STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 313237

Session topic Eurocode 1 Actions on Building Structures

Session objectives
To provide an overview of Eurocode 1 with reference to buildings.

Intended audience
Structural and civil engineers

Summary
Programme BS EN 1991, Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures provides information and guidance on all the actions that its usually necessary to consider in the design of buildings and civil engineering structures. Along with BS EN 1990 Eurocode: Basis of structural design, Eurocode 1 is one of the two underpinning Eurocodes that needs to be used for every design in addition to Eurocodes 2 to 9 as appropriate. This programme provides an overview of Eurocode1. Programme notes These notes are kindly provided by the contributor and are reproduced with kind permission.

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About the contributor

Prof Haig Gulvanessian is a former construction division director of BRE, visiting professor at Imperial College, chairman of the EN 1990 and former chairman of the EN 1991 drafting committees. He is also chairman of the Eurocodes Expert advisory group.

Discussion Points
Explain the main difference between Eurocode 1 and the previous UK system of loading codes. Describe the format of Eurocode 1; its parts and sections. Discuss Part 1-1-1 of the Eurocode with reference to densities, self-weight and imposed loads. Outline the differences between Part 1-1-3 of the Eurocode and BS 6399. Describe the strategies for safety covered in Part 1-1-7 of Eurocode 1.

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STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 313237

Notes
EN 1991: Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures Professor Haig Gulvanessian CBE. Civil Engineering and Eurocode Consultant
SYNOPSIS The paper gives a brief summary of the scope, field of application and difference with UK practice for each Part of EN 1991.

Background
EN 1991: Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures, provides comprehensive information and guidance on all actions that are normally necessary to consider in the design of buildings and civil engineering works. The European Union initiated the preparation of EN 1991 in 1985. All Parts have been published as have all the corresponding UK national Annexes. This paper describes the scope of Eurocode 1 and its main provisions. EN 1991 comprises ten as shown in Table 1. The background to these ten parts is comprehensively described by Gulvanessian, Formichi and Calgaro [1] and Calgaro, Tchumi and Gulvanessian [2]. The Parts are referred to in this paper by their proposed EN numbers. These Parts will provide the actions for use with EN 1990: Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design, and EN 1992-9 as appropriate, for design and verification on the basis of overall principles which are given in EN 1990.

Table 1: The Parts of Eurocode 1: Actions on structures EN number of Part 1991-1-1 1991-1-2 1991-1-3 1991-1-4 1991-1-5 1991-1-6 1991-1-7 1991-2 1991-3 1991-4 Title of Part

Densities, self-weight and imposed loads Actions on structures exposed to fire Snow loads Wind actions Thermal actions Actions during execution Accidental actions due to impact and explosions Traffic loads on bridges Actions induced by cranes and machinery Actions in silos and tanks

1.1

Difference between BS EN 1991 and the UK system of loading codes Each Part of BS EN 1991 gives unique guidance on a particular type of action. Within each, part guidance is provided for buildings and other construction works (e.g. bridges). This is different to the BSI system of loading codes where the codes are based on the 'type' of structure, e.g. BS 6399 for buildings and BS 5400 for bridges.

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Definitions Of Actions In En 1990: Eurocode Basis Of Structural Design

IN EN 1990 and EN 1991 Actions are classified by their a) b) c) d) Variation in time: Permanent, Variable or Accidental Origin: Direct or Indirect Spatial Variation: Fixed or Free Nature and/or structural response: Static or Dynamic

Actions are described by a model, its magnitude being represented in the most common cases by one scalar. e.g. vehicle axle spacing and their magnitude is commonly represented by a single scalar. The scalar may adopt several representative values, e.g. a dominant (leading) or non-dominant action (accompanying). Several scalars are used when the action is multi-component. More complex representations are required for fatigue and dynamic actions. Table 2 gives examples of the classification of Actions with regard to variation in time Table 2: Classification of Actions Permanent actions (a) self-weight of structures, fittings and fixed equipment (b) Prestressing force (c) Water and soil pressures (d) Indirect action, e.g. settlement of supports Variable actions (a) Imposed floor loads (b) Snow loads (c) Wind loads (d) Indirect action, e.g. temperature effects (e) Actions due to traffic Accidental actions (a) Explosions (b) Fire (c) Impact from vehicles

The term single action is also used to define an action which is statistically independent in time and space from any other action acting on the structure. The self-weight of a structure can be represented by a single characteristic value, (Gk), provided the variability of G is small, and it can be calculated on the basis of the nominal dimensions and the mean unit mass. If the variability of G is not small and the statistical distribution is known, two values are used; an upper value (Gk,sup) and a lower value (Gk,inf). More information on this subject has been given by Ostlund[3]. A variable action has the following representative values, see Figure 1; the characteristic value (Qk); the combination value (0Qk); the frequent value (1 Qk); the quasi-permanent value (2 Qk). The combination value (0 Qk) takes account of the reduced probability of simultaneous occurrence of the most unfavourable values of several independent variable actions. It is used for the verification of ultimate limit states and irreversible serviceability limit states. The frequent value (1 Qk) is used for verification of ultimate limit states involving accidental actions and reversible limit states. The quasi-permanent value (2 Qk) is also used for ultimate limit state verification involving accidental actions and for reversible serviceability limit states. The recommended values of 0, 1, 2 for buildings are shown, reproduced from EN 1990, in Table 3.

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Information on combining Actions for particular design situations is given in the Chapter on EN 1990 for both ultimate and serviceability limit states.

Arbitrary point-in-time value Q Characteristic value Qk

Combination value

0Qk

Frequent value 1Qk

Quasi-permanent value 2Qk

Time Figure 1: Representative values Table 3: factors for buildings Action Imposed loads in buildings, category (see EN 1991-1-1) Category A : domestic, residential areas Category B : office areas Category C : congregation areas Category D : shopping areas Category E : storage areas Category F : traffic area, vehicle weight 30kN Category G : traffic area, 30kN<vehicle weight 160kN Category H : roofs Snow loads on buildings (see EN 1991-1-3) Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden Remainder of CEN Member States, for sites located at altitude H > 1000 m a.s.l. Remainder of CEN Member States, for sites located at altitude H 1000 m a.s.l. Wind loads on buildings (see EN 1991-1-4) Temperature (non-fire) in buildings (see EN 1991-1-5) 1 0,7 in the UK National Annex 2 0,5 in the UK National Annex

0
0,7 0,7 0,7 0,7 1,0 0,7 0,7 01

1
0,5 0,5 0,7 0,7 0,9 0,7 0,5 0

2
0,3 0,3 0,6 0,6 0,8 0,6 0,3 0

0,70 0,70 0,50 0,62 0,6

0,50 0,50 0,20 0,2 0,5

0,20 0,20 0 0 0

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3.1

EN 1991-1-1: Eurocode 1: Part 1.1: Densities, Self-Weight and Imposed Loads

Scope and field of application EN 1991-1-1 covers the assessment of actions for use in structural design due to: a) the density of construction materials and stored materials, b) the self-weight of structural elements and whole structures and some fixed nonstructural items, c) imposed loads on floors and roofs of buildings, (but excluding snow, which is covered by Part 1.3).

3.2

Densities of construction and stored materials Differences in the national codes of the CEN member countries imposed constraints on the development of this part of Eurocode 1. It was not possible to describe the densities of the construction or stored materials as either mean or characteristic values since both of these terms imply some understanding of the underlying statistical distribution of the densities. They are therefore called nominal densities but can be treated as characteristic values when determining self weights. EN 1991-1-1, in its Annex A, gives comprehensive tables for densities of construction and stored materials which are therefore described as nominal values. For materials where the bulk weight density has significant variability according to its source, a range of values is provided. As an example Table A4 for Construction Materials metals is shown in Table 4. Table 4 (Table A.4 - Construction materials-metals from EN 1991-1-1) Materials Density [kN/m3] metals aluminium brass bronze copper iron, cast iron, wrought lead steel zinc 27,0 83,0 to 85,0 83,0 to 85,0 87,0 to 89,0 71,0 to 72,5 76,0 112,0 to 114,0 77,0 to 78,5 71,0 to 72,0

This part of EN 1991-1-1 will replace BS 648. 3.3 Self-weight of structural elements Methods are provided for assessing the self-weight of construction elements in buildings e.g. floors, walls, partitions, roofs, cladding, finishes and fixed services. As in BS6399 Part 1, loads due to moveable partitions are treated as imposed loads but in a slightly different way and there is no minimum load on floors of offices. Provided that a floor allows a lateral distribution of loads, the self-weight of movable partitions may be taken into account by a uniformly distributed load qk which should be added to the imposed loads of floors. This defined uniformly distributed load is dependent on the self-weight of the partitions as follows: z z z for movable partitions with a self-weight 1,0 kN/m wall length: qk =0,5 kN/m2; for movable partitions with a self-weight 2,0 kN/m wall length: qk =0,8 kN/m2; for movable partitions with a self-weight 3,0 kN/m wall length: qk =1,2 kN/m2.

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For both traffic and railway bridges the determination of the self-weight of construction elements including coating, services and other non-structural elements is also explained. To determine the upper and lower characteristic values of self-weight of waterproofing, surfacing and other coatings for bridges, where the variability of their thickness may be high, a deviation of the total thickness from the nominal or other specified values should be taken into account for which recommended values are given. 3.4 Imposed loads on buildings EN 1991-1-1 gives Characteristic values of loads for floors and roofs for the following categories of occupancy (see Table 3) and use: z z z z z z residential, social, commercial and administration areas garage and vehicle traffic areas for storage and industrial activities including actions induced by forklifts and other transport vehicles roofs helicopter landing areas barriers and walls having the function of barriers.

A reduction factor A may be applied to the qk values for imposed loads given in EN 1991-1-1 for floors, and accessible roofs for maintenance purposes. A is a function of 0 and the floor area A. Additionally provided that the area is classified according to EN 1991-1-1 6.1 into the categories residential, social, commercial and administration areas (Categories A to D as described in Table 3), for columns and walls the total imposed loads from several storeys may be multiplied by the reduction factor n . n is a function of 0 and the number of stories n. The UK National Annex does not allow the use of these reduction factors and specifies the use of the reduction factors in BS 6399: Part 1. The difference in reduction factors A and n are shown in Tables 5 and 6 respectively which are reproduced from [1]. A (sq.m.) A (EN 1991-1-1 with o = 0,7) 0,75 0,63 0,59 0,56 0,54 A (BSI NA for EN 1991-1-1) 0,96 0,92 0,88 0,84 0,76

40 80 120 160 240

Table 5: Reduction factor A for floors. EN 1991-1-1 vs. NA

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

n (EN 1991-1-1); = 0,7 1 1 0,9 0,85 0,82 0,8 0,79 0,78 0,77 0,76

n (BSI NA for EN 1991-1-1) 1 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,6 0,6 0,6 0,6 0,6

Table 6: Reduction factor n for imposed loads from several storeys. EN 1991-1-1 vs. NA The basis for the determination of the characteristic loads is given elsewhere [1]. 3.5 Implications for practice in the UK The scope of BS EN 1991-1-1 is greater than for the appropriate UK national codes (BS 6399-1 and BS 648). There remain some topics (e.g. vertical loads on parapets and values for actions for storage and industrial use) which are not covered as comprehensively in BS EN 1991-1-1 when compared to BS 6399, and these topics will feature in a complementary document published by BSI, PD 6688-1-1, which will also provide background information. Most of the characteristic values for imposed loads are given in ranges, with a value recommended within the range and the UK National Annex generally specifies the values given in BS 6399: Part 1. EN 1991-1-1 used together with the National Annex will not alter current practice in the UK.

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4.1

EN 1991-1-2: Eurocode 1 : Part 1.2 : Actions on Structures Exposed to Fire

Scope and field of application EN 1991-1-2 covers the actions to be used in the structural design of buildings and civil engineering works where they are required to give adequate performance in fire exposure. It is intended that EN 1991-1-2 is used with EN 1990 and with the parts on structural fire design in Eurocodes 2 to 6 and 9 [4] [5] and [6]. For fire design, fire actions are the dominant action. EN 1991-1-2 provides general guidance and actions for the structural design of buildings exposed to fire. In addition to Foreword and Section General, EN 1991-1-2 [4] contains the following main Sections: - Section 2 Structural fire design procedure - Section 3 Actions for temperature analysis (thermal actions) - Section 4 Actions for structural analysis (mechanical actions) - Annex A (informative) Parametric temperature-time curves - Annex B (informative) Thermal actions for external members simplified calculation method - Annex C (informative) Localised fires - Annex D (informative) Advanced fire models - Annex E (informative) Fire load densities

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- Annex F (informative) Equivalent time of fire exposure - Annex G (informative) Configuration factor The Parts 1-2 of material Eurocodes EN 1992 to EN 1996 and EN 1999 that deal with passive fire protection of construction works made of different materials represent extension of the basic document EN 1991-1-2. Essentially the objective is to limit risk to life from fire by meeting the following performance requirements of the structure: to maintain load bearing function during the relevant fire exposure; to meet deformation criteria where the separating or protecting function of the construction may be impaired by structural deformation in the fire; to maintain separating function, i.e. no integrity or insulation failure, during the relevant fire exposure where fire compartmentalisation is required.

4.2

Basic approaches in EN 1991-1-2 As indicated in Figure 2 two possible methods are given in EN 1991-1-2 to determine thermal actions due to fire: the prescriptive approach and the performance-based approach.

Design Procedures

Prescriptive Rules (Nominal Fire)

Performance-Based Code (Physical Thermal Actions)

Analysis of a Member

Analysis of a Structural Part

Analysis of Entire Structure

Selection of Fire Development Models

Analysis of a Member

Analysis of a Structural Part

Analysis of Entire Structure

Figure 2: Design procedures in EN 1991-1-2.

The prescriptive approach uses nominal fires (standard temperature/time curves) to determine the thermal actions. The performance-based approach, using fire safety engineering, refers to thermal actions based on physical and chemical parameters (parametric temperature/time curves). At the present time it is possible to undertake a procedure for determining adequate performance which incorporates some, if not all, of these parameters, and to demonstrate that the structure, or its members, will give adequate performance in a real building fire.

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However where the procedure is based on a nominal fire (standard temperature/time curve), the required periods of fire resistance may be specified in such a way that the features and uncertainties considered by performance-based approach described above are taken into account (though not explicitly). Informative Annexes provide, for the first time in an international standard, models for more realistic calculation of thermal actions. They use so-called parametric temperature-time curves or the equivalent time of fire exposure approach. Parametric fire is a general term which covers fire evolution more in line with real fires and takes into account the main parameters which influence the growth of fires. Parametric temperature-time curves therefore vary mainly with building size, type of construction, fire load, and size of openings. This Part does not provide all the data needed to allow a performance-based structural fire design. A further Informative Annex of this Eurocode gives guidance on the determination of fire load densities using 'the Global Fire Safety Concept'. The design value is either based on a national fire load classification or a survey of fire loads combined with partial factors to take account of fire consequences, fire frequency and active fire safety measures [6]. 4.3 4.3.1 Design Procedure Design fire scenarios Structural fire design involves thermal actions due to fire as well as mechanical actions. As indicated in Figure 2, the thermal actions may be determined using either prescriptive rules (nominal fire) or physical based rules (parametric thermal curves). Actions due to fire are classified as accidental actions and should be combined with mechanical actions using combination rules provided in EN 1990 for the accidental design situation. The combined occurrence of a fire in a building and an extremely high level of mechanical loads are assumed to be very small. Simultaneous occurrence with other independent accidental actions need not be considered. However EN 1991-1-2 does require consideration of risks of fire in the wake of other accidental actions. Postfire situations after the structure has cooled down are not within the scope of the document. In accordance with Section 2 of 1991-1-2 a structural fire design analysis should follow these steps: selection of the relevant design fire scenarios; determination of the corresponding design fires; calculation of temperature evolution within the structural members; calculation of the mechanical behaviour of the structure exposed to fire.

Selection of the relevant design fire scenarios and corresponding design fires should be done on the bases of general principles of risk analysis taking into account possible risks due to other accidental actions. The design fire should be usually applied only to one fire compartment. Post-fire situations after the structure cooled down need not to be considered in fire design. Temperature analysis should take into account position of fire in relation to the structural member and separating walls. Depending on particular conditions the analysis may be based on a nominal temperature curve without cooling phase of full duration of the fire including the cooling phase.

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4.3.2

Mechanical analysis The analysis of mechanical behaviour of a member should consider the same duration as the temperature analysis. In accordance with Section 2 of EN 1991-1-2 three design requirements should be generally verified. The time requirement is given by the inequality tfi,d tfi,requ where tfi,d denotes the design value of the fire resistance time and tfi,requ the required fire resistance time. Considering bearing capacity of a structural member the following condition is applied Rfi,d,t Efi,d,t where Rfi,d,t denotes the design value of resistance of the member in the fire situation at time t and Efi,d,t denotes the design value of the load effect of the relevant actions in the fire situation at time t. In addition to the design criteria expressed by the above expressions in some cases also the material temperature should be checked using the condition

d cr,d
where d denotes the design value of material temperature and cr,d the design value of the critical material temperature. To verify the above three design conditions a number of computational tools and software products are available. 4.4 Implementation for Practice in the UK Passive fire resistance is now fully covered by the structural Eurocodes. The UK National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-2 refers to a complementary document, PD 6688-1-2, which will provide background information to the National Annex. Generally the National Annex will ensure that current UK practice is safeguarded.

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5.1

EN 1991-1-3: Eurocode 1 : Part 1.3 : Snow Loads

Scope and field of application EN 1991-1-3 provides guidance for the calculation of: snow loads on roofs which occur in calm or windy conditions; loads on roofs which occur where there are obstructions, and by snow sliding down a pitched roof onto snow guards; loads due to snow overhanging the cantilevered edge of a roof; snow loads on bridges.

EN 1991-1-3 applies to: snow loads in both maritime (i.e. UK) and continental climates new buildings and structures; significant alterations to existing buildings and structures.

It does not generally apply to sites at altitudes above 1500m. The basis of EN 1991-1-3 has been described elsewhere [1], [7]. The scopes of BS EN 1991-1-3 and BS 6399-2 (those relating to snow loads) are similar. However, BS EN 1991-1-3 applies to sites at altitudes to 1500 m (the limit in BS 6399-2 is 500 m).

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5.2

Format for taking account of climatic variation Both the initial deposition and any subsequent movements of snow on a roof are affected by the presence of wind. In design the general lack of data on the combined action of wind and snow is normally overcome by considering one or more critical design situations. For snow loads the load arrangement for these situations are described below undrifted snow load on the roof load arrangement which describes the uniformly distributed snow load on the roof, affected only by the shape of the roof, before any redistribution of snow due to other climatic actions. drifted snow load on the roof load arrangement which describes the snow load distribution resulting from snow having been moved from one location to another location on a roof, e.g. by the action of the wind. Owing to the climatic variability across Europe, EN 1991-1-3 provides different rules for maritime and continental weather systems. The alternatives apply for specific locations For maritime weather systems where all the snow usually melts and clears between the individual weather systems and where moderate to high wind speeds occur during the individual weather system. For continental weather systems where the snow that fall is more persistent and where snow falling in calm conditions may be followed by further snow, carried by another weather system driven by wind and there may several repetitions of these events before there is any significant thawing. Maritime weather systems are associated with Single snow events which occur in regions where the snow fall is considered to be associated with weather systems of about 3 to 4 days duration and where there is a reasonable expectation that the snow deposited on roofs will thaw between the arrival of one weather system and the next, e.g. in the UK. This situation requires the separate consideration of either uniform snow load or a drift load as the two are not expected to occur together. Continental weather systems are associated with Multiple snow events occur where snow is more persistent and where snow falling in calm conditions may be followed by further snow, carried by another weather system driven by wind and where there may be several repetitions of these events before significant thawing. In these situations the accumulations are combined into a single load case. It is left to the National Annex to specify which should be used for a particular region. For the two conditions below snow loads may be treated as accidental actions i. Exceptional snow load on the ground in some regions, particularly southern Europe, isolated and extremely infrequent very heavy snow falls have occurred ii. Exceptional snow drifts (in maritime climates e.g. UK).

5.3

Characteristic value of snow load on the ground The snow load on the ground is that assumed to occur in perfectly calm conditions. It is usually determined from records of snow load or snow depth measured in well sheltered areas. The characteristic value is defined as the value with an annual probability of being exceeded of 0.02. In the BS EN 1991-1-3 snow map, the UK is divided into zones. An expression is given to determine the snow load on the ground which depends upon the zone number and the altitude of the site. This is different to the snow map in Bs 6399 in which the snow load on the ground is determined through isopleths.

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5.4

Method of assessment of snow load on the roof The snow load on the roof is determined by multiplying the characteristic value of the snow load on the ground by a snow load shape coefficient . The snow load on the roof is affected by the topography of the site and the amount of heat loss through the roof and EN 1991-1-3 makes provision for adjustment of the roof snow load using an exposure and thermal coefficient factors. Thus Snow loads on roofs for the persistent / transient design situations are determined as follows: s = i Ce Ct sk where:

sk Ce Ct

is the snow load shape coefficient is the characteristic value of snow load on the ground is the exposure coefficient is the thermal coefficient

5.5

Snow load shape coefficients The different snow load coefficients to be considered in design relate to different climatic conditions (maritime and continental) and are given for both the un-drifted and the drifted load arrangements. EN 1991-1-3 provides shape coefficients for mono-pitch, duo-pitched, multi-pitched and cylindrical roofs and coefficients for drifting at abrupt changes in roof height and at obstructions on roofs for both maritime and continental climate areas. As an example Figures 3(a) and 3(b) show snow load shape coefficients for continental and maritime climates respectively. In the diagrams (case (i)) indicates the un-drifted load arrangement, and (cases (ii) and (iii) indicate the drifted load arrangements

Case (i) Case (ii) Case (iii)

1(1) 0,51(1) 1(1)

1 2

1(2) 1(2) 0,51(2)

Case (i) Case (ii) Case (iii)

1(1 )

1 (2) 1 (2)

1(1 )
1 2

(a)

(b)

Figure 3 Snow load shape coefficients (a) for continental climates and (b) for Maritime climates. 5.6 Implications for practice in the UK EN 1991-1-3 is very similar to BS 6399 Part 2 and should not provide any problems to the UK engineer. However, EN 1991-1-3 does not provide prescriptive clauses for certain small building roofs as BS 6399 Part 2 does.

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6.1

EN 1991-1-4: Eurocode 1 : Part 1.4 : Wind Actions

Scope and field of application BS EN1991-1-4 is applicable to: building and civil engineering works with heights up to 200 m; bridges with spans of not more than 200 m (subject to certain limitations based on dynamic response criteria); land based structures, their components and appendages.

The specific exclusions are: lattice towers with non-parallel chords; guyed masts and guyed chimneys; cable supported bridges; bridge deck vibration from transverse wind turbulence; torsional vibrations of buildings; modes of vibration higher than the fundamental mode.

The contents of EN 1991-1-4 is reproduced below Section 1 General Section 2 Design situations Section 3 Modelling of wind actions Section 4 Wind velocity and velocity pressure Section 5 Wind actions Section 6 Structural factor cscd Section 7 Pressure and force coefficients Section 8 Wind actions on bridges Annex A (informative) Terrain effects Annex B (informative) Procedure 1 for structural factor cscd Annex C (informative) Procedure 2 for structural factor cscd Annex D (informative) Graphs of cscd for common building forms Annex E (informative) Vortex shedding & aeroelastic instabilities Annex F (informative) Dynamic characteristics of structures 6.2 Modelling of Wind Actions The nature of wind actions is that they fluctuate with time and act directly as pressures on the external surfaces of enclosed structures and, because of porosity of the external surface, also act indirectly on the internal surfaces. They may also act directly on the internal surface of open structures. Pressures act on areas of the surface resulting in forces normal to the surface of the structure or of individual cladding components. Additionally, when large areas of structures are swept by the wind, friction forces acting tangentially to the surface may be significant. In EN 1991-1-4, a wind action is represented by a simplified set of pressures or forces whose effects are equivalent to the extreme effects of the turbulent wind. The wind actions calculated using EN 1991-1-4 are characteristic values. They are determined from the basic values of wind velocity or the velocity pressure. The basic values are characteristic values having annual probabilities of exceedence of 0,02, which is equivalent to a mean return period of 50 years. The effect of the wind on the structure (i.e. the response of the structure), depends on the size, shape and dynamic properties of the structure. EN 1991-1-4 covers dynamic response due to along-wind turbulence in resonance with the along-wind vibrations of a fundamental flexural mode shape with constant sign.

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The response of structures is calculated from the peak velocity pressure, qp, at the reference height in the undisturbed wind field, the force and pressure coefficients and the structural factor cscd. qp depends on the wind climate, the terrain roughness and orography, and the reference height The fundamental value of the basic wind velocity, vb,0, is the characteristic 10 minutes mean wind velocity, irrespective of wind direction and time of year, at 10 m above ground level in open country terrain with low vegetation such as grass and isolated obstacles with separations of at least 20 obstacle heights (Terrain Category II, see Table 6). The UK National Annex provides a map on this basis. 6.3 Wind velocity and velocity pressures The basic wind velocity shall be calculated from the expression below:

vb = cdir c season vb,0

where: vb vb,0 cdir cseason is the basic wind velocity, is the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity, as defined above is the directional factor, is the season factor

The mean wind velocity vm(z) at a height z above the terrain depends on the terrain roughness and orography and on the basic wind velocity, vb, and is determined from the expression below
v m (z) = c r (z) c o (z)

where: cr(z) is the roughness factor, given in 4.3.2 co(z) is the orography factor, taken as 1,0 unless otherwise specified in 4.3.3 6.3.1 Ground Roughness The roughness factor, cr(z), accounts for the variability of the mean wind velocity at the site of the structure due to: the height above ground level the ground roughness of the terrain upwind of the structure in the wind direction considered

The determination of cr(z) is dependent upon: z0 the roughness length zmin the minimum height defined above for the particular terrain EN 1991-1-4 gives z0 and zmin values for the terrains which are described here in Table 6

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Table 6 Terrain categories and terrain parameters Terrain category 0 Sea or coastal area exposed to the open sea z0 m 0,003 0,01 zmin m 1 1

I Lakes or flat and horizontal area with negligible vegetation and without obstacles II Area with low vegetation such as grass and isolated obstacles (trees, buildings) with separations of at least 20 obstacle heights III Area with regular cover of vegetation or buildings or with isolated obstacles with separations of maximum 20 obstacle heights (such as villages, suburban terrain, permanent forest) IV Area in which at least 15 % of the surface is covered with buildings and their average height exceeds 15 m The terrain categories are illustrated in Annex A.1 of EN 1991-1-4.

0,05

0,3

1,0

10

There are 3 terrain categories in the UK NA Terrain category 0 is referred to as Sea terrain; Terrain categories I and II have been considered together to give a single terrain category referred to as Country terrain; Terrain categories III and IV have been considered together to give a single terrain category referred to as Town terrain. All inland lakes extending more than 1 km in the direction of wind and closer than 1 km upwind of the site should be treated as Sea. 6.3.2 Terrain orography Where orography (e.g. hills, cliffs etc.) increases wind velocities by more than 5% the effects should be taken into account using the orography factor cO. The effects of orography may be neglected when the average slope of the upwind terrain is less than 3. The upwind terrain may be considered up to a distance of 10 times the height of the isolated orographic feature. The UK National Annex gives a diagram (See Figure 4 ) which indicates where orography may be significant. Shaded areas show where orography is significant

terrai

Figure 4: Significance of orography

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A summary of recommended calculation procedures for the determination of wind actions is given in Table 7. It should be noted that procedures for determining some of the parameters (e.g. terrain category, turbulence intensity Iv, orography coefficient co(z), roughness coefficient cr(z), structural factor: cscd) are different in the UK National Annex. Table 7 Recommended (EN 1991-1-4) calculation procedures for the determination of wind actions Parameter peak velocity pressure qp basic wind velocity vb reference height ze terrain category characteristic peak velocity pressure qp turbulence intensity Iv mean wind velocity vm orography coefficient co(z) roughness coefficient cr(z) Wind pressures, e.g. for cladding, fixings and structural parts internal pressure coefficient cpi external pressure coefficient cpe external wind pressure: we=qp cpe internal wind pressure: wi=qp cpi Wind forces on structures, e.g. for overall wind effects structural factor: cscd wind force Fw calculated from force coefficients wind force Fw calculated from pressure coefficients The value of cscd may be taken as 1.0 in the following cases for buildings whose height is <15m for cladding elements whose natural frequency is >5Hz for framed buildings with structural walls whose height is <100m and not more than 4 times the in-wind depth for circular cross-section chimneys whose height is <60m and not more than 6.5 times the diameter 6 5.2 (2) 5.2 (3) Section 7 Section 7 5.1 (1) 5.1 (2) 4.2 (2)P Section 7 Table 4.1 4.5 (1) 4.4 4.3.1 4.3.3 4.3.2 Subject Reference in EN 1991-1-4

cs accounts for the non-simultaneous occurrence of peak pressure cd accounts for the vibrations of the structure due to turbulence

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6.4

Wind Action on Bridges Chapter 8 of EN 1991-1-4 covers wind actions on bridges and the limitations are given below. Field of application: span length < 200 m, height above ground less than 200 m. Road and rail bridges < 40m span can normally be considered to be static and cscd may be taken as 1.0 Only applies to single decks (but multiple spans) Simplified procedure for force in x-direction

Fw = q p ( ze ).c f . Aref .( cs cd )
where qp(ze) is the peak velocity pressure at height ze, and cf is the force coefficients 6.5 Implications for practice in the UK The scope of BS EN 1991-1-4 is much wider than BS 6399-2, as it includes wind actions on other structures, which in the UK are given in a number of other British Standards and design guides. In some cases, there is no equivalent UK standard, e.g. dynamic response of certain buildings. The National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-4 which uses substantial information from BS 6399: Part 2 will refer to a complementary document, PD 6688-1-4, which will give background information to the National Annex and other essential advice. The effects on UK practice should prove neutral.

7
7.1

EN 1991-1-5: Eurocode 1 : Part 1.5 : Thermal actions

Scope and field of application EN 1991-1-5 gives principles, rules and methods of calculating thermal actions on buildings, bridges and other structures including their structural components. Principles for determining thermal actions for claddings and other appendages on the building are also provided. Characteristic values of thermal actions are provided for the design of structures which are exposed to daily and seasonal climatic changes. Structures in which thermal actions are mainly a function of their use (e.g. chimneys, cooling towers, silos, tanks, warm and cold storage facilities, hot and cold services) are also treated. The characteristic values of isotherms of national minimum and maximum shade air temperatures are provided in the form of maps or in other forms in the National Annexes.

7.2

Underlying Philosophy The underlying philosophy of Part 1.5 is that the temperature distribution within a crosssection leads to a deformation of the element, and/or when the deformation is restrained, the occurrence of stresses in the element. EN 1991-1-5 gives procedures for load bearing structures to be checked to ensure that thermal effects do not cause over-stressing of the structural elements, either by the provision of expansion joints or by including the effects in the design.

7.3

Classification and representation of thermal actions Thermal actions are classified as variable free actions and are indirect actions. The characteristic values given are generally 50 year return values.

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EN 1991-1-5 splits the temperature distribution within an individual structural element into the following four essential components: a uniform temperature component; a linearly varying temperature component about the z-z axis; a linearly varying temperature component about the y-y axis; a non-linear temperature distribution.
(a) z z (b) z (c) z (d) z

y =

y +

y +

y +

y x

Center of gravity T u TMy TMz T E

Figure 5: Representation of constituent components of a temperature profile 7.4 Temperature changes in buildings This section of EN 1991-1-5 provides general guidelines and advice on matters which should be considered. Thermal actions on buildings due to climatic and operational temperature changes need to be considered in the design of buildings where there is a possibility of the ultimate or serviceability limit states being exceeded due to thermal movement and/or stresses. Volume changes and/or stresses due to temperature changes may also be influenced by: shading of adjacent buildings, use of different materials with different thermal expansion coefficients and heat transfer, use of different shapes of cross-section with different uniform temperature. 7.5 Temperature changes in bridges EN 1991-1-5 treats the temperature changes in bridges in very much more detail than in buildings. It groups bridge superstructures into three groups: Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Steel deck on steel box, truss or plate girders; Concrete deck on steel box, truss or plate girders; Concrete slab or concrete deck on concrete beams or box girders.

The rules provided apply to bridge decks that are exposed to daily and seasonal climatic effects. EN 1991-1-5 states that all thermal actions should be assessed by the uniform temperature component and the linear temperature components. The characteristic value of the uniform temperature component depends on the minimum and maximum effective temperature which a bridge will achieve over a prescribed period of time. For the three groups of bridges guidance is provided on the determination of the minimum/maximum bridge temperatures from the minimum/maximum shade air temperatures.

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Guidance is provided for determining the characteristic value of the vertical temperature component. Two approaches are provided, and either Approach 1 (Vertical linear component) or Approach 2 (Vertical temperature components with non linear effects) may be used. For Approach 1 (the linear approach), over a prescribed period of time, heating and cooling of a bridge deck's upper surface will result in maximum positive (top surface warmer) and maximum negative (bottom surface warmer) temperature variation. Rules for determining these values for the three groups of bridges (both road and rail) and for adjusting these values to take into account varying thicknesses of surfacing are given. For Approach 2 (the non linear approach) recommended values of vertical temperature differences for bridge decks are given in 3 Figures, which are similar to the corresponding figures of BS 5400. In these figures 'heating' refers to conditions such that solar radiation and other effects cause a gain in heat through the top surface of the bridge deck. Conversely, 'cooling' refers to conditions such that heat is lost from the top surface of the bridge deck as a result of re-radiation and other effects. The UK National Annex to EN 1991-1-5 stipulates the use of Approach 2. 7.6 Temperature changes in industrial chimneys and pipelines EN 1991-1-5 provides quantifiable values for thermal actions in chimneys and pipelines resulting from climatic effects, due to the variation of shade air temperature and solar radiation. It requires the values of operating process temperature to be obtained from the project specification. For structures in contact with heated gas flow or heated material (e.g. chimneys, pipelines and silos) the following thermal actions are defined: temperature distribution for normal process conditions; accidental temperature distribution from failures in operation. Characteristic values of maximum and minimum flue gas temperatures are not given. They are required to be provided in the project specification for a 50 year return period. 7.7 Implications for practice in the UK The guidance in this part, in particular the guidance relating to building structures, is not covered in UK loading standards. The National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-5 will refer to a complementary document, PD 6688-1-5, which will provide background information to the National Annex. Regarding bridges the guidance in EN 1991-1-5 and the UK National Annex is very similar to current practice.

8
8.1

EN 1991-1-6: Eurocode 1: Part 1.6: Actions During Execution

Scope and field of application EN 1991-1-6 covers assessment of actions, combinations of actions and environmental influences during the execution stage, including those actions applied to auxiliary construction works, e.g. scaffolding, propping and bracing, for use in structural design of buildings and bridges. The safety of people on construction sites is not within the scope of EN 1991-1-6.

8.2

Design situations during execution EN 1991-1-6 gives guidance on identification of transient design situations. together with EN 1991-1-6 requires that any selected transient design situation be associated with a nominal duration equal to, or greater than the anticipated duration of the stage of

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execution under consideration. The design situations should take into account the likelihood for any corresponding return periods of variable actions (e.g. climatic actions). Recommended return periods of climatic actions are given depending on the nominal duration of the relevant design situation. Further information on these is given by Gulvanessian, Formichi and Calgaro [1]. Other ultimate limit states design situations e.g. accidental and seismic situations need to be considered. The serviceability limit states for the selected design situations during execution needs to be verified, as appropriate, in accordance with EN 1990. The criteria associated with the serviceability limit states during execution should take into account the requirements for the completed structure. Operations which can cause excessive cracking and/or early deflection during execution and which may adversely affect the durability, fitness for use and/or aesthetic appearance in the final stage has to be avoided. The need to consider seismic actions is described. Accidental actions for buildings and bridges which may lead to collapse or damage during execution are described and the need to check the relevant limit states is defined. 8.3 Representation of actions Actions during execution are classified in accordance with EN 1990, and may include those actions that are not construction loads; and construction loads The representation of those actions that are not construction loads are defined, i.e. selfweight, prestressing, intentional imposed deformations and settlements, temperature and shrinkage actions, wind, snow and water actions, and atmospheric ice loads. Approaches for taking construction loads into account, i.e. Site visitors and personnel with hand tools, Non permanent Equipment Storage movable items Movable heavy machinery and equipment (e.g. cranes), Accumulation of waste materials Loads from parts of structure in temporary states

are given and specific principles and rules are included for construction loads for buildings and bridges. 8.4 Implications for practice in the UK The guidance provided in this document does not have a UK equivalent, and thus provides new codified information for the profession.

9
9.1

EN 1991-1-7: Eurocode 1: Part 1.7: Accidental Actions due to Impact and Explosions
Scope and field of application EN 1991-1-7 describes safety strategies for accidental design situations. It recommends design values for the most common cases of accidental actions from impact and

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explosion; it gives design models and also detailing provisions which may be used as alternatives to design verifications. It also provides more advanced impact and explosion design concepts. External explosion, warfare or malicious damage, or due to natural phenomena such as tornadoes, extreme erosion or rock falls is not in the scope of the EN 1991-1-7. 9.2 Underlying philosophy The selected accidental design situations should be sufficiently severe and varied so as to encompass all conditions which can be reasonably foreseen. The philosophy of Part 1.7 has been described in more by Gulvanessian, Formichi and Calgaro [1]. Accidental actions are required to be taken into account, depending on: the possible consequences of damage; the probability of occurrence of the initiating event; the provisions for preventing or reducing the hazard and the exposure of the structure to the hazard; the acceptable level of risk. EN 1991-1-7 recognises that no structure can be expected to resist all actions arising from an extreme cause and that residual risk will be present in practice. It requires there to be a reasonable probability that the structure will not be damaged to an extent disproportionate to the original cause. Localised damage due to accidental action may be acceptable. 9.3 Design situations EN 1991-1-7 recommends two strategies to be considered for accidental design situations as follows: Strategies based on identified accidental actions e.g. some explosions and impact Strategies based on limiting the extent of localised failure With regard to the above strategies EN 1991-1-7 defines the general principles that can be used in the analysis of accidental design situations. It describes: the procedure for risk analysis to identify extreme events, causes and consequences; the safety precautions required to maintain acceptable safety by using measures to reduce the probability of the consequences of the accidental event. Additional strategies are defined that may be used singly or in combination as measures which may be used to control the risk of accidental actions: these are based on a classification of consequences of failure as follows: Category 1 (limited consequences) where no specific consideration of accidental actions is required; Category 2 (medium consequences) where, depending upon the specific circumstances of the structure in question, a simplified analysis by static equivalent action models or the application of prescriptive design/detailing rules is made; Category 3 (large consequences) where more extensive study (e.g. hazard identification, risk analysis) is required.

9.4

Accidental actions due to impact Impact actions are defined and collision forces given for: Impact from vehicles on walls of buildings and supporting substructures for bridges Impacts from vehicles the underside of buildings and on bridge superstructures

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9.5

Impact from ships on supporting substructures Impact from fork lift trucks Impact from derailed trains Hard landings by helicopters on roofs

Accidental Actions due to Explosions EN 1991-1-7 covers accidental actions arising from gas explosions in buildings. Structures classified as Category 1 require no specific consideration in design of the effects of explosions. The general rules for connections and interaction between elements given in Eurocodes 2 to 9 are assumed to provide adequate safeguards. For structures classified for Category 2 and 3, Part 1.7 requires that the structure is designed to resist the accidental actions either using simplified analysis for key elements based upon equivalent static load models or by applying prescriptive design/detailing rules. For structures in Category 3 the use of a risk analysis together with hazard identification is recommended.

9.6

Implications for practice in the UK Although aspects of accidental actions are covered in BS 6399-1 and BS 5400, BS EN 1991-1-7 comprehensively covers the topic of accidental actions in one document. A categorization scheme concerning the robustness of buildings, which has also been used in Approved Document A of the Building Regulations, is from BS EN 1991-1-7 Annex A. The UK design engineer will be familiar with the design requirements of this part although risk assessments will be required for Category 3 structures. The National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-7 refers to a complementary document, PD 6688-1-7, which will give background information to the National Annex, in particular to risk assessments on impacts to supporting structures for bridges.

10
10.1

EN 1991: Eurocode 1: Part 2: Traffic Loads on Bridges

Scope and field of application EN 1991-2 [8] specifies imposed loads (models and representative values) associated with road traffic, pedestrian actions and rail traffic which include, when relevant, dynamic effects and centrifugal, braking, acceleration and accidental forces. It also includes guidance on combinations with non-traffic loads on road and railway bridges, and on loads on parapets. Actions for the design of road bridges with individual spans less than 200m and with carriageway widths not greater than 42m are defined in EN 1991-2.

10.2

Road traffic actions and other actions specifically for road bridges

10.2.1: Load models Road traffic actions are represented by a series of load models which represent different traffic situations and different components (e.g. horizontal force) of traffic action. Specific models are given for verification of fatigue. The load models for vertical loads are: (1) Load Model 1: Concentrated and uniformly distributed loads, which cover most of the effects of the traffic of lorries and cars. This model is intended for general and local verifications of the structure. The derivation is discussed elsewhere [9]. It is the main

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loading model and consists of two systems: Double axle concentrated loads (tandem system TS). Uniformly distributed loads (UDL system), having a weight density per square metre obtained by multiplying a characteristic value by an adjustment factor.

The UK National Annex increases the applicability of the loaded lengths for this model (from 200m to 1500m) and gives alternative values for the uniformly distributed loads. (2) Load Model 2: A single axle load applied on specific tyre contact areas which covers the dynamic effects of normal traffic on very short structural elements. This model should be separately considered and is only intended for local verifications. (3) Load Model 3: A set of assemblies of axle loads representing special heavy vehicles (e.g. for industrial transport) which may travel on routes permitted for abnormal loads. This model is intended to be used only as required by the client, for general and local verifications of the structure. The UK National Annex specifies the special vehicles currently used in UK practice. (4) Load Model 4: A crowd loading. This model should be considered and is intended only for general verifications of the structure. EN 1992-2 also provides advice on dispersal of concentrated loads, horizontal forces, braking and acceleration forces and centrifugal forces. The various load models above are combined into 5 Groups which are then combined with non-traffic loads (e.g. climatic actions) acting on the bridge. 10.2.2: Fatigue load models For verifications of resistance to fatigue, five fatigue load models of vertical forces are provided for use depending on the verification level selected from the relevant Eurocode 2-9. The UK National Annex gives alternatives to Fatigue load model 4 and restrictions to use for Fatigue load model 2. 10.2.3: Accidental actions The section on road bridges also provides guidance on; accidental actions including: - actions from vehicles on the bridge action on parapets; load models on embankments. 10.3 Pedestrian, cycle actions and other actions specifically for footbridges Vertical load models and representative values for pedestrian and cycle traffic are defined using the following load models: Load model number 1: uniformly distributed load Load model number 2: concentrated load (10 kN recommended) Load model number 3: service vehicle The load models above are combined into 2 Groups which are then combined with nontraffic loads (e.g. climatic actions) acting on the bridge.

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10.4

Rail traffic actions and other actions specifically for rail bridges EN 1991-2 covers the static effects of standard rail traffic operating over the standardgauge or wide-gauge European mainline-network [2], [10]. The load models are not deemed to describe the real loads: they have been defined so that their effects, with a dynamic magnification taken into account separately, represent the effects of real traffic. Non accidental actions due to rail traffic are given for: Vertical loads : 4 load models LM 71, LM SW (associating 2 sub-models SW/0 et SW/2), unloaded train" and HSLM (High Speed Load Model), Vertical loads for embankments and for earth pressure (for the sake of simplicity concentrated or linear vertical loads are replaced by distributed loads), Dynamic effects, Centrifugal forces, Nosing force, Acceleration and braking forces, Aerodynamic effects as a result of passing trains, Load effects from catenaries and other overhead line equipment attached to the structure. For the consideration of centrifugal forces, EN 1991-2 recognises that heavy traffic does not operate at high speeds whereas high speed passenger trains have light axle loadings. Centrifugal forces therefore depend on the loaded length of the bridge and on the maximum permissible speed. Accidental actions arising from derailment on bridges are required to be taken into account so that the damage to the bridge is limited to a minimum. Prevention of overturning or collapse of the bridge is a design requirement. Other accidental actions which arise from severance of overhead line equipment and from road traffic must also be considered in design. Fatigue damage assessment is required for all elements subjected to fluctuations of stress. Details of the service trains and traffic mixes and the dynamic enhancement are given. Each of the mixes is based on an annual traffic tonnage of 25 x 106 tonnes. Fatigue assessment is for a life of 100 years. Alternatively the relevant authority may specify a different life and traffic mix. The deformations and vibrations caused by the passage of rail traffic have to be limited for safety and passenger comfort. Guidance is provided on all the topics mentioned.

10.5

Implications for practice in the UK The National Annex to BS EN 1991-2 will refer to a complementary document, PD 6688-2, which will give background information to the National Annex.

11
11.1

EN 1991-3: Eurocode 1: Part 3: Actions Induced by Cranes and Machinery

Scope and field of application EN 1991-3 specifies actions, self-weights and imposed loads (models and representative values) associated with hoists, crabs and cranes on runway beams and static and dynamic actions induced in supporting structures by machinery.

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11.2

Actions induced by Cranes Actions induced by cranes comprise actions from hoists, crabs and cranes on runway beams. Crane supporting structures are divided into two categories: underslung trolleys on runways; overhead travelling cranes. The methods prescribed are compatible with the provisions of EN 13001-1[11] to facilitate the exchange of data with crane suppliers. The background to the methods has been described elsewhere [12]. Actions induced by cranes are classified as variable and accidental actions and are represented by various models. Guidance for the determination of the following load arrangements is provided: vertical loads from monorail hoist blocks underslung from runway beams; horizontal loads from monorail hoist blocks underslung from runway beams; vertical loads from overhead travelling cranes; horizontal loads from overhead travelling cranes; multiple crane action. When not supplied by the crane manufacturer: dynamic amplification factors are given for vertical loads and advice is included on treating wind actions for cranes located outside buildings; dynamic amplification factors and a method of calculating the drive force on a driven wheel are given. Guidance is included on obtaining horizontal loads and the guide force caused by skewing and the horizontal force caused by acceleration or deceleration of the crab. Advice is also included on taking account of temperature effects in the determination of loads on access walkways, stairs, platforms and guard rails. Guidance is given on accidental actions due to buffer forces related to crane movement and movements of the crab and tilting forces. Fatigue damage equivalent loads are used to classify fatigue actions in relation to a load effect history parameter according to EN 13001-1.

11.3

Actions due to Machinery For machinery, the advice is limited to structures supporting rotating machines which induce dynamic effects in one or more planes. Actions induced by machinery are classified as permanent, variable and accidental. Permanent actions during service include the self-weight of all fixed and movable parts and static actions from service. Variable actions from machinery during normal service are dynamic actions caused by accelerating masses. Accidental actions, which may be considered to occur, are those due to accidental magnification of the eccentricity of masses, short circuit or lack of synchronisation between generators and machines and impact effects from pipes on shutting down. Guidance is given on the calculation of characteristic values of actions for normal service and accidental conditions and on determining movements caused by dynamic forces.

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12
12.1

EN 1991-4: Eurocode 1: Part 4: Actions in Silos and Tanks

Scope and field of application EN 1991-4 [13] gives general principles and rules for determining actions arising from the storage of bulk materials and liquids in silos and tanks. The scope is restricted to: silos with limited eccentricity of inlet and outlet, with small impact effects caused by filling, and with discharge devices which do not cause shock or eccentricities beyond the given limitations; silos containing particulate materials which are free-flowing and have a low cohesion; tanks with liquids stored at normal atmospheric pressure.

12.2

Background Initial studies of codes and recommendations found mainly in Member States covering loads in silos and tanks led to work initiated by ISO being adopted in 1987 as the starting point for the preparation of Part 3 [14]. The classical Janssen theory for filling was adopted as a basis. For discharge and special cases, empirical parameters were used.

12.3

Design situations The design situations to be considered include maximum possible filling and, where appropriate, accidental actions and situations arising from explosions, vehicle impact, seismic actions and fire. Advice is given on measures which may be used to limit or avoid potential damage from dust explosions. Prevention of dust explosions by choice of proper maintenance and cleaning, use of safe electronic equipment and careful use of welding is advocated. Limitation of concrete cracking at the serviceability limit state is required for silos to be used for storage of water sensitive materials. Consideration of fatigue is required where the silo or tank is subjected to more than one load cycle per day. The selection of structural form to give low sensitivity to load deviations is given as a principle and loads due to particulate materials have to be calculated for filling and discharge. Attention is drawn to the inherent variability of stored materials and the simplifications in the load models. Rules are given for calculating storage loads due to particulate materials in tall silos, squat silos and homogenising silos and silos with a high filling velocity. Particulate material properties are obtained by a simplified approach which takes account of horizontal/vertical pressure ratio and coefficient of wall friction, or by testing.

13

CONCLUSIONS
EN 1991: Eurocode 1, Actions on Structures gives comprehensive information on all actions that should normally be considered in the design of building and civil engineering structures. It is intended primarily for use with Eurocodes 2 - 9 for structural design and verification on the basis of the overall principles for limit state design given in EN 1990: Basis of Design.

13.1

Industry Initiatives A course for BS EN 1991 is available in the UK through Thomas Telford Ltd of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Two designers Guides, the first covering Actions on Buildings and the second covering Actions on Bridges have been by Thomas Telford Ltd.

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References and recommended reading [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] Gulvanessian H, Formichi P, Calgaro J-A: Designers Guide to Eurocode 1: Actions on Buildings. Thomas Telford, 2009. Calgaro J-A, Tchumi M, Gulvanessian H: Designers Guide to Eurocode 1: Actions on Bridges. Thomas Telford, 2010. Ostlund, L. Actions. Conference, Delft, IABSE Reports, volume 74, 1996. Twilt, L and Kersken-Bradley, M. EC1: Actions on structures exposed to fire. Conference, Davos, IABSE Reports, volume 65, 1992. Schleich, J-B. Eurocode 1: Part 2.2: Actions on structures exposed to fire. Conference, Delft, IABSE Reports, volume 74, 1996. Twilt, L et al. Input data for the natural fire design of building structures. Conference, Delft, IABSE Reports, volume 74, 1996. Sanpaolesi, L. Snow loading: Scientific basis, problems and challenges. Progress in Structural Engineering and Materials 1998, Vol 1 (4): 443-451. Calgaro, J-A. Loads on bridges. Progress in Structural Engineering and Materials 1998 Vol.1(4); 452-461. Bruls. A. Calgaro, J-A, Mathieu, H and Prat.M. ENV 1991. Part 3: The main models of traffic loads on road bridges. Conference, Delft, IABSE Reports, volume 74, 1996. Gandil, J. Tshumi, M.A. Delorme, F and Vognier, P. Railway traffic actions and combination with other variable actions. Conference, Delft, IABSE Reports, volume 74 1996. EN13001. Cranes-Safety-Design-General, Part 1: General principles and requirements. Part 2: Load effects. Sedlacek, G and Grosmann D. EC1: Actions induced by cranes. Conference, Delft, IABSE Reports, volume 74, 1996. Rotter, J M. Metal silos. Progress in Structural Engineering and Materials. 1998, Vol 1(4) (428-435). Nielsen, J et al. EC1: silos and tanks. Conference, Davos. IABSE Reports, volume 65, 1992.

[11] [12] [13] [14]

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