HISTORY OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE 5.
LATE MODERNISM
High Modernism was no a sing!e s "!e #$ was as di%erse in &hara& er as he 'or&e'$! (ersona!i ies who shared he )* h &en $r" idea!s o' ra iona!ism and so&ia!ism and were ins(ired #" +, h &en $r" a#s ra& ar and '$ $rism. The" were sear&hing 'or ($re '$n& iona! ma&hine-age 'orms. ." he ear!" /,s0 he mo%emen #egan o disin egra e and was red$&ed o he 'orma!is do& rine o' he In erna iona! S "!e0 a erm &oined #" Henr" R$sse!! Hi &h&o&1 and 2hi!i( 3ohnson in heir M$se$m o' Modern Ar e4hi#i ion in )*/+. High Modernism was 'o!!owed #" La e Modernism whi&h (ea1ed d$ring he (os war de&ades and died o$ #" he )*5,s. La e Modernism was %er" di%ergen and di''i&$! o &!assi'". The mo%emen owards La e Modernism was !ed #" hose who were !eaders o' High Modernism and e%en Ear!" Modernism as in he &ase o' 6righ . La e Modernism was domina ed #" Ameri&a as a!! he !eading E$ro(ean ar&hi e& s had '!ed E$ro(e o se !e in Ameri&a d$e o he (o!i i&a! s ri'e in E$ro(e. The mono(o!" o' (ower0 wea! h and se!'-&on'iden&e o' Ameri&a a' er he war ga%e a h$ge #oos o ar&hi e& $re.
La er Fran1 L!o"d 6righ
A! ho$gh Fran1 L!o"d 6righ had a %er" s$&&ess'$! &areer d$ring he Ear!" Modernism (eriod0 #" )*)7 he had so man" (ersona! and 'inan&ia! (ro#!ems ha his &areer oo1 a shar( down $rn. He oo1 he idea o' Usonia0 a dis(ersed0 an i-$r#an !and se !emen #ased on se!'-s$''i&ien indi%id$a! and his &ar. High e&hno!og" had i s (!a&e #$ radi iona! ma eria!s and me hods were e8$a!!" im(or an . 6righ e%en wi hdrew 'rom his &$#is 9$4 a(osi ion o' his (rairie ho$se (eriod and #egan a new (eriod o' se!'-genera ion. He a!so #e&ame (re-o&&$(ied wi h &ir&!es and &$r%i!inear s$r'a&es0 !eading o some weird as we!! as o$ s anding designs. ." he )*/,s 6righ was again a#!e o '$se E$ro(ean ($re a#s ra& s "!e wi h his indi%id$a!ism and organi& (rin&i(!e o &rea e $ni8$e La e Modernis s "!e. 6righ was (ro!i'i& in his wor1 i!! his dea h in )*5* #$ his hree mos im(or an wor1s were &rea ed #e ween )*/: and )*7/; he Fa!!ingwa er Ho$se in 2enns"!%ania <)*/5=0 he 3ohnson 6a4 .$i!ding in Ra&ine0 6is&onsin <)*/:-/*= and he >$ggenheim M$se$m in New Yor1 &i " < no #$i! $n i! m$&h !a er in he )*5,s=. The Fa!!ingwa er Ho$se is in'!$en&ed #" E!emen aris High Modernism o' E$ro(e wi h i s whi e 'erro&on&re e (!anes ho%ering o%er he ri%er. The (!anning and hori?on a! #ands were reminis&en o' his (rairie ho$ses whi!e he '!a 0 e4 $re!ess s$r'a&es and #ands o' hori?on a! windows re&a!!ed he In erna iona! S "!e. The di''eren&e was ha 6righ had wo%en his organi& &on e4 $a!ism in o he #$i!ding. He had ied he '!oa ing (!anes o he si e hro$gh r$s i&a ed &himne" and (iers and he &on&re e erra&es rea&hed o$ in o he gorge and he s$rro$nding rees in an em#ra&e o' ar&hi e& $re and na $re. 6hi!e he @i!!a Sa%o"e s ands o$ in o(en &o$n r"side !i1e a em(!e o he ma&hine age0 he Fa!!ingwa er re rea s in o na $re as a (ar o' he !ands&a(e.
The >$ggenheim M$se$m <)*5:-5*= &onsis s o' an e4(anding s(ira! ram( whi&h is he main e4hi#i ion s(a&e. A! ho$gh he &$r%ed in&!ined wa!!s are no idea! 'or hanging (ain ings0 he &on in$o$s dis(!a" a!!ows he (ain ings o #e e4hi#i ed &hrono!ogi&a!!"0 gi%ing a 'o$r h dimen ion o ar . The &en ra! a ri$m is !igh ed hro$gh an o&$!$s. 3$s as he Fa!!ingwa er was a La e Modernis rema1e o' he Ro#ie Ho$se0 The m$se$m #$i!ding e%o!%ed 'rom his ear!ier Lar1in #$i!ding. 6hi!e he in erior o' he Lar1in #$i!ding was s i'' and righ ang!ed0 ha o' he >$ggenheim was &on in$o$s and &hanging. In he 3ohnson 6a4 .$i!ding0 6righ e4hi#i ed his mas er" o%er &on&re e and g!ass #" $sing m$shroom-sha(ed &on&re e &o!$mns as s$((or s"s em and wra((ing g!ass seam!ess!" aro$nd he &$r%ed edges o' he !a#ora or" owers.
La er Mies %an der Rohe
Mies &ame o Ameri&a in )*/A o ea&h a he I!!inois Ins i $ e o' Te&hno!og" in Chi&ago. His 'irs ma9or Ameri&an &ommission was o (re(are he &am($s (!an 'or IIT #ased on re& ang$!ar %o!$mes and e4(osed me a! 'rames. In he Crown Ha!!0 a #$i!ding 'or ar&hi e& $re0 he &rea ed a !arge $ni%ersa! &o!$mn-'ree s(a&e where he roo' was s$s(ended 'rom s ee! girders s$((or ed #" s ee! &o!$mns a he (erime er. The en&!osing wa!!s were en ire!" o' g!ass and s$((or ing s ee! se& ions. This idea o' he o(en (a%i!ion (!an had #een #ri!!ian !" wor1ed o$ ear!ier in he Farnswor h Ho$se where he roo' and he '!oor were s$s(ended 'rom e4 erna! &o!$mns. The #$i!ding was !i' ed 'rom he gro$nd wi h a '!oa ing s!a# and s e(s (ro%iding he ransi ion 'rom he gro$nd o he #$i!ding. The '!oa ing sensa ion was re(ea ed in he en ran&e s e(s and s!a# o' he Crown Ha!!. 6i h e&onomi& de&!ine0 #" he ime Mies arri%ed a IIT0 s1"s&ra(ers had more or !ess died o$ in Chi&ago. Mies0 howe%er0 #ro$gh he s1"s&ra(er #a&1 o !i'e in a rans'ormed s "!e. He had #een grea !" im(ressed #" he s1e!e a! idea o' he Chi&ago s1"s&ra(er. Howe%er0 he did no wan o re(ea he hea%" masonr" &$r ain wa!! o' his ori&is &hara& er $sed in he ear!ier s1"s&ra(ers. He wan ed o in rod$&e he High Modernis &on&e( o' %o!$me as o((osed o mass and a#s ra& ion in he 'aBade. The 'orm had o re'!e& he ma&hine age. The main s r$& $re o' he Chi&ago s1"s&ra(er was he I-#eam en&ased in 'ire(roo'ing ma eria!0 as manda ed #" he #"!aws0 so ha i was ne%er %isi#!e. The $ni8$e 'ea $re o' MiesC s r$& $re was o $se he I-#eams0 red$&ed in s&a!e and re'ined in sha(e0 hro$gho$ he e4 erna! s$r'a&e as &!ose!" m$!!ions 'raming he window #a"s. The sma!!er I-#eams s"m#o!i?ed he a& $a! s r$& $ra! s"s em #eing $sed inside and a!so s ressed he %er i&a!i " o' he #$i!ding. The who!e &$r ain wa!! o' g!ass and s ee! m$!!ions and s(andre!s was h$ng 'rom (i!o is whi&h ga%e i a #$o"an s&$!( $ra! Modernis 'aBade. @iewed 'rom #e!ow0 he I-#eams !oo1ed !i1e a series o' rai!wa" ra&1s whi&h was a!so 8$i e s"m#o!i& sin&e Chi&ago was he rai!wa" h$# o' Ameri&a. MiesC s "!e o' s1"s&ra(er0 whi&h was he mos in'!$en ia! Modernis 'orm$!a o #e &o(ied a!! o%er he wor!d0 a!so re'erred o as he In erna iona! S "!e0 #egan wi h his 2romon or" A(ar men s in Chi&ago in )*7:-7A. The I-#eam was 'irs (ro(osed #$ no $sed. In )*575A he designed he Seagram .$i!ding in New Yor1 in &o!!a#ora ion wi h 2hi!i( 3ohnson
<main!" res(onsi#!e 'or he in eriors= where his idea o' he I-#eam and o her e!emen s was #ro$gh o (er'e& ion. The Seagram .$i!ding was ri&h!" &!ad in so!id #ron?e and in ed g!ass and de ai!s o' e%er" e!emen were min$ e!" wor1ed o$ . The ower #!o&10 /A s ore" and 5+, 'ee high0 on!" o&&$(ied +5D o' he e4(ensi%e down own New Yor1 !and. As a!!owed #" New Yor1 se #a&1 !aws he #$i!ding has 7 and ), s ore" s e((ing #!o&1s a he #a&10 hidden 'rom %iew. In he 'ron a !arge grani e (a%ed (!a?a wi h (oo!s and 'o$n ain and groo%es o' rees (ro%ides o(enness and re!ie' 'rom &onges ion o' he &rowded s$rro$ndings. I a!so (ro%ides se #a&1 'or '$!! a((re&ia ion o' he drama i& s&$!( $ra! %iew o' he #$i!ding. The #$i!ding s "!e has #een &o(ied inn$mera#!e imes a!! o%er he wor!d #$ none has #een a#!e o &a( $re i s (er'e& ion o' 'orm and grande$r. Howe%er0 he main &ri i&ism o' Mies is ha his ($re 'orms do no re!a e o he s(e&i'i& needs o' he si e0 &!ima e or he (!a&e.
La er Le Cor#$sier
Un!i1e he !a er wor1s o' 6righ and Mies whi&h show e%o!$ ionar" rends o' ear!ier wor1s0 he !a er wor1s o' Le Cor#$sier are hard!" re&ogni?a#!e 'rom his (re&eding o$ ($ . He e%en e4(ressed shame o' his ear!ier wor1s. He was s i!! wor1ing wi h 'erro&on&re e as he ma9or medi$m0 #$ ins ead o' #$i!ding hin (!anes aro$nd geome ri& %o!$mes0 he was #$i!ding in grea s&a!e and weigh and ro$gh e4 $re aimed a &rea ing s&$!( $ra! e''e& s. He #ro1e awa" 'rom he High Modernis idea!s aro$nd )*/, o #egin wor1ing %igoro$s!" in an E4(ressionis s "!e o' en &a!!ed .r$ a!ism in re'eren&e o i s ro$gh 'inished 'orm o' raw &on&re e. Ini ia!!" he ro$gh 'inished s$r'a&e was di& a ed #" (os war e&onomi&s #$ !a er i #e&ame a 'ashion. .e ween )*//-)*75 Le Cor#$sier #$i! (ra& i&a!!" no hing #e&a$se o' he wor!dwide e&onomi& de(ression and he 6or!d 6ar II and he di''i&$! " 'or (ra& i&ing ar&hi e& o 'ind wor10 es(e&ia!!" in E$ro(e. A' er he s ar ed wor1ing aro$nd )*5,0 h no !onger showed he a''ini " 'or ra iona!is and e&hno!ogi&a! ideas. Ins ead he &hose sens$a! 'orms And raw e4 $re in a reasser ion o' (rima! 'ee!ings and resor ed o .r$ a!is s "!e as ho$gh r"ing o asser he ri$m(h o' h$man s(iri o%er a #r$ a! New 6or!d. Cor#$sierCs 'irs signi'i&an (os war #$i!ding was he Uni e dCHa#i a ion in Marsei!!es o' )*75-5+. I was a h$ge )+ s ore" a(ar men #!o&1 mean o ho$se ):,, (eo(!e. I was s$((osed o ser%e as a (ro o "(e 'or mass ho$sing o address he se%ere (os war ho$sing shor age. Here Cor#$sier go he &han&e o in&!$de his 'i%e-(oin (rogram in o he design. The a(ar men was raised on h$ge (i!o is wi h a garden on he roo'. Ci rohan-!i1e a(ar men s were 'i ed oge her0 ser%ed #" s ree s a e%er" hird '!oor. Comm$na! 'a&i!i ies !i1e sho(s0 res a$ran s e &. were (ro%ided on he 5 h and A h '!oor. The hin mem#rane-!i1e wa!!s and ri##on windows o' his ear!ier #$i!dings were re(!a&ed #" dee( &on&re e #rise so!ie! or s$n #rea1ers. 6i h '$nne!-!i1e s r$& $res on he roo'0 he #$i!ding a((eared as a #ig o&ean !iner &arr"ing a who!e &omm$ni " o sa'e ". One &an easi!" see he in'!$en&e o' S$rrea!is ar in he design; he #iomor(hi& (i!o is whi&h was &om(ared #" Cor#$sier o #eing as s rong as a womanCs high0 he rigid geome ri& #od" and he na$ i&a! &rown. Uni e dCHa#i a ion is a &om(!e e re%ersa! o' he norm; !ands&a(e and
garden on he roo' ins ead o' on he gro$nd0 s ree s in he air and in erna! ins ead o' #eing o(en and on he gro$nd0 sho((ing on he 5 h '!oor and no &onne& ed o he !i'e o' he &i ". The S$rrea!is s rea1 is e%en s ronger in his &h$r&h #$i!ding0 he No re-Dame-d$-Ha$ a Ron&ham(0 Fran&e o' )*5,-57. A! ho$gh he na%e is more or !ess o' reg$!ar sha(e0 he #$i!ding 'orm is a '$sion o' m"s i& and Chris ian #e!ie's. The h$ge h$!!-!i1e roo' o%er he na%e is mean o re(resen he &h$r&h as a s"m#o!i& shi( sa%ing he 'ai h'$!. I a!so s"m#o!i?es NoahCs ar1 whi&h had &ome o res on he sa&red hi!!side. As he area had man" do!mens o' ear!ier (eriod0 he roo' is a!so reminis&en o' do!men as a sa&red s"m#o!. The #e!! ower and owers o%er he &ha(e!s a((ear as hooded mon1s. The rear %iew o' he &h$r&h is ha o' a re&!ining 'ema!e 'ig$re0 a &!ear a!!$sion o he image o' he m" hi&a! Mo her Ear h. The magi&a! 'ee!ing inside o' he grea &a hedra!s is re(!i&a ed here #" !igh 'i! ered hro$gh s ained g!ass in windows se in seeming!" s&a ered (a ern. Le Cor#$sierCs shi' awa" 'rom geome ri& o #iomor(hi& 'orms in rod$&ed sens$a!i "0 aggression and mon$men a!i " in his #$i!ding. Howe%er0 he has #een a&&$sed o' #e&oming irra iona! and de%ia ing 'rom or hogona! 'orms. In Chandigarh he go%ernmen &en er has #een designed !i1e he a&ro(o!is0 !o&a ed a he $((ermos (ar o' he &i ". In he Chandigarh High Co$r he has reso!%ed he &on'!i& ing geome r" o' he o' he &$#i& #od" and he &$r%ing roo' #" '$sing he roo' o he mod$!ar grid. In he Assem#!" .$i!ding0 he has resor ed o o(en (!an wi h !arge areas de%o ed o &ir&$!a ion and &ongrega ion0 reminis&en o' he %as &o!$mnar ha!!s o' he em(!es o' Earna1. D$ring he !ean (eriod #e'ore he war0 Cor#$sier was engaged in own (!anning (ro9e& s 'or A!giers0 Nemo$rs <A!geria=0 .ar&e!ona0 .$enos Aires0 Mon e%ideo0 Sao 2a$!o0 2aris e &. none o' whi&h were im(!emen ed. The on!" &i " (!an he a& $a!!" go o im(!emen was he &i " o' Chandigarh 'rom )*5,. The grid "(e !a"o$ #ased on he 5@ ra''i& s"s em0 a! ho$gh &ri i&i?ed as #eing inh$man0 has a& $a!!" (ro%ed 8$i e s$&&ess'$!. He a!so go o rea!i?e his heories on ?oning and ra''i& se(ara ion.
O her Ar&hi e& $ra! Trends
The wa" shown #" he mas ers !ed o di''eren rends in La e Modernism; he %ario$s re'inemen s in s1"s&ra(er design0 di''eren modes o' .r$ a!ism and a s rong re%i%a! in E4(ressionism. D$ring he ime o' %igoro$s $r#an re&ons r$& ion and e&onomi& e4(ansion0 he m$! is ore" #$i!ding #e&ame he mos im(or an "(e o' #$i!ding0 whe her as a(ar men s0 #$siness or ins i $ iona! s r$& $res. The" #egan o #e #$i! a!! o%er he wor!d and #e&ame (o($!ar as &or(ora e head8$ar ers #e&a$se he" (ro9e& ed (ower and (ro%ided a re&ogni?a#!e i&on. A! ho$gh he Cor#$sier ins(ired UN #$i!ding was &ons r$& ed in )*750 he /* s ore" s!a# was &o%ered in g!ass on!" on i s wo main 'a&ades0 showing &!oser a''ini " o High Modernis aes he i&s. The In erna iona! S "!e was rein er(re ed #" >ordon .$nsha' o' he 'irm o' S1idmore0 Owing and Merri!! in his design o' he Le%er Ho$se0 New Yor1 o' )*5,-5+. The #$i!ding is a mas er'$! s"n hesis o' he )*+,s High Modernis - .a$ha$s g!ass wa!!ed wor1sho( and Cor#$sierCs 'i%e (oin (rogram. The Le%er Ho$se &onsis s o'
a g!ass wa!!ed (odi$m wi h roo' garden0 raised on (i!o is and en&!osing a garden a ri$m. The s!ee1 +, s ore" ower and (odi$m was &om(!e e!" &o%ered in a hin &$r ain wa!! o' s ain!ess s ee! and g!ass. The (ro(or ion and de ai!ing was e4&e( iona!. ." he )*:,s s1"s&ra(ers #e&ame a!!er and #igger. MiesC s "!e o' dis(!a"ing he in erna! s r$& $ra! s"s em and Cor#$sierCs .r$ a!ism was 9$4 a(osed so ha he &$r ain wa!! now a& $a!!" showed he aggressi%e #ra&ing and s r$& $ra! mem#ers o' s ee! or &on&re e. A good e4am(!e is he 3ohn Han&o&1 Cen er0 Chi&ago )*:5 designed #" SOM. Then owards he !a e )*:,s and )*5,s0 he s1"s&ra(ers &ame o #e &!ad in o(a8$e0 mirror-g!ass (ane!s0 whi&h &$ down he o(era iona! &os o' he #$i!ding0 #$ (ro%ided an im(ersona!0 'or#idding and hos i!e a((earan&e. I re'!e& ed he s$rro$ndings #$ had !i !e warm h or we!&oming 8$a!i ies. To &o$n era& his an iso&ia! 8$a!i " o' he s1"s&ra(er0 man" ($#!i& ameni ies were (ro%ided o r" o draw in he ($#!i&. A series o' ho e!s wi h s(e& a&$!ar im(!oding a ri$ms were designed #" 3ohn 2or man in he )*:,s. The Ci i&or( Cen er #$i! in )*57-55 #" H$gh S $##ins was raised on a!! &en ra! (i!!ars0 (ro%iding s(a&e 'or a &h$r&h and sho((ing &en er in he s(a&e #e!ow. The in'!$en&e o' Cor#$sierCs .r$ a!ism a!so s(read hro$gho$ he wor!d. In 'a& Cor#$sier (ro#a#!" had he mos 'o!!owers. 2a$! R$do!(hCs Ar and Ar&hi e& $re .$i!ding a Ya!e Uni%ersi "<)*5*-:/= is an e4am(!e o' ro$gh &on&re e 'orms whereas he Hi- e&h .r$ a!ism was dis(!a"ed #" 3ames S ir!ing in he Engineering S&hoo! o' he Uni%ersi " o' Lei&es er0 )*5*-:/. Form is s"m#o!i& o' '$n& ion in #o h #$i!dings-design s&hoo! and 'a& or" aes he i&s. 6righ and Cor#$sier0 hro$gh heir >$ggenheim m$se$m0 &h$r&h a Ron&ham(0 assem#!" #$i!ding and high &o$r a Chandigarh0 had showed ha 'orm was an im(or an e!emen o' ar&hi e& $re. This !ed o a new genera ion o' modern ar&hi e& s who a!so em(hasi?ed 'orm o%er he 'orm!ess and '$n& ion!ess &hara& er o' he In erna iona! S "!e. One gro$(Cs a((roa&h was o iden i'" a s "!e or sha(e whi&h was s"m#o!i& o' he (ro9e& and dire& !" rans!a e ha in o he design. Eero SaarinenCs designs were "(i&a! o' his a((roa&h F s!ee10 shin" #$i!ding o' g!eaming me a! and g!ass 'or he head8$ar ers o' >enera! Mo orsG he Trans-6or!d Air!ines ermina! <)*5:-:+= a 3EF Air(or 0 New Yor10 wi h i s wing-!i1e %a$! s re(resen ing '!igh . 2ier Li$gi Ner%i and Fe!i4 Cande!a (rod$&ed e8$a!!" s $nning #$i!dings0 howe%er0 heirCs was di& a ed more #" s r$& $ra! !ogi& han s"m#o!ism. 3orn U ?on 'i!!ed he S"dne" har#or wi h his sai!-'orm O(era Ho$se in S"dne"0 A$s ra!ia<)*5:-5/=. Een?o TangeCs O!"m(i& swimming (oo! and g"mnas i& ha!!s were swee(ing s$s(ended s r$& $res whi!e &!oser o home0 he Lo $s em(!e was #$i! a De!hi. Eahn had a di''eren a((roa&h. He #e!ie%ed ha 'orm e4is ed in he (rima! s age0 wi ho$ sha(e or dimension. 6e needed o gras( ha 'orm and #egin o modi'" i a&&ording o i s '$n& ion. Design was h$s a (ro&ess o' gi%ing a& $a! sha(e o a 'orm.
