VARIOUS METHODS OF SAMPLING

Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 2 Various Methods of Sampling ....................................................................................................................... 2 Subjective vs. objective sampling ............................................................................................................. 2 Subjective sampling .............................................................................................................................. 2 Objective sampling................................................................................................................................ 2 Centralized replicate, random, and systematic sampling approaches ..................................................... 2 Centralized replicate ............................................................................................................................. 2 Random ................................................................................................................................................. 2 Systematic ............................................................................................................................................. 3 Sampling designs....................................................................................................................................... 3 Quadrat method ........................................................................................................................................... 3 Parameters ................................................................................................................................................ 4 Density: ................................................................................................................................................. 4 Cover: .................................................................................................................................................... 4 Frequency: ............................................................................................................................................ 4 Random Sampling ..................................................................................................................................... 5 Transect method ........................................................................................................................................... 5 Combination of techniques....................................................................................................................... 6 The releve method ........................................................................................................................................ 6 Entitation and requirements of a releve Entitation .................................................................................. 7 Requirements of a sample site for a releve .............................................................................................. 7 Size of plots: Minimal Area Method ......................................................................................................... 7 Objective: .............................................................................................................................................. 7 Size of plots: Minimal Area Method ......................................................................................................... 8 Minimum area for common vegetation types ...................................................................................... 8 SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................................... 9 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................................. 9

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Introduction Various Methods of Sampling

Biologists and plant ecologists use a number of methods to study vegetation communities. The exact sampling method that is employed depends on the objective of the study. Most sampling methods are quantitative, which involves collecting numerical data on numbers of individuals, plant sizes, and the amount of space occupied by target plants. Qualitative methods are also occasionally used, especially by experienced researchers who want to quickly define a plant community simply by observation.

Subjective vs. objective sampling

Subjective sampling

Sample sites are consciously chosen as representative of predetermined vegetation classes. Most flexible sampling scheme Allows for experience and decision making ability of the investigator Best used in areas where there are clear boundaries between plant communities Good approach for vegetation classification Sample sites are chosen according to chance (i.e. random sampling) Essential if probability statistics are to be used to back up the conclusions Best used in areas where boundaries between communities are indistinct or where the objective is to determine the causes of variation within a single plant community Good approach for ordination methods.

Objective sampling

Centralized replicate, random, and systematic sampling approaches

Centralized replicate

Sample sites are chosen subjectively and centrally located within representative homogeneous areas of predetermined vegetation types. This method is used in the releve approach (more on this later). Sample sites are chosen according some randomizing method (e.g., dice, random numbers). Any point is a possible sample point. In a complete random method plots are chosen completely randomly. In a stratified random approach, the research areas is first divided into relatively similar classes based on some criteria, for example, landscape units (floodplains, hills,

Random

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mountains) or mapped vegetation units. Sample sites are then randomly chosen in the various classes. This ensures that the most common units are not over-sampled and the uncommon units under sampled. The samples are dispersed throughout the entire survey area.
Systematic

Plots are located according to a regular system such as a grid or regular intervals along a line. A stratified systematic approach is similar to the stratified random approach except the sample sites are chosen according to a systematic method (grids or linear transects) within each stratified class.

Sampling designs

Quadrat method
A Quadrat is a sampling unit used for the quantitative study of plant communities. The quadrat method allows the user to define a fixed area, called a plot, within which plant characters can be measured. Usually, a rectangular quadrat frame is used to define the sampling area, although a quadrat can also be a permanently established area within a site. Although the exact experimental design will determine where and how many samples are taken, the procedure always involves measuring plant characters of only those plants inside the quadrat.

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It may be square, rectangular or circular in shape. But ecologist have found out, that rectangular plots give better representation of the plant community since they tend to include a better representation of the floristic variation in a stand. Any size convenient for the particular vegetation can be used. In general richer and heterogenous the plant community, larger would be the quadrat size. For lower herbaceous vegetation plots of 1x4 feet or 1x8 feet may be used. For forest study the best estimate of tree population is obtained with strips of 10x400 feet. During the sampling such number of quadrats should be taken, which would include all the possible variation so as to have representative data of vegetation. Iron or wooden nails, cords and measuring taps are required for making quadrats. After determining the desired shape and size, quadrat can be laid down by fixing nails at four points. Twine or chord should then be tied tightly to the four nails. At least 15-20 quadrats should be taken at the intervals of twelve sieps between each quadrat. The quadrats should not be obliquely laid but should form right angles. When the size, shape and number of quadrats have been determined, then distribute the quadrats in such a way that it can cover every type of vegetation in a stand., usually quadrats are distributed widely in random, uniform or stratified manner. After the establishment and construction of quadrats , all the plant species inside the plant should be recorded, then number of individual of each species should be counted, their cover (circumference) should be measured by the help of measuring tapes and the measured cover should then be converted into square feet. Community is named after its leading specie Generic names be used Specific names may also be used,are two or upto three dominant Each srata may hav its own dominant Community attributes like density, frequency, coverage and importance value can be calculated by the following formula. IV/IVI/SV is determined

Parameters
Density: No of individuals/unit area Cover: Canopy Cover in terms of % Frequency: % of Distribution Directly added together D+C+F Change to relative values i.e. RD= Density of a specie/total densities of all species x 100 RC= Canopy of a specie/total Frequencies of all species x 100

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RF=

Frequency of a specie/total Frequencies of all species x 100

Random Sampling
Quadrat sampling usually attempts to define plant community characteristics for an area much larger than the actual area sampled. For this reason, care must be taken to obtain samples that represent the entire habitat and that eliminate the human factor. Usually this means employing an experimental design that ensures random placement of the frame or permanent quadrat.

Transect method
The most common quantitative sampling methods are the quadrat method and the transect method. The transect method simply refers to the establishment of a baseline along which sampling is conducted. This method is typically used when there are apparent vegetation differences from one point of interest to another within a sampling site. For example, when sampling an area containing a river, wetlands, and uplands, establishing a transect line that traverses these distinct habitats is a reliable means of collecting representative data. A transect is a long rectangular sample plot. It is used to know how vegetation varies with the changing environments such as caused by slope, exposure, edaphic or topographical irregularities and how on plant community gives way to another. Out of various types of transects used, two or mentioned below: Line transect: it is also called a line intercept method, in which the plant species are recorded as they occur along a line. It is particularly useful in dense stands of scrubby vegetation, which would be difficult to sample, this method is rapid and give accurate information of the vegetation. Line strip method: it was introduced by Canfield in 1941. This method of vegetational sampling is very good for forest shrubs or trees with high crown cover. Sampling of all the trees, shrubs and herbs present in the transect can be done by this method. It is actually an improvement of the line transect method. This sampling method requires ordinary measuring tapes, nails and rod of ten feet an nine inches in length. From the starting point a line that is 200 feet long is drawn with the help of measuring tape and stalked firmly in an area under consideration. From either side of this line strip an area of 10-9 is marked out by the help of rod so as to make a transect of 200x21-6. In this transect all the species that are intercepted are recorded and its crown cover taken by sighting a long stick in such a way that the stick is at perpendicular position and the upper end of the stick is facing the periphery of the crown and other end is pointing to the ground.

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Now the stick is moved downwards, so that it may touch the ground. Distance of this point to the trunk of the tree is taken, which gives us the radius of the circle. Then circumference can be calculated and converted in to cover. Frequency of the species intercepted is determined by the following formula Frequency= number of times a specie is intercepted/total number of interception

Bisects: in this method the aim is to show the vertical distribution of plants or profile of the vegetation, which may include all the strata or layers of the community, from dominant trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers as well as the ground flora. It is equally to understand the relative position, depth and extent of underground parts such as rhizome, bulb, tuber as well as the roots of each plant are to be studied and their relative position and extent carefully measured. It can be done by digging a trench in the community to a depthgreater then that of the deepest root system. Graphically, reproduced profile may be useful for making comparison between stands and for interpreting community dynamics. Knowledge of the stratification of parts below ground particularly with respect to soil profile and its physical characteristics and moisture relations can be vary valuable for interpreting competitive abilities of species.

Combination of techniques

Sometimes the two methods are used together. Sampling was conducted by placing the
quadrat frame in the same position at each stake along each transect line, giving representative samples of the entire hummock community (the astute reader may complain that since each sampling location was fixed, randomness was not achieved. But in this design, the "grazed" and "ungrazed" sectors were randomly determined. And, since the study involved assessing temporal change, it was desirable to sample exactly the same quadrats from one period to the next).

The releve method

French term meaning a collection of data. Often used in terms of surveys. Developed by Josias Braun-Blanquet as a standard method of sampling for vegetation classification according to the Zurich- Montpellier School of phytosociology. Recently has gained popularity in North America (e.g., Nature Conservancy, California Department of Fish and Game, Talbot and Talbot 1994, Walker et al. 1994, Komarkova 1978, Rivas-Martinez 1997, Miyawaki et al. 1994, Klinka et al. 1996) The quickest way to obtain detailed community information. Does not necessarily involve sampling other components of the site such as soils and site factors, although these are often collected if environmental gradient analysis is part of the research.

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Subjective sampling (centralized replicate). Qualitative in the sense that species cover is estimated instead of measured. Quantitative in the sense that it gives a complete list of species for the plot.

Entitation and requirements of a releve Entitation

The process of subdividing the vegetation into recognizable entities or preliminary vegetation types. Reconnaissance essential (cannot be overemphasized) The better your initial knowledge of an area, the better will be the subsequent sampling. Important to avoid sampling ecotones or breaks between distinct communities. Iterative process that may take several years to develop a good concept of the communities.

Requirements of a sample site for a releve

1. Homogeneity of the vegetation canopy. 2. Homogeneity of the soil and other site factors. 3. Large enough to contain all the species in the community. 4. Should be recognizable as unit that is repeated in other areas of the landscape, i.e. a repeating assemblage of species.

Size of plots: Minimal Area Method

Objective:

Determine the smallest area that is representative of the plant community so as to minimize the sampling effort. The plot should contain a very high percentage of the total species in the community. Minimize the problem of including areas that are not representative of the plant community. Larger areas tend to include multiple communities and ecotonal areas.

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Size of plots: Minimal Area Method

The minimum plot size is the point on the curve where the line most rapidly approaches the horizontal. Another method is to arbitrarily define the optimum plot size as that where some objective percentage of the total species encountered in the community type occurs (e.g. 90 or 95%). However, in tropical communities neither method works because the species-curve does not appear to level off. However, it undoubtedly does eventually, and MD&E suggest that an appropriate plot size might be about 5 ha (12.5 acres!). The task of tallying all the species in such a large area would be formidable indeed, and you may want to compromise by doing many smaller manageable plots.

Minimum area for common vegetation types

The actual minimum area used is usually somewhat larger than the graphical minimum area. Minimal areas have been established for a wide variety of vegetation types and so there are certain guidelines that can be followed when there is not sufficient time to establish the minimal sample area.

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SUMMARY
Biologists and plant ecologists use a number of methods to study vegetation communities. Samples are usually taken using a standard sampling unit of some kind. This ensures that all of the samples represent the same area or volume (water) of the habitat each time. The usual sampling unit is a quadrat. Quadrats normally consist of a square frame, the most frequently used size being 1m2. The purpose of using a quadrat is to enable comparable samples to be obtained from areas of consistent size and shape. The transect method simply refers to the establishment of a baseline along which sampling is conducted. This method is typically used when there are apparent vegetation differences from one point of interest to another within a sampling site. Other methods are the releve method,, transect method. The minimum plot size is the point on the curve where the line most rapidly approaches the horizontal. The actual minimum area used is usually somewhat larger than the graphical minimum area

REFERENCES
Becker , D.A.1980 floristic analysis of a natural area on the lower platte river flood plain. Trans .Nebr. acad .Sci., 8:15-30 Hussain S S. 1984. Pakistan Manual of plant ecology. The mirror press ltd Karachi. Pp 7679. Nasir, E. and S.I. Ali. (Eds.). 1971-1995. Flora of Pakistan. Karachi/Islamabad. Ali, S.I. and M. Qaiser. (Eds.) 1995-2007. Flora of Pakistan. Fakhri Printing Press, Karachi. S. Zaman, F. Hussain, L Badshah and M. Wahab. [Link] Composition, communities and ecological characteristics of weeds of Wheat fields of Lahore, District Swabi, [Link]. J. Bot., 43(6): 2817-2820. Daubenmire, R.F. 1959. A canopy coverage method of vegetation analysis. Northwest Sci., 33: 43-46. Hussain, F. and A. Shah. 1989. Phytosociology of vanishing subtropical vegetation of Swat with special reference to Docut hills. I. Winter aspect. Sci. Khyber, 2: 27-36. Sher Z, F Hussain anf L Badshah. [Link] of summer vegetation of sudan galli hills,district Bagh,Azad Kashmir,[Link]. J. Bot., 45(1): 1-9. Naveed Akhtar and Farrukh [Link] of Wheat fields of village Qamber, District Swat,Pakistan. Pakistan. Pak. J. Pl. Sci., 13 (1): 33-37.

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