Chapter 1 Introduction
Main Ref: Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach
6th edition Jim Kurose, Keith Ross Addison-Wesley March 2012
Introduction 1-1
Chapter 1: Overview
our goal: get feel and terminology more depth, detail later in course approach: use Internet as example overview:
whats the Internet? whats a protocol? network edge; hosts, access net, physical media Internetworking: packet/circuit switching, Internet structure performance: loss, delay, throughput security protocol layers, service models history
Introduction 1-2
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet? 1.2 network edge end systems, access networks, links 1.3 Internetworking
packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks 1.5 protocol layers, service models 1.6 networks under attack: security 1.7 history
Introduction 1-3
Whats the Internet: nuts and bolts view
PC server wireless laptop smartphone
millions
of connected computing devices: hosts = end systems running network apps links fiber, copper, radio, satellite transmission rate: bandwidth
mobile network global ISP
communication
wireless links wired links
home network regional ISP
Packet
router
switches: forward packets (chunks of data) routers and switches
institutional network
Introduction 1-4
Fun internet appliances
Web-enabled toaster + weather forecaster
IP picture frame [Link]
Tweet-a-watt: monitor energy use
Slingbox: watch, control cable TV remotely Internet refrigerator Internet phones
Introduction 1-5
Whats the Internet: nuts and bolts view
Internet: network of networks
Interconnected ISPs
mobile network global ISP
protocols control sending, receiving of msgs
e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype, 802.11
Internet standards
RFC: Request for comments IETF: Internet Engineering Task Force
home network regional ISP
institutional network
Introduction 1-6
Whats the Internet: a service view
Infrastructure that provides services to applications:
Web, VoIP, email, games, ecommerce, social nets,
mobile network global ISP
provides programming interface to apps
hooks that allow sending and receiving app programs to connect to Internet provides service options, analogous to postal service
home network regional ISP
institutional network
Introduction 1-7
Whats a protocol?
human protocols:
network protocols:
whats the time? I have a question introductions
specific msgs sent specific actions taken when msgs received, or other events
machines rather than humans all communication activity in Internet governed by protocols
protocols define format, order of msgs sent and received among network entities, and actions taken on msg transmission, receipt
Introduction 1-8
Whats a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:
Hi Hi
Got the time?
TCP connection request TCP connection response Get [Link]
2:00
time
<file>
Q: other human protocols?
Introduction 1-9
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet? 1.2 network edge end systems, access networks, links 1.3 Internetworking
packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks 1.5 protocol layers, service models 1.6 networks under attack: security 1.7 history
Introduction 1-10
A closer look at network structure:
network edge:
mobile network global ISP
hosts: clients and servers servers often in data centers
home network
access networks, physical media: wired, wireless communication links
regional ISP
Internetworking:
interconnected routers network of networks
institutional network
Introduction 1-11
Access networks and physical media
Q: How to connect end systems to edge router?
residential access nets institutional access networks (school, company) mobile access networks bandwidth (bits per second) of access network? shared or dedicated?
keep in mind:
Introduction 1-12
Access net: digital subscriber line (DSL)
central office telephone network
DSL splitter modem
DSLAM
voice, data transmitted at different frequencies over dedicated line to central office
ISP
DSL access multiplexer
use existing telephone line to central office DSLAM data over DSL phone line goes to Internet voice over DSL phone line goes to telephone net < 2.5 Mbps upstream transmission rate (typically < 1 Mbps) < 24 Mbps downstream transmission rate (typically < 10 Mbps)
Introduction 1-13
Access net: cable network
cable headend
cable splitter modem
V I D E O 1
V I D E O 2
V I D E O 3
V I D E O 4
V I D E O 5
V I D E O 6
D A T A 7
D A T A 8
C O N T R O L 9
Channels
frequency division multiplexing: different channels transmitted in different frequency bands
Introduction 1-14
Access net: cable network
cable headend
cable splitter modem
CMTS
cable modem termination system
data, TV transmitted at different frequencies over shared cable distribution network
ISP
HFC: hybrid fiber coax asymmetric: up to 30Mbps downstream transmission rate, 2 Mbps upstream transmission rate network of cable, fiber attaches homes to ISP router homes share access network to cable headend unlike DSL, which has dedicated access to central office
Introduction 1-15
Access net: home network
wireless devices
to/from headend or central office
often combined in single box
cable or DSL modem wireless access point (54 Mbps) router, firewall, NAT wired Ethernet (100 Mbps)
Introduction 1-16
Enterprise access networks (Ethernet)
institutional link to ISP (Internet) institutional router Ethernet switch institutional mail, web servers
typically used in companies, universities, etc 10 Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps transmission rates today, end systems typically connect into Ethernet switch
Introduction 1-17
Wireless access networks
shared wireless access network connects end system to router
via base station aka access point
wireless LANs:
within building (100 ft) 802.11b/g (WiFi): 11, 54 Mbps transmission rate
wide-area wireless access
provided by telco (cellular) operator, 10s km between 1 and 10 Mbps 3G, 4G: LTE
to Internet
to Internet
Introduction 1-18
Host: sends packets of data
host sending function: takes application message breaks into smaller chunks, known as packets, of length L bits transmits packet into access network at transmission rate R link transmission rate, aka link capacity, aka link bandwidth
packet transmission delay two packets, L bits each
2 1
R: link transmission rate
host
time needed to transmit L-bit packet into link
L (bits) R (bits/sec)
1-19
Physical media
bit: propagates between transmitter/receiver pairs physical link: what lies between transmitter & receiver guided media: signals propagate in solid media: copper, fiber, coax unguided media: signals propagate freely, e.g., radio
twisted pair (TP) two insulated copper wires
Category 5: 100 Mbps, 1 Gpbs Ethernet Category 6: 10Gbps
Introduction 1-20
Physical media: coax, fiber
coaxial cable:
fiber optic cable:
two concentric copper conductors bidirectional broadband:
multiple channels on cable HFC
glass fiber carrying light pulses, each pulse a bit high-speed operation:
high-speed point-to-point transmission (e.g., 10s-100s Gpbs transmission rate)
low error rate:
repeaters spaced far apart immune to electromagnetic noise
Introduction 1-21
Physical media: radio
signal carried in electromagnetic spectrum no physical wire bidirectional propagation environment effects: reflection obstruction by objects interference
radio link types:
terrestrial microwave
e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels
LAN (e.g., WiFi)
11Mbps, 54 Mbps
wide-area (e.g., cellular)
3G cellular: ~ few Mbps
satellite
Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or multiple smaller channels) 270 msec end-end delay geosynchronous versus low altitude
Introduction 1-22
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet? 1.2 network edge end systems, access networks, links 1.3 Internetworking
packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks 1.5 protocol layers, service models 1.6 networks under attack: security 1.7 history
Introduction 1-23
Internetworking
mesh of interconnected routers packet-switching: hosts break application-layer messages into packets
forward packets from one router to the next, across links on path from source to destination each packet transmitted at full link capacity
Introduction 1-24
Packet-switching: store-and-forward
L bits per packet source
3 2 1
R bps
R bps
destination
takes L/R seconds to transmit (push out) L-bit packet into link at R bps store and forward: entire packet must arrive at router before it can be transmitted on next link end-end delay = 2L/R (assuming zero propagation delay)
one-hop numerical example: L = 7.5 Mbits R = 1.5 Mbps one-hop transmission delay = 5 sec
more on delay shortly
Introduction 1-25
Packet Switching: queueing delay, loss
A B
R = 100 Mb/s
C
R = 1.5 Mb/s
D
E
queue of packets waiting for output link
queuing and loss:
If arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds transmission rate of link for a period of time: packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on link packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) fills up
Introduction 1-26
Two key network-core functions
routing: determines sourcedestination route taken by packets routing algorithms
routing algorithm
forwarding: move packets from
routers input to appropriate router output
local forwarding table header value output link
0100 0101 0111 1001 3 2 2 1
1
3 2
dest address in arriving packets header
Network Layer 4-27
Alternative core: circuit switching
end-end resources allocated to, reserved for call between source & dest:
In diagram, each link has four circuits. call gets 2nd circuit in top link and 1st circuit in right link. dedicated resources: no sharing circuit-like (guaranteed) performance circuit segment idle if not used by call (no sharing) Commonly used in traditional telephone networks
Introduction 1-28
Circuit switching: FDM versus TDM
Example: FDM 4 users frequency time
TDM
frequency time
Introduction 1-29
Packet switching versus circuit switching
packet switching allows more users to use network!
example: 1 Mb/s link each user:
100 kb/s when active active 10% of time
circuit-switching:
N users 1 Mbps link
10 users
packet
switching:
Q: how did we get value 0.0004? Q: what happens if > 35 users ?
with 35 users, probability > 10 active at same time is less than .0004 *
* Check out the online interactive exercises for more examples
Introduction 1-30
Packet switching versus circuit switching
is packet switching a slam dunk winner?
great for bursty data resource sharing simpler, no call setup excessive congestion possible: packet delay and loss protocols needed for reliable data transfer, congestion control Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior? bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video apps still an unsolved problem (chapter 7)
Q: human analogies of reserved resources (circuit switching) versus on-demand allocation (packet-switching)?
Introduction 1-31
Internet structure: network of networks
End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs (Internet Service Providers) Residential, company and university ISPs Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected. So that any two hosts can send packets to each other Resulting network of networks is very complex Evolution was driven by economics and national policies Lets take a stepwise approach to describe current Internet structure
Internet structure: network of networks
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them together?
access net access net access net access net
access net
access net access net
access net
access net
access net
access net access net access net
access net
access net
access net
Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to every other access ISP?
access net
access net
access net access net
access net access net access net
access net
connecting each access ISP to each other directly doesnt scale: O(N2) connections.
access net
access net
access net access net access net
access net
access net
access net
Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to a global transit ISP? Customer and provider ISPs have economic agreement.
access net access net access net access net
access net
access net access net
access net
global ISP
access net
access net
access net access net access net
access net
access net
access net
Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors .
access net access net access net access net
access net
access net access net
ISP A
access net
ISP B ISP C
access net
access net
access net access net access net
access net
access net
access net
Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors . which must be interconnected Internet exchange point access access
access net access net access net net net access net
IXP
ISP A
IXP
access net
access net
ISP B
access net
access net
ISP C
access net access net
peering link
access net
access net
access net
access net
Internet structure: network of networks
and regional networks may arise to connect access nets to ISPS
access net access net access net access net
access net
access net
IXP
ISP A
IXP
access net
access net
ISP B
access net
access net
ISP C
access net access net access net
regional net
access net
access net
access net
Internet structure: network of networks
and content provider networks (e.g., Google, Microsoft, Akamai ) may run their own network, to bring services, content close to end users
access net access net access net access net
access net
access net
IXP
ISP A
access net
Content provider network
access net
IXP
ISP B
access net
access net
ISP B
access net access net access net
regional net
access net
access net
access net
Internet structure: network of networks
Tier 1 ISP IXP Tier 1 ISP IXP
Google
IXP
Regional ISP
Regional ISP
access ISP
access ISP
access ISP
access ISP
access ISP
access ISP
access ISP
access ISP
at center: small # of well-connected large networks
tier-1 commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT), national & international coverage content provider network (e.g, Google): private network that connects it data centers to Internet, often bypassing tier-1, regional ISPs Introduction 1-40
Tier-1 ISP: e.g., Sprint
POP: point-of-presence
to/from backbone
peering
to/from customers
Introduction 1-41
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet? 1.2 network edge end systems, access networks, links 1.3 Internetworking packet switching, circuit switching, network structure 1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks 1.5 protocol layers, service models 1.6 networks under attack: security 1.7 history
Introduction 1-42
How do loss and delay occur?
packets queue in router buffers
packet arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds output link capacity packets queue, wait for turn
packet being transmitted (delay)
A B
packets queueing (delay) free (available) buffers: arriving packets dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Introduction 1-43
Four sources of packet delay
transmission
A
B
nodal processing
propagation
queueing
dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop
dproc: nodal processing
check bit errors determine output link typically < msec
time waiting at output link for transmission depends on congestion level of router
Introduction 1-44
dqueue: queueing delay
Four sources of packet delay
transmission
A
B
nodal processing
propagation
queueing
dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop
dtrans: transmission delay:
L: packet length (bits) R: link bandwidth (bps) dtrans = L/R dtrans and dprop very different
dprop: propagation delay:
d: length of physical link s: propagation speed in medium (~2x108 m/sec) dprop = d/s
Introduction 1-45
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on trans vs. prop delay
Caravan analogy
100 km 100 km toll booth
ten-car caravan
toll booth
cars propagate at 100 km/hr toll booth takes 12 sec to service car (bit transmission time) car~bit; caravan ~ packet Q: How long until caravan is lined up before 2nd toll booth?
time to push entire caravan through toll booth onto highway = 12*10 = 120 sec time for last car to propagate from 1st to 2nd toll both: 100km/(100km/hr)= 1 hr A: 62 minutes
Introduction 1-46
Caravan analogy (more)
100 km ten-car caravan
100 km toll booth
toll booth
suppose cars now propagate at 1000 km/hr and suppose toll booth now takes one min to service a car Q: Will cars arrive to 2nd booth before all cars serviced at first booth? A: Yes! after 7 min, 1st car arrives at second booth; three cars still at 1st booth.
Introduction 1-47
Queueing delay (revisited)
R: link bandwidth (bps) L: packet length (bits) a: average packet arrival rate
average queueing delay
traffic intensity = La/R
La/R ~ 0: avg. queueing delay small La/R -> 1: avg. queueing delay large La/R > 1: more work arriving than can be serviced, average delay infinite!
La/R ~ 0
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on queuing and loss
La/R -> 1
Introduction 1-48
Real Internet delays and routes
what do real Internet delay & loss look like? traceroute program: provides delay measurement from source to router along endend Internet path towards destination. For all i:
sends three packets that will reach router i on path towards destination router i will return packets to sender sender times interval between transmission and reply.
3 probes 3 probes
3 probes
Introduction 1-49
Real Internet delays, routes
traceroute: [Link] to [Link]
3 delay measurements from [Link] to [Link]
1 cs-gw ([Link]) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms 2 [Link] ([Link]) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms 3 [Link] ([Link]) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms 4 [Link] ([Link]) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms 5 [Link] ([Link]) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms 6 [Link] ([Link]) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms 7 [Link] ([Link]) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic 8 [Link] ([Link]) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms link 9 [Link] ([Link]) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms 10 [Link] ([Link]) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms 11 [Link] ([Link]) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms 12 [Link] ([Link]) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms 13 [Link] ([Link]) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms 14 [Link] ([Link]) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms 15 [Link] ([Link]) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms 16 [Link] ([Link]) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms 17 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying) 18 * * * 19 [Link] ([Link]) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms
* Do some traceroutes from exotic countries at [Link]
Introduction 1-50
Packet loss
queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has finite capacity packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost) lost packet may be retransmitted by previous node, by source end system, or not at all
buffer (waiting area)
A B
packet being transmitted
packet arriving to full buffer is lost
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on queuing and loss
Introduction 1-51
Throughput
throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which bits transferred between sender/receiver
instantaneous: rate at given point in time average: rate over longer period of time
server, withbits server sends file of into F bits (fluid) pipe to send to client
linkpipe capacity that can carry Rs bits/sec fluid at rate Rs bits/sec)
linkpipe capacity that can carry Rc bits/sec fluid at rate Rc bits/sec)
Introduction 1-52
Throughput (more)
Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?
Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec
Rs > Rc What is average end-end throughput?
Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec
bottleneck link link on end-end path that constrains end-end throughput
Introduction 1-53
Throughput: Internet scenario
per-connection endend throughput: min(Rc,Rs,R/10) in practice: Rc or Rs is often bottleneck
Rs
Rs
R Rc Rc
Rs
Rc
10 connections (fairly) share backbone bottleneck link R bits/sec
Introduction 1-54
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet? 1.2 network edge end systems, access networks, links 1.3 Internetworking packet switching, circuit switching, network structure 1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks 1.5 protocol layers, service models 1.6 networks under attack: security 1.7 history
Introduction 1-55
Protocol layers
Networks are complex, with many pieces: hosts routers links of various media applications protocols hardware, software
Question:
is there any hope of organizing structure of network?
. or at least our discussion of networks?
Introduction 1-56
Organization of air travel
ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) baggage (claim) gates (unload) runway landing
baggage (check)
gates (load) runway takeoff airplane routing airplane routing
airplane routing
a series of steps
Introduction 1-57
Layering of airline functionality
ticket (purchase) baggage (check) gates (load) ticket (complain) baggage (claim gates (unload) runway (land) airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing
arrival airport ticket
baggage
gate takeoff/landing airplane routing
runway (takeoff)
airplane routing
departure airport
intermediate air-traffic control centers
layers: each layer implements a service via its own internal-layer actions relying on services provided by layer below
Introduction 1-58
Why layering?
dealing with complex systems:
explicit structure allows identification, relationship of complex systems pieces
layered reference model for discussion
modularization eases maintenance, updating of system
change of implementation of layers service transparent to rest of system e.g., change in gate procedure doesnt affect rest of system
layering considered harmful?
Introduction 1-59
Internet protocol stack
application: supporting network applications
FTP, SMTP, HTTP
application
transport
transport: process-process data transfer
TCP, UDP
network: routing of datagrams from source to destination
IP, routing protocols
network
link
link: data transfer between neighboring network elements
Ethernet, 802.111 (WiFi), PPP
physical
physical: bits on the wire
Introduction 1-60
ISO/OSI reference model
presentation: allow applications to interpret meaning of data, e.g., encryption, compression, machine-specific conventions session: synchronization, checkpointing, recovery of data exchange Internet stack missing these layers!
application presentation session transport network link physical
these services, if needed, must be implemented in application needed?
Introduction 1-61
source
message segment frame
Ht M M M M
datagram Hn Ht
Hl Hn Ht
application transport network link physical
Encapsulation
link physical switch
destination
M
Hn Ht Hl Hn Ht
M
M
Ht
Hn Ht
M M M
Hl Hn Ht
application transport network link physical
network link physical
Hn Ht
router
Introduction 1-62
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet? 1.2 network edge end systems, access networks, links 1.3 Internetworking
packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks 1.5 protocol layers, service models 1.6 networks under attack: security 1.7 history
Introduction 1-63
Network security
field of network security:
how bad guys can attack computer networks how we can defend networks against attacks how to design architectures that are immune to attacks
Internet not originally designed with (much) security in mind
original vision: a group of mutually trusting users attached to a transparent network Internet protocol designers playing catch-up security considerations in all layers!
Introduction 1-64
Bad guys: put malware into hosts via Internet
malware can get in host from:
virus: self-replicating infection by receiving/executing object (e.g., e-mail attachment)
worm: self-replicating infection by passively receiving object that gets itself executed
spyware malware can record keystrokes, web sites visited, upload info to collection site infected host can be enrolled in botnet, used for spam. DDoS attacks
Introduction 1-65
Bad guys: attack server, network infrastructure
Denial of Service (DoS): attackers make resources (server, bandwidth) unavailable to legitimate traffic by overwhelming resource with bogus traffic
1. select target
2. break into hosts around the network (see botnet)
3. send packets to target from compromised hosts
target
Introduction 1-66
Bad guys can sniff packets
packet sniffing:
broadcast media (shared ethernet, wireless) promiscuous network interface reads/records all packets (e.g., including passwords!) passing by A
src:B dest:A
payload
wireshark software used for end-of-chapter labs is a (free) packet-sniffer
Introduction 1-67
Bad guys can use fake addresses
IP spoofing: send packet with false source address
A
src:B dest:A payload
lots more on security (throughout, Chapter 8)
Introduction 1-68
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet? 1.2 network edge end systems, access networks, links 1.3 Internetworking packet switching, circuit switching, network structure 1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks 1.5 protocol layers, service models 1.6 networks under attack: security 1.7 history
Introduction 1-69
Internet history
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
1961: Kleinrock queueing theory shows effectiveness of packetswitching 1964: Baran - packetswitching in military nets 1967: ARPAnet conceived by Advanced Research Projects Agency 1969: first ARPAnet node operational
1972: ARPAnet public demo NCP (Network Control Protocol) first host-host protocol first e-mail program ARPAnet has 15 nodes
Introduction 1-70
Internet history
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets
1970: ALOHAnet satellite network in Hawaii 1974: Cerf and Kahn architecture for interconnecting networks 1976: Ethernet at Xerox PARC late70s: proprietary architectures: DECnet, SNA, XNA late 70s: switching fixed length packets (ATM precursor) 1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes
Cerf and Kahns internetworking principles:
minimalism, autonomy - no internal changes required to interconnect networks best effort service model stateless routers decentralized control
define todays Internet architecture
Introduction 1-71
Internet history
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks
1983: deployment of TCP/IP 1982: smtp e-mail protocol defined 1983: DNS defined for name-to-IP-address translation 1985: ftp protocol defined 1988: TCP congestion control
new national networks: Csnet, BITnet, NSFnet, Minitel 100,000 hosts connected to confederation of networks
Introduction 1-72
Internet history
1990, 2000s: commercialization, the Web, new apps
early
1990s: ARPAnet decommissioned 1991: NSF lifts restrictions on commercial use of NSFnet (decommissioned, 1995) early 1990s: Web hypertext [Bush 1945, Nelson 1960s] HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee 1994: Mosaic, later Netscape late 1990s: commercialization of the Web
late 1990s 2000s: more killer apps: instant messaging, P2P file sharing network security to forefront est. 50 million host, 100 million+ users backbone links running at Gbps
Introduction 1-73
Internet history
2005-present
~750 million hosts
Smartphones and tablets
Aggressive deployment of broadband access Increasing ubiquity of high-speed wireless access Emergence of online social networks:
Facebook: soon one billion users
Service providers (Google, Microsoft) create their own networks Bypass Internet, providing instantaneous access to search, emai, etc. E-commerce, universities, enterprises running their services in cloud (eg, Amazon EC2)
Introduction 1-74
Overview: summary
covered a ton of material!
you now have:
Internet overview whats a protocol? network edge, core, access network packet-switching versus circuit-switching Internet structure performance: loss, delay, throughput layering, service models security history
context, overview, feel of networking more depth, detail to follow!
Introduction 1-75
