Advanced Diagnostic Testing

Drew Welton TS DOS 2012

Area Sales Manager
Topics of Discussion
1. Advanced Power Factor
Variable Frequency (15 Hz to 400 Hz)

2. Advanced DC Winding Resistance
OLTC Tap Check (Ripple and Slope)

3. Advanced Leakage Reactance
FRSL (Frequency Response Stray Losses)



OMICRON
Advanced Transformer Diagnostics
Diagnostics Tests we perform on a power
asset to determine its health and likelihood
of safe and efficient continued operability.
Topic Perspective
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A static electrical
device that changes or
transforms voltage
levels between 2
circuits.
$$$
Advanced Transformer Diagnostics
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Advanced Transformer Diagnostics
Advanced = Complicated
Natural progression/ next generation
of transformer diagnostics
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Topics of Discussion
1. Advanced Power Factor
Variable Frequency (15 Hz to 400 Hz)

2. Advanced DC Winding Resistance
OLTC Tap Check (Ripple and Slope)

3. FRSL (Frequency Response Stray
Losses)




1. Advanced Power Factor
Variable Frequency (15 Hz to 400 Hz)
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Power Factor Measurement
Measurement of the Dielectric (Insulation
System)

Sensitive to
Aging
Moisture
Contamination

Simple
Recognize a change from previous
Eliminate outside factors as contributing
variables

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Shortcomings of the Power Factor Test
Represents the average condition of the
total insulation system under test
Impossible to differentiate and characterize
losses, which may indicate moisture, aging,
contamination, oil conductivity, or some
combination therein.
Which is it??
General and uniform deterioration
OR localized area of severe deterioration.
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Power Factor has a Blind Spot
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0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00 250.00 300.00 350.00 400.00 450.00
P
F
[
%
]

f[Hz]
PF(f) Frequency Response
ICH(f)
ICHL(f)
ICL(f)
Acceptable Advanced Power Factor Results
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Transformer with dry winding insulation
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Transformer with high water content
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The Blind Spot
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00 250.00 300.00 350.00 400.00 450.00
P
F
[
%
]

f[Hz]
PF(f) Frequency Response
Transformer A
Transformer B
DFR = 1% WC
DFR = 3.4% WC
CHL Insulation
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Accelerated Aging
Effect:
High temperature and moisture
content will dramatically lower
the mechanical strength of
paper insulation
Temperature / C
50 70 90 110 130
0,1
1
10
100
1000
L
i
f
e

e
x
p
e
c
t
a
n
c
e

/

a
D
r
y
1
%
2
%
3
%
4
%

L. E. Lundgaard, Aging of oil-impregnated paper in power transformers,
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Jan. 2004
A
B
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Summary Advanced Diagnostic Test 1
Eliminates the blind spot

Provides additional insight into deteriorated
situations

Goes further towards identifying the
contaminant

Next step DFR (Dielectric Frequency
Response) measurement, which sweeps an
even wider frequency band, discriminates the
loss agent, and can give an actual percent
moisture content.
OMICRON
Topics of Discussion
1. Advanced Power Factor
Variable Frequency (15 Hz to 400 Hz)

2. Advanced DC Winding Resistance
OLTC Tap Check (Ripple and Slope)

3. FRSL (Frequency Response Stray Losses)




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Tap Changer Overview

Purpose:
To regulate the output voltage of a transformer to
required levels
Achieved by changing the ratios of the transformer
by altering the number of turns in one winding.

De-Energized Tap Changer (DETC)

On-Load Tap Changer (OLTC or LTC)
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On-Load Tap Changer (OLTC or LTC)

Varies the transformer ratio under load without
interruption

Switching Principle:
Make before Break Contact Concept
Bridging adjacent taps for the purpose
of transferring load from one tap to the
other without interruption or appreciable
change in the load current.

(a duplicate circuit is provided so that the
load current can be carried by one circuit
while switching is carried out on the other)
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On-Load Tap Changer (OLTC or LTC)

For the period when both taps are used (bridging
position), some form of impedance is present to limit
circulating current... (either resistive or reactive).

High Speed Resistor Type
Does not use the bridging position as a service
position (40 60 ms)
installed inside the transformer tank (in-tank
OLTCs)
Reactor Type
Uses the bridging position as a service position
(reactor is designed for continuous loading)
in a separate compartment that is welded to the
transformer tank
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On-Load Tap Changer (OLTC or LTC)

2 Primary LTC Designs:

1. A diverter switch (arcing switch) and a tap selector
Applied to larger powers and higher voltages
Tap change takes place in 2 steps:
1. The next tap is preselected by the tap selector
at no load.
2. The diverter switch transfers the load current
from the tap in operation to the preselected tap.
2. A selector switch (arcing tap switch) that combines the
functions of the diverter switch and the tap selector
For lower ratings
Carries out the tap change in 1 step from the tap in
service to the adjacent tap.
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Page: 21
Analysis of the Transient Switching Behavior
of the Diverter Switch
Page: 21
Tap 1 Tap 2 Tap 3 Tap 4 Tap 5
...transferring load from one tap to the other without
interruption or appreciable change in the load
current.
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OLTC position (1)
Tap Selector
Diverter
Switch
Commutating
Resistors
A
B
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A
B
OLTC position (2)
Tap Selector
Diverter
Switch
Commutating
Resistors
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A
B
OLTC position (3)
Tap Selector
Diverter
Switch
Commutating
Resistors
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OLTC position (4)
Tap Selector
Diverter
Switch
Commutating
Resistors
A
B
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A
B
OLTC position (5)
Tap Selector
Diverter
Switch
Commutating
Resistors
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A
B
OLTC position (6)
Tap Selector
Diverter
Switch
Commutating
Resistors
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Transient Current during Switching Process
1 = Diverter switch switches to the first transition resistor
2 = Both transistion resistors are in parallel
3 = Second transition resistor alone
4 = Final contact reached, regulation of the test current back to the rated current
Ripple
Slope
o
A
1
First
transition
resistor
2
Both
transition
resistors
3
Second
transition
resistor alone
4
Final end
position of the
diverter switch
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Ripple of a Diverter Switch in Good Condition
(1100MVA)
Ripple
0.0%
0.5%
1.0%
1.5%
2.0%
2.5%
000 005 010 015 020 025 030 Taps
A UP
A DOWN
B UP
B DOWN
C UP
C DOWN
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Slope of a Diverter Switch in Good Condition
(1100MVA)
Slope
-0.6A/s
-0.5A/s
-0.4A/s
-0.3A/s
-0.2A/s
-0.1A/s
0.0A/s
000 005 010 015 020 025 030 Taps
A UP
A DOWN
B UP
B DOWN
C UP
C DOWN
OMICRON
Page: 31
Page: 31
Ripple on a Diverter Switch with Bouncing
Contacts in Phase C
Ripple
0.0%
5.0%
10.0%
15.0%
20.0%
25.0%
30.0%
35.0%
40.0%
45.0%
50.0%
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Taps
A UP
A DOWN
B UP
B DOWN
C UP
C DOWN
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Page: 32
Slope of an Aged Diverter Switch
Page: 32
Slope
-1.1A/s
-1.05A/s
-1.0A/s
-0.95A/s
-0.9A/s
-0.85A/s
-0.8A/s
-0.75A/s
-0.7A/s
-0.65A/s
-0.6A/s
0 5 10 15 20
Taps
A UP
A DOWN
B UP
B DOWN
C UP
C DOWN
OMICRON
Page: 33
Aged Diverter Switch
Page: 33
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Summary Advanced Diagnostic Test 2
Detects problems with the diverter switch
and/or diverter contacts.

Performed during standard winding resistance
measurements; no additional time for test
required.
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Topics of Discussion
1. Advanced Power Factor
Variable Frequency (15 Hz to 400 Hz)

2) Advanced DC Winding Resistance
OLTC Tap Check (Ripple and Slope)

3) Advanced Leakage Reactance
FRSL (Frequency Response Stray Losses)




OMICRON
Power Factor Measurement
Detects
Strand-to-strand short circuits in a
conductor bundle





Background...
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Ip
Vp
Vs
Is
L
Np:Ns
Ideal Transformer Circuit
Np
Ns
N =
Vp
Vs
=
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Current carrying conductor
Flux
Lines
Material
Current Magnetizing Force Flux
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Zero Excitation Low Excitation
High Excitation
Main Core Flux
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I
ex

E
2

1:1
|
1

~
E
1

+
-
Z
L

I
2
|
2

+ I
2
|
2
Loading a Transformer causes Leakage Flux
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E
dt
du
If you have a time-varying
magnetic flux that cuts a
conductor, it will induce a
voltage in that conductor.
Flux through a Conductor Voltage
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If you have a time-
varying magnetic flux
that cuts a conductor, it
will induce a voltage in
that conductor.
Flux Lines
More voltage is induced
in the HV windings than in
the LV windings by
leakage flux
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Skin Effect influence which causes the
greatest concentration of current to flow on the
surface of a conductor

Proximity Effect tendency for current to flow
in other undesirable patterns (loops or
concentrated distributions) due to the presence
of magnetic fields generated by nearby
conductors (typically dominate over skin effect
losses).

Load Losses: Eddy Losses
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In the FRSL test, with a load situation (which
we emulate by shorting the windings), we
measure the short-circuit impedance (Z = R + jX)
but we only look at the resistive component.

We do this at several different frequencies
across a band of 15 Hz 400 Hz.
Frequency Response of Stray Losses (FRSL)
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X
s
c

R
s
c

Z
sc



R
dc
R
dc
represents
the resistance
of the windings
R
ac
represents
the losses of the
stray flux
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DIRECT CURRENT: Distributes
evenly across the cross-section
of the conductor.
ALTERNATING CURRENT:
Distributes such that current
density is largest near the
surface of the conductor,
decreasing at greater depths.
A.k.a., the Skin Effect.
Current Distribution in a Conductor
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Skin Depth
Skin Depth: The average depth (from the conductor
surface) at which AC electrical current flows;
the thickness at which the current density is
reduced by 63%.
Skin
Depth
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When carrying AC current, the effective cross-
section of the conductor is reduced.

Resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-
sectional area.

as effective cross-section
effective AC resistance of the conductor

AC resistance often is DC resistance
Effective AC Resistance vs. DC Resistance
a.k.a., skin effect
gets worse
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What causes the skin effect to
get worse?
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As Frequency Increases,
Skin Effect becomes
more pronounced.
Frequency and the Skin Effect
Frequency, f
Effective
AC
Resistance
Skin
Depth
60 Hz
400 Hz
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Conductor Diameter and the Skin Effect
Diameter
Skin
Depth
Effective
AC
Resistance
As Diameter Increases,
Skin Effect becomes
more pronounced.
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Conductor Bundles
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Strand-to-Strand Short Circuit
Skin effect and Proximity Effects become
more pronounced.
AC resistance increases from benchmark.
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Leakage Reactance Test FRSL
Same test set-up and connections
Evaluating the Impedance
(Real and Reactive
components)
Evaluating the Resistance
(just the real part of the
Impedance measurement)
Performed at operating/
mains Frequency (60 Hz)
Performed at many, discrete
frequency points from 15 Hz
400 Hz
Detects Winding
Deformation
Detects Short-Circuited
Strands within a conductor
bundle
Why do we call FRSL the Advanced LR Test?
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Analysis: Comparison of 3 Phases

R(f)
0.0 Ohm
0.5 Ohm
1.0 Ohm
1.5 Ohm
2.0 Ohm
2.5 Ohm
3.0 Ohm
3.5 Ohm
4.0 Ohm
4.5 Ohm
0 100 200 300 400 500
Frequency (Hz)
A
B
C
Skin Effect becomes more pronounced as frequency is
increased.
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Page: 56
Faulty Phase C
PAGE 56

R(f)
50
100
150
200
250
300
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Frequency [Hz]
m
O
h
m

A
B
C
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The transformer was removed from service because it
produced gas, which, upon analysis, showed a hot spot
involving paper. In the laboratories, however, none of the
standard tests showed a fault in the windings. In fact, it was
found that:

- The turns ratio was correct;
- The excitation current was normal;
- The DC resistance was normal;
- A comparative measurement of the impedance in the
three phases showed no significant difference (less
than 3%).

Case study
40-MVA, AY, 161 kV/13.8 kV transformer
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Case study
40-MVA, AY, 161 kV/13.8 kV transformer
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Phase A: eight of the 13 parallel strands of this winding had been short-
circuited. In this condition, the section perpendicular to the lines of
flux was much higher and, hence, the eddy current losses
Phase B: two parallel strands were found to be in short-circuit but the fault
was not located in the winding after it had been dismantled
Phase C: No fault was detected in the windings

Case study
40-MVA, AY, 161 kV/13.8 kV transformer
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Summary Advanced Diagnostic Test 3
Detects strand to strand short circuits.

Will not identify this failure mode using any
other electrical diagnostic test.

DGA is sensitive to this failure mode. However,
the gases that will generate are not unique to
this failure mode and could be indicating a
number of other failure modes will require
additional testing to discriminate the specific
failure mode that is producing the common
gassing signature.
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Questions?