision Low Medium High
Cleanliness Clean Dirty (oil leaks) Clean
Cost Low High Medium
Control Simple on/off Servo control Precise servo
Maintenance Low High Medium
Application Grippers, simple tasks Heavy robots Industrial robots
10. APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTS
10.1 Manufacturing / Industrial Applications
Arc Welding: Robots follow precise paths to weld metal parts. Example: KUKA KR 16 L8 in
automotive. Advantage: Consistent weld quality, speed, no operator fatigue.
Spot Welding: Two metal sheets are resistance-welded. Used in car body assembly. Example: Fanuc
M-20iA with spot welding gun.
Spray Painting: Robot applies uniform paint coating. Example: ABB IRB 5500 FlexPainter in
automotive. Advantage: Consistent coating, no human exposure to toxic fumes.
Pick and Place: High-speed sorting, loading, packaging. Example: ABB IRB 360 FlexPicker for
chocolates, pharma.
CNC Machine Tending: Loading/unloading raw material and finished parts from CNC machines.
Advantage: 24/7 operation.
Palletizing / Depalletizing: Stacking boxes/products on pallets. Example: Fanuc M-410iC for
warehouse automation.
Assembly: Electronic component insertion, engine assembly, appliance assembly. Example: Adept
SCARA for PCB assembly.
Inspection / Quality Control: Vision-guided robots check dimensions, defects, surface finish.
Example: Cognex vision systems on robotic arms.

10.2 Medical / Healthcare Applications

Surgical Robots: Minimally invasive surgery with high precision. Example: Da Vinci Surgical System
(Intuitive Surgical) for laparoscopic surgery.
Rehabilitation Robots: Help patients recover motor function. Example: Lokomat for gait training, MIT-
Manus for arm rehabilitation.
Pharmacy Automation: Automated drug dispensing and compounding. Example: ScriptPro SP 200
pharmacy robot.
Disinfection Robots: UV light disinfection of hospital rooms. Example: Xenex LightStrike robot during
COVID-19 pandemic.
Laboratory Automation: Sample handling, pipetting, centrifuging. Example: Hamilton STAR liquid
handling robot.

10.3 Space and Defense Applications

Space Exploration: Mars rovers (Curiosity, Perseverance), Canadarm2 on ISS, lunar exploration
robots.
Bomb Disposal: iRobot PackBot, Foster-Miller TALON used to safely handle IEDs.
Military Surveillance: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs/drones), ground surveillance robots.
Reconnaissance: Boston Dynamics BigDog, Ghost Robotics Q-UGV for military patrol.

10.4 Agriculture Applications

Harvesting Robots: Pick fruits and vegetables. Example: Abundant Robotics apple picking robot.
Weeding Robots: Identify and remove weeds. Example: Carbon Robotics LaserWeeder.
Milking Robots: Automatic milking systems. Example: Lely Astronaut A5.
Crop Monitoring Drones: Survey crop health using multispectral cameras.

10.5 Other Applications

• Logistics and Warehousing: Amazon Kiva robots, Ocado warehouse robots
• Construction: SAM100 brick-laying robot, Hadrian X automated bricklayer
• Education: NAO robot, Lego Mindstorms for STEM education
• Entertainment: Theme park animatronics, Walt Disney Imagineering robots
• Domestic Service: Roomba vacuum, Moley cooking robot
• Nuclear Industry: Remote-handling robots for radioactive material
11. SPECIFICATIONS OF DIFFERENT INDUSTRIAL
ROBOTS
11.1 Key Robot Specifications
• Payload Capacity: Maximum weight the robot can handle (including end effector)
• Reach/Workspace: Maximum distance the robot can extend from its base
• Repeatability: Precision of returning to same position (typically ±0.01 to ±0.1 mm)
• Degrees of Freedom (DOF): Number of independent motion axes (typically 4-6)
• Maximum Speed: Speed of end effector (m/s) or joint speed (degrees/s)
• Footprint: Floor space occupied by the robot
• Weight: Weight of the robot arm itself
• IP Rating: Ingress protection (dust/water resistance)
• Mounting: Floor, ceiling, wall, or any angle
• Controller: Type of controller unit used
• Communication: Ethernet, Profibus, DeviceNet, EtherNet/IP

11.2 Popular Industrial Robots Specifications

Robot Model Type Payload Reach Repeatabi DOF
lity
KUKA KR 6 R900 Articulated 6 kg 900 mm ±0.03 mm 6
ABB IRB 120 Articulated 3 kg 580 mm ±0.01 mm 6
Fanuc LR Mate Articulated 7 kg 717 mm ±0.01 mm 6
200iD
Yaskawa GP7 Articulated 7 kg 927 mm ±0.03 mm 6
Universal UR5e Collaborative 5 kg 850 mm ±0.03 mm 6
Epson T6 SCARA 6 kg 600 mm ±0.01 mm 4
ABB FlexPicker Delta/Parallel 8 kg 1130 mm ±0.1 mm 3
IRB 360
Fanuc Articulated 185 kg 3140 mm ±0.5 mm 4
M-410iC/185 (Palletizer)
KUKA KR 1000 Heavy Duty 1000 kg 3202 mm ±0.1 mm 6
Titan Articulated
QUESTION BANK - MODULE I
Robotic Engineering - Semester Exam Preparation

SECTION A: 2 MARKS QUESTIONS

(Short answer questions - Write 3-5 lines)
Q1. Who coined the term 'Robot' and when? [2 Marks]
Q2. What is the difference between accuracy and repeatability in robots? [2 Marks]
Q3. Define Degrees of Freedom (DOF) of a robot. [2 Marks]
Q4. What is a SCARA robot? Give one application. [2 Marks]
Q5. State Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics. [2 Marks]
Q6. What is spatial resolution of a robot? [2 Marks]
Q7. Define end effector. Give two types. [2 Marks]
Q8. What is a harmonic drive? Where is it used? [2 Marks]
Q9. List any four types of robot configurations. [2 Marks]
Q10. What are collaborative robots (Cobots)? [2 Marks]
Q11. What is the working principle of a vacuum gripper? [2 Marks]
Q12. Compare pneumatic and hydraulic actuators (two points each). [2 Marks]
Q13. What is the workspace of a robot? [2 Marks]
Q14. Name any four industrial robot manufacturers. [2 Marks]
Q15. What is a Delta (parallel) robot? Give one example. [2 Marks]
Q16. What is a revolute joint? Give DOF of revolute joint. [2 Marks]
Q17. What is meant by payload capacity of a robot? [2 Marks]
Q18. Define a prismatic joint and give its DOF. [2 Marks]
Q19. List two advantages and two disadvantages of electric actuators. [2 Marks]
Q20. What is Unimate? Why is it significant in robotics? [2 Marks]
Q21. Name two gripping methods other than mechanical and vacuum. [2 Marks]
Q22. What does the notation 'RRR' signify in robot configuration? [2 Marks]
Q23. Give two applications of hydraulic actuators in robotics. [2 Marks]
Q24. What is the repeatability of KUKA KR 6 robot? [2 Marks]
Q25. What is a teach pendant? [2 Marks]

SECTION B: 7 MARKS QUESTIONS

(Medium answer questions - Write 1-1.5 pages with diagrams where possible)
Q1. Explain the brief history of robotics with key milestones. (7) [7 Marks]
Q2. Classify robots based on (a) application and (b) geometry with examples. [7 Marks]
Q3. Describe the major subsystems of a robot with neat diagrams. [7 Marks]
Q4. Explain resolution, accuracy, and repeatability in industrial robots with suitable examples. [7
Marks]
Q5. With a neat diagram, explain the different robot configurations (Cartesian, Cylindrical, Spherical,
SCARA, Articulated). Compare their workspaces. [7 Marks]
Q6. Explain Degrees of Freedom of a robot. Discuss different types of joints and their DOF. [7 Marks]
Q7. Describe different types of mechanical grippers with diagrams. Discuss power grasp vs precision
grasp. [7 Marks]
Q8. Explain vacuum and magnetic gripping methods with their advantages, disadvantages, and
applications. [7 Marks]
Q9. Compare pneumatic, hydraulic, and electric actuators with respect to force, speed, precision, cost,
and applications. [7 Marks]
Q10. Explain different transmission mechanisms used in robots (gear trains, lead screws, timing belts,
cable drives) with advantages and applications. [7 Marks]
Q11. Describe the applications of robots in manufacturing with suitable examples. [7 Marks]
Q12. Explain the specifications of any three industrial robots (ABB, KUKA, Fanuc) and compare them.
[7 Marks]
Q13. Discuss pneumatic actuators: types, working principle, characteristics, advantages,
disadvantages, and applications. [7 Marks]
Q14. Explain the concept of robot workspace. How does robot configuration affect the workspace? [7
Marks]
Q15. Describe electric actuators used in robots. Compare servo motors, stepper motors, and BLDC
motors. [7 Marks]

SECTION C: 14 MARKS QUESTIONS

(Long answer questions - Write 2-3 pages with diagrams, tables, and examples)
Q1. Give a comprehensive account of the history of robotics from 1920 to present. Highlight key
inventions, inventors, and their impact on modern robotics. [14 Marks]
Q2. Classify and explain all types of robots with their DOF, workspace, advantages, disadvantages,
and at least two real-world examples each. [Cartesian, Cylindrical, Spherical, SCARA, Articulated,
Parallel/Delta] [14 Marks]
Q3. Explain in detail all the subsystems of an industrial robot (Mechanical, Actuator, Sensor, Controller,
Power, End Effector, Software). Discuss how they interact with each other. [14 Marks]
Q4. Define and compare resolution, accuracy, and repeatability of robots. Discuss the factors affecting
each, and explain how they are measured. Give numerical examples and a comparison table. [14
Marks]
Q5. Explain in detail all types of end effectors and grippers used in industrial robots. Cover: (a)
Mechanical grippers (b) Vacuum grippers (c) Magnetic grippers (d) Pneumatic grippers (e) Other
methods. Discuss their working principle, advantages, disadvantages, and specific applications. [14
Marks]
Q6. Compare pneumatic, hydraulic, and electric actuators used in robots under the following heads: (a)
Working principle (b) Types (c) Characteristics (d) Advantages (e) Disadvantages (f) Applications (g)
Examples. Present a comparative table. [14 Marks]
Q7. Explain the various mechanisms and transmission systems used in industrial robots. Include gear
trains, harmonic drives, ball screws, timing belts, cables, and linkages with advantages and
applications. [14 Marks]
Q8. Discuss the applications of robots in at least 5 different sectors: Manufacturing, Medical, Space &
Defense, Agriculture, and one other sector. Give specific robot models and explain why robots are
preferred. [14 Marks]
Q9. Present the specifications of at least 5 different industrial robots from different manufacturers and
configurations. Explain each specification parameter and compare the robots in a tabular form. [14
Marks]
Q10. Write an essay on Degrees of Freedom in robotics. Discuss: (a) DOF in 3D space (b) Types of
robot joints and DOF (c) Grubler's formula (d) Effect of DOF on robot capability (e) Redundant robots (f)
Examples of robots with different DOF. [14 Marks]
Q11. With suitable diagrams and examples, explain all robot configurations (PPP, RPP, RRP, SCARA-
RRP, RRR, Parallel). For each configuration, describe the workspace, advantages, disadvantages, and
two industrial applications. [14 Marks]
Q12. Explain the concept of robot workspace. Discuss how joint limits, link lengths, and DOF affect
workspace. Compare the workspaces of Cartesian, cylindrical, spherical, and articulated robots with
diagrams. [14 Marks]

IMPORTANT FORMULAS AND KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER

• DOF in 3D space = 6 (3 translational + 3 rotational)
• For a robot arm: DOF = number of joints (1 DOF each for R or P joints)
• Resolution = Range of motion / Number of encoder counts
• Repeatability is ALWAYS better than accuracy in industrial robots
• Harmonic drive has zero backlash - key advantage
• Ball screw efficiency: 90-95% vs Lead screw: 20-80%
• SCARA = Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm - horizontal compliance, vertical rigidity
• Delta robots: fastest robots but smallest workspace
• Hydraulic: Highest force density; Pneumatic: Fastest; Electric: Most precise
• First industrial robot: Unimate installed at GM in 1961
• Vacuum grippers work on flat, smooth, non-porous surfaces only
• Cobots (collaborative robots): work with humans without safety barriers - e.g., Universal Robots
UR series

ALL THE BEST FOR YOUR EXAM!

Study well, revise all diagrams, and practice drawing robot configurations!