Overview of Bridge Design and
Construction
Dr. Lakshmy Parameswaran
Chief Scientist
Bridges & Structures Division,
CSIR-CRRI, New Delhi-110 025
11/28/2013
Bridge Design & Construction
Contents
Bridges Definition
History of Bridge Construction
Type of Bridges
Criteria for selection of bridge type
Bridge Components
Design and Construction Aspects
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Bridge Design & Construction
Bridge-Definition
Any structure to cross-over an obstruction
like river, canal, railway line and another road
It carries a roadway or a rail across
natural/artificial obstacles
Essential for free flow of transport
Vital Link in Transportation system
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Bridge Design & Construction
Bridges Control the Capacity of Transportation
System
If the width of a bridge is insufficient to carry the
number of lanes required to handle the traffic
volume, the bridge will be a constriction to the
flow of traffic.
If the bridge is deficient and unable to carry heavy
trucks, load limits will be posted and truck traffic
will be rerouted.
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Bridge Design & Construction
Highest Cost
Bridges are expensive in comparison to
approach roads.
As a bridge is the key element in a
transportation system, balance must be
achieved between handling future traffic
volume and loads and the cost of heavier and
wider bridge structure
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Bridge Design & Construction
If Bridge Fails the Transoport System fails
The importance of a Bridge can be visualized
by considering the comparison between the
two main components of a highway system
i.e. a road and bridge itself.
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Bridge Design & Construction
History of Bridge Construction
wooden planks,
Stone,
Cast Iron Bridge,1800AD
Cable stayed
bridge
Roman Arch Bridge, 100BC
PSC girder bridge
Wrought Iron Bridge,
1850AD
Integral Bridge
Extrados Bridge
Arch Bridge in China 700AD
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Bridge Design & Construction
Suspension Bridge,
7
1920 AD
Classification of Bridges
Material Timber, Stone, Concrete, Steel,
Composite, FRP
Usage Pedestrian, Highway, Railway, Pipeline
Span - Small, Minor, Major, Long
Structural Arrangement
Structural form
Supports
Plan Geometry
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Bridge Design & Construction
Classification According to Structural
Arrangement
The classification of the bridge types can also
be according to the location of the main
structure elements relative to the deck, as
follows:
Main Structure Below the Deck Line
Main Structure Above the Deck Line
Main Structure coincides with the Deck Line
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Bridge Design & Construction
Different Structural Arrangement
Through Bridge
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Underslung Bridge
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10
Classification Of Bridge
Structural Form
Supports
Plan Geometry
Arch Bridges
Slab Bridges
Slab Girder Bridges
Box Girder Bridges
Plate girder/truss
Cable Stayed Bridges
Suspension Bridges
Simply supported
Continuous
Balanced Cantilever
Integral
Straight
Curved
Skew
Structural
Actions Differ and
Understanding Important
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Bridge Design & Construction
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Type of Highway Bridges
Span Range
<6m
>6m <10m
>10m <20m
>20m<25m
>25m<30m
>30m<35m
>35m<40m
>40m<55m
>55m<120m
>120m<1000m
>800m <2000m
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Type of Construction
Culverts
Solid RCC Slabs
Precast/ Pretensioned or
Post tensioned beams,
RCC beams
RCC voided slab
PSC Voided slab
RCC Box
PSC Beams
PSC box
Cantilever /segmental
Construction
Cable stayed
Suspension
Bridge
Bridge Design
& Construction
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Classification of Bridge as per IRC:5
Minor Bridge:
A Minor bridge is a bridge having a total length
up to 60m.
Major Bridge - Total Length >60m
A small bridge on rural road could be generally
taken as a bridge of total length between
6m and 30m and individual span not more than 10m
Between 6 and 30
m
Classification of Bridge Based on Support Condition
Multi-span Simply Supported Bridge
Continuous Bridge
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Bridge Design & Construction
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Balanced Cantilever
Bridge -Ganga Bridge, Varanasi
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Classification based on Plan GeometryCURVED BRIDGES
Behaviour Different Than Straight Bridges
In Addition to M & S, Torsional Moments Develop
Throughout even Under Symmetrical Loading, Magnitude
depends on e and R
Moments in Outer Girders much Larger than in Inner
Girders, 'Developed' Length Analysis
inaccurate
High Centrifugal Forces on Bearing System and
Piers/Abutments
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SKEWED BRIDGES
Edge Beam
Water Flow
Skew Angle
(a) Skew Bridge
(a) Skew Bridge, Span<
Road Width
Skew Bridges
Behaviour Depends on Span, Roadway Width &
< 200 , Behaviour same as for Straight Bridge
> 200, Moments mx , my , Torsional Moments mxy
Behaviour Complex if Bridge X-Section is Cellular
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Bridge Design & Construction
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Criteria For Selection of Bridge Type
Geometric condition of the site
Subsoil condition of the site
Functional Requirements
Construction and Erection consideration
Ease of Maintenance
Regulatory Issues
Aesthetics
Economics
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Geometric Considerations at Bridge Site
Horizontal and vertical alignment of highway
route ( Eg. Road on curve- Choose continuous
box girder- easily built, high torsional rigidity)
Clearances above and below the roadway
Long span bridges with tall piers over
navigable spans will require different bridge
type than with medium span
Handling of traffic during construction is
decided based on geometry at bridge site.
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Sub-soil condition at bridge site
Bearing capacity of founding strata &its level
decides the type of foundation for piers/abutments
Location & extent of soft soil layers, Possibility of
differential settlement
Water table level, quality of water
Drainage condition on the surface and below the
ground - affects the earth pressure, stability of cuts
&fills, movement of embankment
Seismicity of the site, possibility of liquefaction of
soil
Type of rocks, faults/ fissures
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Bridge Design & Construction
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Functional Requirements
Bridge should be able to carry present and future
traffic
Bridge over river should function even during
flood
Number of lanes, provision of footpath
Bridge should not constrict the flow of
water/debris
Provision for future widening - Preference of
multiple girder over concrete segmental bridge
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Bridge Design & Construction
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Regulatory Issues
Regulations which are beyond the control of the
Engineer
Clearances for construction of bridge over
Navigational water ways, railways, canals
Environmental clearances
Clearances from agencies like ASI
Noise control Act
Protection of marine life, endangered species,
wild life etc.
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Aesthetics in Bridge Design
The conventional order of priorities in bridge design is
safety, economy, serviceability, constructability, and
aesthetics.
The belief that improved appearance increases the cost of
bridges is not always correct and often the most
aesthetically pleasing bridge is also the least expensive.
The additional cost is about 2% for short spans and only
about 5% for long spans
It is important that designers are aware of the qualities of
a bridge that influence the perception of beauty
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Economics
Initial cost + Maintenance cost to be
considered
Bridge with minimum no. of spans, fewest
expansion joints and widest spacing of girder
will be economical
Concrete bridge maintenance cost < steel
bridge
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Bridge Design & Construction
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Components of a Bridge
Superstructure
Substructure
Foundation
Bridge Appurtenances
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Superstructure
COMPRISES OF ALL COMPONENTS OF A BRIDGE ABOVE THE SUPPORTS.
BASIC SUPERSTRUCTURE COMPONENTS ARE
WEARING SURFACE Portion of Deck surface which resists traffic wear
Eg. Bituminous or concrete
DECK
Physical extension of the roadway across the obstruction to be
bridged.
Function of deck is to distribute loads along the bridge cross-section.
Consists of Primary members/main girders and Secondary
member/cross-girder
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SUBSTRUCTURE
CONSISTS OF ALL ELEMENTS REQUIRED TO SUPPORT THE SUPERSTRUCTURE. BASIC
SUBSTRUCTURE COMPONENTS ARE
ABUTMENT
PIER
BEARINGS
PEDESTALS-Short column on an abutment or pier which directly
supports a superstructure main girder.
BACKWALL-Primary Component of abutment acting as a retaining
structure at each approach.
WINGWALL-Sidewall to the abutment back wall designed to assist in
confining earth behind the abutment
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Abutment
Earth retaining structures which support the
superstructure and roadway at the beginning and
end of a bridge.
Types
Spill Through
Slope Protected
Solid Abutment
Reinforced Earth
Materials Used
RCC, PCC, Brick Masonry, Stone Masonry
Reinforced Earth
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Bridge Design & Construction
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R.C.C Spill Through Abutment with Fly- Back
type Returns
P.C.C. Counterfort Abutment
Reinforced Earth Wall Abutment
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Pier
Structures which support superstructure at the intermediate
point between the abutment.
* Based on Material
Masonry
PCC
RCC
Steel
* Based on Geometry
Wall type pier
Single Circular
Solid pier with Hammer Head
Hollow pier rectangular/circular
Trestle Pier
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Solid Pier
R.C.C Trestle Pier
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C/S R.C.C. Wall Type Pier
Single Circular Solid
R.C.C Pier with Hammer
Head
Bridge Design & Construction
Cellular R.C.C/PC.C.
Concrete Pier
Hollow Circular R.C.C Pier
31
BEARINGS
The Part of the Bridge Structure which bears
directly all the forces from the structure
above and transmits the same to the
supporting structure.
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Functions of Bearings
(i) Transfer force from various parts of the
superstructure components or from superstructure to
substructure.
(ii) Permit longitudinal or transverse movements or
rotation of one part with respect to other .
(iii) Allowing free movements in some directions but
restraining movements in some other directions.
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Selection of Bearing
Type of Material of Deck
Geometric Shape of Bridge Deck in Plan
Dimension of Bridge
Movement of Bridge due to Thermal
Effects
Seismic Performance
Serviceability Requirements.
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Forces Acting On Bearing
Reactions
Longitudinal Forces
Transverse Force
Uplift Force
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Type of Bearings
Stone, Non-metallic Materials, Concrete, Metallic
Plate & Elastomeric Pad &Strip
Steel Bearings
Elastomeric Bearings
Composite Bearings
Spherical Knuckle Bearings
Pot Bearing
Hinge Bearing for Cantilver Spans
Bearings For Seismic Protection
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Sliding Bearing
Sliding movement is permitted between two surfaces
Used In Bridges with span less than about 15m
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ROCKER BEARING (TYPICAL)
Pinned Bearing used for span More than 15m
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ROLLER CUM-ROCKER BEARING (TYPICAL)( Useful
in 15m to 35m span)
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ROCKER & ROLLER BEARINGS
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Elastomeric Bearing
An elasomeric bearing can consists of unreinforced
elastomeric pad or reinforced elastomeric bearing.
Reinforced elastomeric bearing-bonding of alternate
laminates of rubber and steel.
Under the load, elastomeric material will tend to deform or
bulge which is restricted with steel plates
No moving parts.
For Spans 7.5 to 15m Plain elastomeric pads could be used.
Reinforced/laminated bearing Useful in 15m to 35m span
range. However to be avoided in seismic Prone areas or use
with seismic attachment.
Elastomeric Bearings Preferred in Submersible Bearing.
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View Of Elastomeric Bearing
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Light and Shadow
Box- Girder
Creating shadow becomes especially important with the use of solid concrete
safety barriers that make the girders look deeper than they actually are.
Shadows can be accomplished by cantilevering the deck beyond the exterior
girder.
The effect of shadow on a box girder is further improved by sloping the side of
the girder inward.
Bearing
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Pier cap
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Characteristics of Bearing
Bearing Type
Sliding Plate
Steel Roller (Single)
Steel Roller (Multiple)
cum Rocker
Steel Rocker
Steel Cylindrical Knuckle
Steel Spherical Knuckle
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Bridge Design & Construction
Range (kN)
1000
3000
10 000
10 000
10 000
10 000
44
Characteristics of Bearings
Bearing Type
Range (kN)
Steel Pot with Confined
25 000
Elastomer
Stainless Steel-PTFE Sliding
25 000
Guide Bearing (For Horizontal Force)
1 000
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Performance Life of Bearing
Life of bearing depends on quality of material
used
to
manufacture,
environment,
maintenance etc.
Elastomeric bearing up to 20-25 Years
Composite Bearings up to 50 years
Steel bearings-100 Years
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Expansion Joints
To cater for expansion and contraction of Bridge
super structure
Joint should be leak proof so that the
superstructure, bearings and piers do not get
damaged due to leakage of rainwater
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Expansion Joints for Small Span Bridges
Copper Plate Expansion Joints up to 25mm gap
Sliding M.S Plate expansion Joints
Joint develops cracks in the bituminous wearing coat and
during rainy season gets deteriorated.
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Buried Joint
Buried Joint shall consist of continuously laid bituminous surfacing
over the joint gap bridged by a steel plate resting freely over the
top surface of the deck of concrete.
The width of gap shall be kept as 20mm
Steel plate shall conform to Weldable structural steel IS 2062.
The plate shall be 12mm thk and 200mm wide.
The plate shall be made of minimum no. of pieces, i.e not more
than 2 pieces per traffic line width.
8mm dia. 100mm long nails spaced at 300mm c/c along centre
line of plate shall be welded to the bottom surface of the steel
plate to protrude vertically into the joint gap in order to prevent
dislodging of plate.
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Asphaltic Plug Joint
Asphaltic plug joint shall consists of a ploymer modified
bituminous binder, carefully selected single size
aggregate, bridging metallic plate and heat resistant
foam caulking/backer rod.
It shall cater for a horizontal movement of 25mm and
vertical movement of 2mm.
The minimum width of the joint shall be 500mm and
maximum width shall be 750mm.
Minimum depth shall be 75mm and maximum depth
<100mm
The joint works satisfactorily within temperature range
-5 to +50degC.
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COMPRESSION SEAL JOINTS
Seals are perforated
closed-cell plastic or
hollow neoprene shape
Performance depends
upon material
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STRIP SEAL JOINTS
Better
than
compression
seal
joints
Strip
seal
is
mechanically locked
into a pair of rolled
steel
Strip
seal
can
function
in
compression
and
tension
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FINGER PLATE TYPE
Used in medium and long
span bridges for some time
Made from two loosely
interlocked cantilevering steel
plates
Performance of these joints
can be enhanced by limiting
the size of openings on finger
plates to permit the safe
operation of narrow- tired
vehicles
Debris creates problems
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Expansion Joints
Designed to accommodate long. Movement/rotation
Buried Joints/Filler Joints 10mm
Asphaltic Plug Joints
25mm
Compression Seal
40mm
Single Strip/box seal
80mm
Reinforced Elastomeric
80mm
Modular Joints
80mm
Finger Joints
80mm
Reinforced Coupled Elastomeric - up to 230mm
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Suitability Criteria for Adoption of Different
Types of Expansion Joints
No Type
Criteria
Service Life Special Consideration
Buried
Simply Supported Spans
up to 10mm
10years
Only for decks with bituminous
asphaltic wearing coat. Steel
plates may need replacement.
Filler Joint
Fixed end of simply
supported spans with in
significant movement
10years
The sealant and joint filler would
need replacement if found
damaged
Asphaltic
Plug Joint
Simply Supported spans
for right or skew spans
up to 20deg moderately
curved or wide deck
with maximum
movement < 25mm
10years
Only for decks with bituminous
wearing coat. Not suitable for
bridge with long. Gradient >2%
and cross camber/superelevation exceeding 3%. Not
Suitable for curved spans and
resting on yielding supports.
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Suitability Criteria for Adoption of
Expansion Joints
N Type
o
Criteria
Service
Life
Special Consideration
Compression
seal
Simply Support of
continuous Spans right or
skew (up to 30deg)
moderately curved with
maximum horizontal
movement < 40mm
10years
Chloropene /closed foam
seal may need replacement
during service
Elastomeric slab Simply supported or
seal
continuous spans right or
skew (<70deg) moderately
curved with maximum
horizontal movement up to
50mm
10years
Not suitable for bridges
located in heavy rain fall
areas and spans resting on
yielding support
Simple Strip seal Moderate to large simply
25years
joint
supported (cantilever)
continuous bridge
construction having right,
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skew or curved Bridge
deckDesign
with& Construction
Elastomeric seal may need
replacement
56
Suitability Criteria
N
o
Type
Criteria
Service Life
Special Consideration
Modular
strip/box
seal
Large to very large
continuous/ cantilever
construction with
right/skew or curved
deck having maximum
horizontal movement >
70mm
25years
Elastomeric seal may need
replacement during
service
Special
Joints for
special
condition
For bridge having wide
10years
deck/span length of
more than 120m, or
/and involving complex
movement/ rotations in
different directions
/plan, provision of
special type of modular
expansion joint sych as
swivel joint may be
Bridge Design & Construction
made.
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Elastomeric seal may need
replacement during
service. Provision of these
joints may be made with
prior
Approval of competent
authority.
57
Appurtenances
Embankment-
A raised area of fill surrounding a
structural component eg. abutment
Underdrain- A drainage conduit, usually placed in
back fill material to transport water
away from substructure elements
Approach- Section of roadway immediately
before or after the structure, approach
slab-prevent settlement of approach
pavement
Railings/Crash Barrier, lighting, signage etc
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Approach Slab
Approach Slab for entire formation width for length of
3.5m behind abutment between returns.
APROACH SLAB
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Foundation
Open Foundation
Well Foundation
Pile Foundation
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Shallow Foundation
Open Foundation( Isolated footing) is adopted :
For Bridge/Fly over foundation where ground is not liable to scour
Depth of Foundation not exceeding 5m
Overburden soil layer is up to 4m thick
Ratio of Embedment depth to Foundation width <0.5
Advantage- Simple, low cost (50 to 65% cost of deep foundation)
Raft Foundation is adopted for
Small and Minor bridges
Small stream and river bridges
Submersible bridge
Raft is Not Recommended for
Bridges Span more than 10m (Uneconomical)
Stream having velocity more than 6m/sec
Large flow of water/ standing water creates the dewatering difficult
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Well Foundation
Well foundations are Provided
To transmit large vertical and horizontal loads to deeper and
stronger strata because of low bearing capacity of the
overlying soils.
To protect the foundation against scour, where it is
necessary.
Where open excavation becomes costly and uneconomical
as heavy timbering has to be provided.
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Well Foundation
(Also called Caisson, Pier or Monolith)
Bridge Pier
River Water
River bed level
Well cap
Well Steining
( RCC/ Masonary)
Overburden Soil
Sand Filling
Bottom Plug
Cutting Edge
Rock
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Well Construction
Casting of well kerb (cutting edge )
Extending the height of steining
Soil excavation within the well pockets
(mostly underwater with a grab)
Well Sinking (self weight, anchors,water jetting,
compressed air jetting at kerb)
Bentonite slurry stabilsation of gap
Checking verticality and correcting the tilt
Construction of bottom plug
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Pile Foundation
When the soil strata below the ground surface is highly
compressible and too weak to support the load transmitted
by the superstructure.
When the plan of the structure is irregular relative to its
outline and load distribution. In such cases, pile foundation
is required to reduce the differential settlement.
To withstand the horizontal forces by bending, while still
supporting the vertical load transmitted by the
superstructure. This type of situation is generally
encountered in bridges likely to be subjected to high wind
and/or earthquake forces.
If Expansive and collapsible soils encountered at the site of
a proposed Bridge, Pile Foundations may be used in which
piles are extended into stable soil layers beyond the zone of
possible moist change.
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Construction
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Soil susceptible to seismically
liquefaction
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IRC Code of Practices for Design of Bridges
IRC:5-1998: General Features of Design
IRC :6-2010: Load and Stresses
IRC:112-2011: Code of Practice for Concrete Road Bridges
IR[Link] Design Criteria for Composite construction
IRC 24: Design Criteria for Steel bridges
IRC-78: Foundation and Substructure
IRC-45: Design of Well Foundation in Sandy Strata
IRC-83(Part I)-1999-Metallic Bearing
IRC-83(Part II)-1999-Elastomeric Bearing
IRC-83(part III)-2002-Pot,Pot-cum-PTFE, Pin and Mettalic
Guide Bearing
67
SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS for BRIDGE DESIGN
IRC: SP:64-2005- Guidelines for the Analysis and Design of
Cast-in Place Voided slab superstructure
IRC SP: 65-2005- Guidelines for Design and Construction of
Segmental Bridges
IRC: SP:66-2005- Guidelines for Design of Continuous Bridges
IRC: SP:67-2005 Guidelines for Use of External and
Unbonded Prestressing Tendons in Bridge Structures
IRC: SP:69 Guidelines and Specifications for Expansion Joints
IRC SP:70-2005 Guidelines for Use of High Performance
Concrete in Bridges
IRC:SP:71-2005 Guidelines for Design and Construction of
Pretensioned Girder Bridges
68
Quality Control
Guidelines on Quality Systems for Road
Bridges : IRC SP-47 1998
69
Specifications
Guidelines for the Design of Small Bridges
and Culverts - IRC: SP: 13(2004)
Rural Roads Manual- IRC:SP:20
Specifications for Rural Roads- Ministry of
Rural Development, Published by IRC
70
Planning of Bridges
Traffic Survey
Topographical Survey
Hydrological Survey
Geotechnical Investigation
Environmental Considerations
Functional Requirement
Span Arrangement & Bridge Type Selection
Economic Feasibility
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Highway Bridge Loads
Permanent
Dead load
Load induced due to creep and Shrinkage
Transient
Traffic
Environmental
Construction Loads
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Table : Applicability of Methods of Analysis
Orthotropic Plate Theory
Theory
(A)
Design
curves
Finite
Difference
Stiffness Approach
Folded
Plate
FEM
Finite
Strip
Grillage
Space
Frame
Type of Deck
Solid Slab
Pseudo Slab
Slab & beam
Cellular
Composite
( B)
Plan Geometry
(+very Limited Applicability)
Right
Skew > 20 o
Curved
Arbitrary
C Support Conditions
Simply Supported
Continuous
Arbitrary
Source :
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Bridge Deck Analysis, Cusens & Pama
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Limitation of Working Stress Design Approach
Working Stress Method
Stresses in a Bridge Caused by Design
Loads are Compared with Allowable
Stresses.
Allowable stresses are increased for
unusual loads like wind and earthquake
so that all loads have same factor of
safety.
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Need for Limit State Design
Loads acting on Bridges and resistance of
Components are random in nature.
Working Stress Method Does not Account the
Variability of loads acting on a structure and strength
of its components.
Limit State Design Approach was Introduced in
1970s for design of Concrete Structures.
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Limit State Design
Limit States are boundaries
Failure
Between Safety and
Two Types of Limit States
-Ultimate Limit States-Related to Capacity of Structural
component in flexure, shear, torsion & stability.
-Serviceability Limit States- Related to Fatigue, cracking,
deflection and vibration of structural components associated
with gradual deterioration, users discomfort, and
maintenance cost.
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Construction & Erection Aspects
Time required to construct a bridge depends
on the bridge type ( precast vs cast-in-situ)
Larger precast members - shorter the
construction time
Larger the precast members - Difficult to lift
and transport
Availability of material for construction
Skilled labour
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Methodology
The superstructure of bridges is built
from one or more piers by means of
formwork carriers with the cantilevering
method.
Structure advances from a short stub on
top of a pier symmetrically in segments
of about 3 m to 5 m length
Application
Suitable for medium and long
span concrete bridges
Balanced Cantilever
Bridge Construction
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Recommended especially where
a scaffolding is difficult or
impossible to erect as e.g., over
deep valleys, wide rivers, traffic
yards or in case of expensive
foundation
conditions
for
scaffolds
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Methodology
The sections are cast continuously, one
after another, and are then stressed
together.
The superstructure, growing section by
section is launched over temporary
sliding bearings on the piers until the
bridge is completed.
15 m to 30 m long sections of the bridge
superstructure in a stationary formwork
is cast behind an abutment to push a
completed section forward with jacks
along the bridge axis
Application
Suitable for the construction of
continuous post-tensioned multi-span
bridges
Limitations
Incremental Launching Bridge
Construction
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Bridge Design & Construction
Spans should not exceed 60 m approx.
and the bridge sections must be
constant.
Superstructure of the bridge has to be
continuous over the whole length and
straight or have a constant curvature in
plan and elevation
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Methodology
The launching girder itself is
normally a steel structure with
rather sophisticated equipment,
moving forward on the bridge
piers span by span.
Application
Suitable for multi-span bridges
over difficult terrain or water
where scaffoldings are expensive
or not feasible at all
Can handle cast-in place
concrete, as well as prefabricated
elements.
Launching Truss Bridge Construction
11/28/2013
Bridge Design & Construction
Launching girders are most often
used
for
placing
prefab
segments,
match-cast
and
stressed together, or complete
units spanning from pier to pier.
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11/28/2013
Bridge Design & Construction
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