Pool Operators Handbook

Public Health Division

Disclaimer
The information in this Handbook is advisory in
nature. The Pool Operators Handbook is intended to
provide information and guidelines for the
operation of swimming pools used by the public.
It is not intended to replace or override
legislation.
Pool operators are required to adhere to and
consult all relevant acts, regulations, codes of
practice, standards and guidelines, as well as
industry publications, for additional information.
It is the pool operators responsibility to keep
abreast of, follow and have copies of relevant
legislation and regulations. Many of these are
listed in the Bibliography, but operators should be
aware that these may be under review at the time
of printing this Handbook. This Handbook
should not be used in place of the appropriate
legislation, but alongside those statutes. Failure to
meet reasonable standards in the provision of a
safe environment for the public may carry heavy
penalties, regardless of pool operators following
the guidelines in this Handbook.

Department of Human Services Victoria 2000

This work is copyright and if reproduced
reference must be cited as follows: Pool
Operators Handbook. Victorian Government
Publishing Service 2000.
ISBN 073 1160 703
This document has been published by the
Department of Human Services Victoria,
August 2000.
www.dhs.vic.gov.au/phd/0010085/index/htm
All rights reserved. Except for the purposes of
education, fair dealing and use within the
intended environment, no portion of this
document should be reproduced or copied for
any purposes, including general exhibition,
lending, resale and hire.
(0851000)

ii

Acknowledgments

The Pool Operators Handbook has been developed

from the generous contributions of a number of
experts in the Victorian aquatic industry through
a committee chaired by the Victorian Aquatic
Industry Council. The contributors are:
Geoff Bell

Leisure Management and

Marketing

Joe Calello

Roejen Services

Nicky Crawshaw

Australian Physiotherapy
Association

Kerry Crossley

Aqua Science Consultants

Laurence Duggan

MRW Australia

Norman Farmer

RLSSAV

Derek Lightbody

Department of Human
Services, Environmental
Health Division

Greg Leayr

Roejen Services

Colin Long

Local Government
Professional Association

Darryn McKenzie

Aqua Science Consultants

Jenni Maclean

Victorian Aquatic Industry

Council (VICSWIM)

James Nightingale

Leisure Management and

Marketing

Warwick Waters

RLSSAV

The Pool Operators Handbook is based on the Pool

Water Treatment Advisory Group (PWTAG) 1995
Pool Water Guide. Where appropriate, text has
been extracted from this publication and the
Development Committee acknowledges the
permission granted by the PWTAG for this use.

iii

Preface
What is a healthy swimming pool? A healthy
swimming pool is obviously one that contains
water free from disease-causing organisms and
bacteria, has clear and sparkling water, with wellmaintained surrounds. It should be pleasant to
the senses. Well-managed swimming pools are
healthy environments there is negligible risk of
infection or illness. But healthy pools are more
than just that. Swimming pools are deeply
connected with our culture, our dreams of having
a backyard pool, a poolside holiday, achieving
personal fitness or being an Olympic champion.

The Department of Human Services approached

the Victorian Aquatic Industry Council in 1998
with a view to producing a document that would
not only support the achievement of water
treatment standards required to comply with the
Health Regulations, but would be more holistic in
its outlook. A diverse committee of professionals
with pool operations, pool management, public
health, pool user and pool service backgrounds
was formed to collaborate and produce this
Handbook. We believe it will serve the industry
well.

For many communities, particularly in rural

areas, the public pool is in essence the home pool,
the place of meeting friends or of making a hot
summers day bearable. Pool users can receive
many health and social benefits from recreational
or therapeutic bathing, as well as competitive
swimming.

I hope that this Pool Operators Handbook will

provide guidance on pool water treatment and
associated pool management issues to operators,
owners, proprietors, body corporate managers,
local government authorities and the various pool
industry service providers.

Holiday makers often choose a particular caravan

park or a hotel because it has a swimming pool or
a spa pool. They expect to be able to use them at
their leisure, and that they will be in pristine
condition. The operations of tourism
accommodation businesses are often judged by
the way that their pools are managed.
In order to maintain healthy water and an
inviting environment, maintaining the pool
structure, and ensuring there is reliable and
efficient plant and equipment, is essential. Pool
operation and pool management is a challenging
profession. The personnel are entrusted with an
important responsibility. Investment in staff
development through training is essential, and
underpins sound plant and equipment.
Newer technologies are being demanded by pool
users to improve the chemical quality of pool
water, particularly in the indoor environment.
There are many new water treatments being
marketed, some of which may have a useful
application and others which are either
inappropriate or not effective.

iv

Finally, I thank the contributing authors and their

respective organisations, together with the Chair
and administrative support of the Victorian
Aquatic Industry Council, for bringing this
Handbook together.

Professor John Catford

Director, Public Health Division
Department of Human Services

Contents
Disclaimer
Acknowledgments
Preface

ii
iii
iv

Part 1 Introduction

Background to the Handbook

Aims and Objectives

Who Should Use this Handbook?
What Types of Pools are Covered by
this Handbook?

3
3
3

Staff and Responsibilities

Management Structure
Operating the Pool Environment
The Pool Operator

4
4
5
5

Acts, Regulations, Codes of Practice

and Guidelines
A Brief List of Relevant Acts, Regulations
and Codes of Practice
Safe Working Practices
Health (Infectious Diseases)
Regulations 1990
Occupational Health and Safety Act 1985
Dangerous Goods Act 1985
SafetyMAP
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
Codes of Practice
Australian Standards
Guidelines for Safe Pool Operation (GSPO)
Audits
Environment Protection Authority

7
7
8
12
13
14
14
14
15
15

Part 2 Infrastructure

17

Swimming Pool Design

Design Brief
Specialist Help
Choosing Water Treatment Specialists

18
18
19
21

Types of Pools

22

Part 3 Hygiene and Contamination

25

Pool Water Contamination

Sources of Contamination
Transmission of Infection
Infections and Conditions Associated
with Pool Use
Summary
Emergency Procedures

26
26
26

6
6
6

27
29
29

Pool Hygiene and Cleaning

Public Education
Pool Users Personal Hygiene
Toilets
Hot Water Systems
Cleaning in and Around the Pool and
Changing Rooms
Bottom of Pool
Emptying the Pool

31
31
31
31
31

Part 4 Water Treatment

33

Choosing a Disinfectant
Choosing a Suitable Disinfectant
Chloramine Removal
Cyanuric Acid
Oxidation-Reduction Potential (ORP)
as a Disinfection Parameter
Control of Algae
Unsuitable Disinfectants

34
34
37
39
40
40
40

Water Treatment Using Ozone and

Ultraviolet Radiation
Ozone
Ultraviolet Radiation (UV)

44
44
46

Water Balance
pH
Total Alkalinity
Calcium Hardness
Temperature
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
Adjusting Water Balance Parameters
Calculating Water Balance

48
48
48
48
48
49
49
50

Dosage and Control Systems

Design of Dosage Systems
Points of Dosing
Control Systems
Safety
Sensors

52
52
52
53
53
53

Part 5 Monitoring Systems

57

Chemical Testing
Test Kits
Test Methods
Dilution of Samples
Chemical Limits
Keeping Records

58
58
59
59
59
59

32
32
32

vi

Example Log Sheets

Chemical Limits Worksheet
Sample Pool Operator Log Book

61
61
62

Microbiological Monitoring
Appropriate Microbiological Testing
Assessing Microbiological Quality
Sampling Procedure
Documentation

63
64
64
65
66

Part 6 Physical Management

of Water

67

Water Circulation
Surface Water Draw-Off
Inlets and Outlets
Circulation Design

68
68
69
70

Filtration
Filtration Principles
Types of Filters
Specifications
The Sand Bed
The Limits of Filtration
Coagulation and Flocculation
Backwashing
Maintenance

72
72
73
73
73
74
74
75
76

Heating and Air Circulation

Pool Water Heating
Temperature
Pool Hall Ventilation and Air Circulation
Separate Areas
Sources of Ventilation
Energy Management

77
77
78
78
79
79
79

Tables
Table 1 Example Hazchem Codes

10

Table 2 Prescribed Aggregate Quantities

11

Table 3 Classes of Common Dangerous

Goods Kept at Pools

11

Table 4 Proximity of Chlorine Cylinders

to Other Areas

12

Table 5 Proximity of Sodium Hypochlorite

to Other Areas

12

Table 6 Four Main Sections of the MSDS

13

Table 7 Australian Standards

14

Table 8 Summary of the Characteristics

of a Range of Pool Water Disinfectant

41

Table 9 SI Index of Factors

51

Figures
Figure 1 Location of Safety Showers
and Eye Wash Facilities

Figure 2 An Example of Hazchem Signage

for Packaged Dangerous Goods

Figure 3 An Example of Hazchem Signage

Bulk Dangerous Goods

Figure 4 Backwash Tank

Figure 5 Instantaneous Hot Water Systems

15

Figure 6 Chlorine Gas, Weight Scales

and Regulator

35

Figure 7 Bulk Sodium Hypochlorite

Container in Bund

35

Figure 8 Pool Water Treatment with

Chlorine Disinfectant

36

Figure 9 Pool Water Treatment with Ozone

and Hypochlorite

45

Figure 10 ORP Probes

45

Part 7 Maintenance

81

Maintenance Systems
Winterisation
Unattended Pools
Winter/Seasonal Maintenance Program

82
82
83
83

Problem Sorter

84

Part 8 References

91

Glossary

92

Bibliography

95

Figure 11 Ozone Leak Detector

46

Index

97

Figure 12 Ozone Off-Gas Destructor

46

Figure 13 Carbon Dioxide Tank

49

Figure 36 Pressure Differential Gauges

75

Figure 14 The Hazards of Poor Labelling

50

Figure 15 Metering Pump

52

Figure 37 Multiport Valve on a Large,

Open Gravity Filter

76

Figure 16 Carbon Dioxide Controller

52

Figure 38 Closed Loop Heat Exchanger

77

Figure 17 Erosion Canister (Erosion Feeder)

52

Figure 39 Gas Fired Direct Pool

Water Heater

77

Figure 18 Pool Control Panel and Chemical

Measuring Station

53

Figure 40 Heavy Duty Gas or

Electric Boilers

77

Figure 19 Chemical Sensors Installed

in a Side-Stream Loop

55

Figure 41 Pool Covers

79

Figure 20 Photometer

58

Figure 21 Comparator

58

Figure 22 Dry Reagents

58

Figure 23 Test Strips

59

Figure 24 Microbiological Sampling

Technique

65

Figure 25 Wet Deck on a Modern

Indoor Pool

68

Figure 26 Overflow Channel on an

Older Outdoor Pool

69

Figure 27 Skimmer Box and Lint Trap

69

Figure 28 Three Circulation

Options for a 25 m Pool

70

Figure 29 Medium Rate Pressure Filter

for Larger Pool

72

Figure 30 Plant Room with Multiple Filters

72

Figure 31 High Rate Sand Filter For Spa

or Small Pool

73

Figure 32 Old Style Gravity Sand Filter

Beds and Backwash Channel

73

Figure 33 Filter Off-Gas Bleed and Collectors

73

Figure 34 Medium Rate Pressure Sand

Filters Pressure Differential Gauges

74

Figure 35 Dosing Tanks with Mixers

for Adding Coagulant

75

vii

Introduction

Background to the Handbook

Swimming in pool water or relaxing in a spa
should be a healthy and pleasant exercise. A clear,
safe, sparkling swimming pool, without
unpleasant smell or taste, and free from harmful
microorganisms is the right of all users and
should be the objective of every manager.
However, in practice, achieving this can be
difficult. A multitude of physical, chemical and
microbiological states change in a busy pool
some in seconds, others in hours or days. Only a
trained pool operator can identify and manage
these changes.
This is the first edition of the Pool Operators
Handbook published for use within Victoria. This
Handbook was originally modelled on the United
Kingdom Pool Water Guide produced by the Pool
Water Treatment Advisory Group (PWTAG) in
1995. Where appropriate, some text from that
Guide has been retained where it is currently
applicable to the Australian environment. Other
sections have been substantially reworked to meet
the needs of Victorian operators.
This Handbook recognises the unique needs of
Victorian pool operators, and has been written in
consideration of the types of equipment and
treatment used, the local regulatory environment
and the experience and expertise of the Victorian
Aquatic Industry Council (VAIC) committee.
This Handbook has been prepared in association
with the VAIC by a committee of industry
professionals. These professionals have
backgrounds in pool management, water
treatment, pool maintenance and service,
hydrotherapy, pool user groups and public health.

Aims and Objectives

The purpose of the Handbook is to provide
advice on the issues of pool operation and water
treatment, so that pool operators will be
encouraged to:

Much of this Handbook is based on the workings

of a medium-sized community pool. However,
the principles and practices of monitoring and
control apply equally to all pools. The only
difference may be that the size of the plant is
scaled according to the size of the pool and
treatment needs.

Follow safe working procedures

Maintain plant and equipment so that it

achieves its desired service life

Achieve regulatory compliance

Location of the Pool

and

The following sites are examples of situations

where the information in this Guide should be
applied to the pool:

Provide the best swimming or bathing

experience possible for the pool user.

Who Should Use this Handbook?

This Handbook is intended to provide advice and
guidance on pool operation and water treatment
for a range of managers and staff. These include:

Pool operators

Pool owners

Pool managers

Committees of management

Pool designers and consultants

Pool service companies

Contract managers

Environmental health officers.

What Types of Pools are Covered

by this Handbook?
This Handbook is intended for use and
application to all pools where public are
admitted to a pool as a primary or
additional service.

Resorts hotels and motels

Caravan and camping parks

Backpackers hostels

Apartments

Retirement villages

Hospitals and hydrotherapy centres

Gymnasiums, health and fitness studios

Private clubs

Schools and universities

Workplaces

Prisons

Swim schools

Sports and leisure centres

Community and municipal pools.

This Handbook is not aimed at domestic
backyard pools of single dwelling properties
used by the occupying family.

The Handbook is also intended to give guidance

to body corporates, retirement village operators
and private clubs whose pools have similar
operational demands and water treatment
requirements as a public pool.

Staff and Responsibilities

Overview
There are many factors critical to pool water
quality and these are studied in more detail later.
They fall into three groups: human
contamination, environment and design,
construction and operation.
Given these factors any of which can affect
bathing conditions and become a hazard to
health a pool or spa requires proactive water
quality management.
Human Contamination
Skin, throat and faecal bacteria, body oils,
cosmetics, ammonia and nitrogenous matter from
sweat, urine, dirt, food, saliva and open
infections.
Environment
Physical and chemical composition of pool water,
algae and fungi, gases formed from chemical
reactions, air and water quality and pollution,
humidity, sunlight, evaporation.
Design, Construction and Operation
Pool bathing load, turnover, dilution, hydraulics,
construction materials, chemical conditioning,
disinfectants, dosing control, flocculants,
filtration, testing and interpretation.

Management Structure

As the size and complexity of the pool increases,

specialist staff are required. In a large multifacility site, the services of qualified staff for dayto-day plant operations are indispensable. Their
actions should be guided by documented plant
operation manuals, and maintenance inspections
schedules.
Peripheral Staff are Also Important
Understanding the pool water treatment process
should not stop with the appointment of
management staff. The actions of lifeguards and
supervisors also have an effect on the pool water.
Relevant staff should have an appropriate
understanding of basic water chemistry to testing,
water treatment, plant operation and the general
procedures required to maintain good quality
water.
Lifeguards may be required to conduct regular
and accurate water tests, provide an hygienic pool
area, ensure pre-swim hygiene and respond to a
soiling incident. The supervisor should be
sufficiently familiar with water quality to be able
to correct a condition that could lead to water
quality deterioration. If the pool water begins to
lose clarity or fall below the relevant standards set
out in the Regulations, the on-site supervisor
should be able to decide if bathing should cease.

Staff Needs Vary with Pool Size

Management Responsibility

The actual management structure will vary

according to the type of facility. For example, a
small hydrotherapy, community or hotel pool will
require a small number of multi-skilled staff. A
large community swimming pool complex will
require a team of specialised staff.

Managers responsible for large, multi-purpose

facilities may delegate some of the day-to-day
pool operation to team members with appropriate
skills. Nevertheless, the manager still carries the
ultimate responsibility. Whether or not the
managers have hands-on skills, they must have a
good understanding of the pool operations and be
able to spot problems and institute remedies. For
instance:

Training is Required for all Staff

Whether large or small, the maintenance of the
pool requires that all staff be trained to
understand and interpret pool operations and
water conditions. Personnel should be trained in
plant operation and water treatment required to
maintain water quality. Where possible, a

manager or other person responsible for water

quality should be professionally qualified.

Water can be a vehicle for transmission of

disease see the chapter on Pool Water
Contamination. Many microorganisms prefer
a warm, moist environment with an adequate
food source. A swimming pool with poorly
maintained water is a perfect breeding ground.

Careless management of flocculants, filtration,

disinfection and chemical balances can
produce a degree of turbidity (cloudiness) that
obscures swimmers and lifeguards vision of
the pool floor, even in shallow water.

Operating the Pool Environment

Cost Pressures
With increasing demands on public and private
expenditure, the competitive tendering of public
services and increased awareness of conservation
issues, there is pressure to find more cost-effective
ways of operating swimming pools. The costs of
water, energy, water treatment and disposal of
waste water are very real concerns for managers;
but where the consequences of alterations and
adaptations to limit these costs are not fully
understood, disaster can follow.
Poor Training and Techniques Can Increase Costs
In terms of capital expenditure, energy,
maintenance and day-to-day operation, a
swimming pool is an expensive item. Managers
and staff should be trained to obtain maximum
life from their facilities and to operate them costeffectively.
Lack of training and knowledge about energy
conservation and water treatment systems can
actually increase the cost of operations
dramatically. Poor use of chemicals and methods
may mean that major items of plant, equipment
and buildings require early replacement. This can
even lead to the closure of the facility.

The Pool Operator

Responsibilities
A pool operator should be appointed at each
facility. This person should take responsibility for
the overall operation of the pool plant and
equipment and ensure that appropriate
operational and maintenance activities are
undertaken. The pool operator should have a
comprehensive knowledge of relevant statutes,
regulations, codes and other standards.
In some pools that are open for long hours each
week, responsibility for the daily operation of the
plant may be shared. The pool operator should
ensure that those left in charge have a working
knowledge of the Regulations and can ensure that
the treatment plant continues to provide pool
water that meets these requirements. They should
also be able to identify problems and know how
to obtain corrective advice. Additional training
may be required to ensure adequate
understanding of the statutory requirements.
Pool managers and owners should ensure
that appropriate staff involved in water
quality and plant operation all have relevant
training and are competent to carry out the
required responsibilities.

Poor maintenance and operation can often be

attributed to a lack of professional expertise or
knowledge (or possibly resources). Either way, it
represents a failure of management, and may
require the owners of pools, local authorities,
schools or private operators to spend large
amounts of money on pool refurbishment,
sometimes within less than ten years of operation.
This may include new filters, plumbing, pumps,
tiling, grouting, calorifiers, steelwork in the pool
hall, heating and ventilation plant, lighting and
electrical work.

Acts, Regulations, Codes of Practice and Guidelines

Overview

Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)

Information in this Handbook is advisory, not

mandatory. However, there may be, in the future,
a statutory requirement that pool operators
adhere to all relevant guidelines and standards.
In this case, the Handbook would qualify as
relevant. Failure to meet reasonable standards in
the provision of a safe environment for the public
itself may carry heavy penalties. Therefore, it is
sound practice to follow closely the guidelines
contained in this Handbook.

Codes of Practice

Australian Standards.

Much of the guidance is intended to assist those

responsible to meet the requirements of the
Health (Infectious Diseases) Regulations, the
Occupational Health and Safety Act and the
Dangerous Goods Act. In the event of an accident,
the extent to which pool operators have adhered
to accepted guidelines will determine the level of
vulnerability to legal action for negligence or
public liability.
Pool operators are advised to consult all
appropriate acts, regulations, codes of
practice, standards and guidelines, as well as
industry publications for additional
information. Many of these are listed in the
Bibliography, but operators should be aware
that these may be under review at the time
of printing this Handbook. It is the pool
operators responsibility to keep abreast of
changes to legislation and regulations.

A Brief List of Relevant Acts,

Regulations and Codes of
Practice
Please note that some of these statutes and
regulations are under review. They may in fact
have their names or titles changed. It is the
responsibility of the pool manager/owner to keep
up to date with the relevant Acts.

Health (Infectious Diseases) Regulations 2001

Occupational Health and Safety Act 1985

SafetyMAP

Dangerous Goods Act 1985

These are discussed in detail below.

Safe Working Practices

Apart from adherence to relevant Acts and
regulations, employers should establish their own
safety policy. This should include written safe
work practices, in consultation with employees.
The written safety policy should include an
assessment of hazards associated with all aspects
of operation of the plant, and precautions to
control the risks.
Some hazards associated with pool operation
include:

Risks to employees or pool users from

chemicals used in disinfection systems. These
include: irritation of skin or eyes; enhanced
flammability of materials due to disinfectants
being strong oxidising agents; and leaks of
toxic gases. The most serious risk is of an
uncontrolled escape of chlorine gas following
the incorrect fitting of chlorine gas lines or the
inadvertent mixing of chlorine-based
disinfectant with acid.

Risks from murky water. As well as indicating

that water treatment and quality is inadequate,
murky water is a safety hazard because it may
harbour microbiological contaminants that
cause disease an obscure observance of pool
users in difficulty.

Miscellaneous risks to employees, including

from work in confined spaces or the use of
electrical equipment.

Health (Infectious Diseases)

Regulations 2001
The Health (Infectious Diseases) Regulations 2001
sets out the parameters within which pools and
spas where the public are admitted must be
maintained to ensure safe water conditions for
pool users. This includes chemical and
microbiological levels, as well as testing and
recording requirements. The Regulations also
prescribe minimum levels of water clarity.

Figure 1 Location of Safety Showers

and Eye Wash Facilities
Safety showers and eye wash facilities should be located
immediately adjacent to the hazardous area, but not within
the hazard.

Training Employees
Adequate training should be provided to
employees about all safety measures and hazards.
Records should be kept of content and attendance
at courses or in-services. Training should:

Be related specifically to the operation of the

particular plant, hazards associated with it and
substances used. Employees attention should
be drawn to any manufacturers instructions,
and copies made conveniently available (for
example, they may be affixed to the plant
itself).

Be provided for enough employees to ensure

that plant need never be operated by
untrained staff.

Include the use, care and maintenance of

personal protective equipment (PPE).

Require those who have been trained

demonstrate that they can operate and
maintain the plant safely.

Pool managers should ensure that all staff

involved in water quality and plant
operation have an appropriate knowledge of
and access to the current Health Regulations.
A copy should be kept on-site.

Occupational Health and Safety

Act 1985
The objectives of the Occupational Health and Safety
Act are:

To secure the health, safety and welfare of

persons at work.

To protect persons at work against risks to

health and safety.

To assist in securing safe and healthy work

environments.

To eliminate, at the source, risks to the health,

safety and welfare of persons at work.

To provide for the involvement of employees

and employers and associations representing
employees and employers in the formation
and implementation of health and safety
standards.

Adhering to the Occupational Health and Safety

Act includes protecting staff and the public who
work at or use a pool. The manager should have
the necessary authority to implement reasonable
measures to ensure the premises are safe, and all
plant and substances are operated, stored and
used safely without risks to health.
Identifying the hazards and by taking precautions
to control the risks helps managers to reduce their

liability. Training, certification and record keeping

are fundamental in providing a safe, healthy
environment and they are the managers key to
safeguarding legal requirements and producing a
successful operation.

Obligations and Duties

Dangerous Goods Act 1985

The Dangerous Goods Act, and in particular
the Dangerous Goods (Storage and
Handling) Regulations 1989, apply to
employers whose business involves
substances hazardous to health.

Employers
The Occupational Health and Safety Act sets out a
number of specific duties for employers. These
include:

Providing and maintaining safe plant and

systems of work (for example, regulating the
pace and frequency of work).

Arranging safe systems of work in connection

with the plant and substances (for example,
toxic chemicals).

Providing a safe working environment (for

example, by controlling noise levels).

Providing adequate welfare facilities (for

example, washrooms, lockers, dining areas).

Providing adequate information on hazards, as

well as instruction, training and supervision to
employees, to enable them to work safely.
Pool managers should ensure that all staff,
including those involved in water quality
and plant operation, have an appropriate
knowledge of the requirements of the
Occupational Health and Safety Act.

Employees
Employees are required to:

Take reasonable care of their own health

and safety.

Take reasonable care for the health and safety

of anyone else who may be affected by their
acts or omissions at the workplace.

Cooperate with their employer with respect to

any action taken by the employer to comply
with any requirements imposed by or under
the Act.

Substances which are hazardous to health include

microorganisms, by-products and any substances
which create the sort of hazard that might come
from a classified chemical. Pool operators should
therefore include specific consideration of bacteria
and viruses, other pollutants and disinfection byproducts in planning storage and use of
dangerous goods. This includes many
disinfectants and other chemicals used in and
around a pool.
Employers and employees should have easy
access to copies of the relevant legislation on the
premises, as well as Material Safety Data Sheets
(MSDS). A formal assessment of the dangerous
goods held at the workplace should be conducted,
and the health risks to employees and anybody
using the premises assessed. This assessment
must be regularly reviewed and updated if
circumstances change for example, a change in
the type of disinfectant used, or method of its
application.
Pool and contract managers should ensure
that all staff, including those involved in
water quality and plant operation, have an
appropriate knowledge of the requirements
of the Dangerous Goods Act 1985 and the
Dangerous Goods (Storage and Handling)
Regulations.

Signage
The Dangerous Goods (Storage and Handling)
Regulations replaces the Dangerous Substances
(Placarding of Workplaces) Regulations 1985 and
the Hazchem legislation made under the
Occupational Health and Safety Act 1985. These
types of acts and regulations are under constant
review, and at the time of printing this Handbook
may have changed, or had their names changed.

The purpose of the Hazchem part of the

Regulations is to ensure that in the event of a fire
or spillage involving dangerous goods, the
emergency services will be better prepared and
equipped to combat any such incident.
The Regulations require that notices be displayed
at all workplaces if the quantity of various classes
of dangerous goods that are kept exceed a
prescribed aggregate amount. This includes
schools, shops, factories, warehouses,
laboratories, hospitals and swimming pools.

1. In the case of a storage of packaged dangerous

goods, a notice of the form shown in Figure 2
must be displayed:
a) At the entrance to any building or room in
which dangerous goods are kept
and
b) Adjacent to any storage of dangerous
goods kept in the open.
2. In the case of bulk dangerous goods, that is, a
storage tank or bulk container, a notice of the
form shown in Figure 3 must be displayed on
or adjacent to the tank or bulk container.

Managers should ensure that an assessment of

their signage has been conducted, so that they are
confident it meets current requirements. This will
depend on the quantity and type of chemicals
stored on the site.

Notices Required
Entrance Notices
If the prescribed aggregate quantity of ANY
one class of dangerous goods at a workplace
is exceeded, then the workplace must be
provided with an outer warning notice
(HAZCHEM) at every road and rail entrance
to the workplace. (See listing below.)

Figure 2 An Example of Hazchem Signage for

Packaged Dangerous Goods
Hazchem codes must be displayed at the entrance to any
building or room in which dangerous goods are kept and
adjacent to any storage of dangerous goods kept in the open.

The are a number of exceptions. These are:

1. In the case of a farm, or primary or secondary
school, the notice is required only at the main
road entrance.
2. If the only dangerous goods which exceed
the prescribed aggregate quantity is Liquefied
Petroleum Gas (LP Gas), in cylinders and
kept outside a building and connected to
consuming appliances within the building.
3. If the only dangerous goods which exceed the
prescribed aggregate quantities are substances
stored in or within the vicinity of a dwelling at
the workplace and are for use in or on the
dwelling.
Composite Warning Notices
If a workplace requires notices under the above
definition, then a Composite Warning Notice is
required for all storage of dangerous goods. The
Notice must be one of the following:

Figure 3 An Example of Hazchem Signage Bulk

Dangerous Goods
Hazchem codes must be displayed on or adjacent to the tank
or bulk container.
9

Exemptions
The following storages are exempted from the
requirement for a composite warning notice:
1. Individual storages, where the quantity of
every class is less than ten per cent of the
prescribed aggregate quantities given in Table
2 Prescribed Aggregate Quantities.
2. A storage of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) in
cylinders kept outside a building and
connected to consuming appliances within the
building.
3. If the only dangerous goods which exceed the
prescribed aggregate quantities are substances
stored in or within the vicinity of a dwelling at
the workplace and are for use in or on the
dwelling.

Table 1 Example Hazchem Codes

Hazchem
Code

Meaning

2XE

Chlorine gas

Indicates that the emergency services

should use Fog to combat the spill.

Indicates that emergency services

should use full protective equipment,
including breathing apparatus. They
should contain the dangerous goods
on-site, and seek to avoid spillage into
drains and waterways.

Indicates that the officer in charge of

the emergency should consider
evacuation of the site.

Hazchem Codes
1. The Hazchem Code provides advisory
information to the emergency services
personnel to enable them to take the
appropriate action to combat the incident.
For example, the Hazchem Code for chlorine
gas is 2XE.

2. The Dangerous Goods Class Labels are an

international system of identifying the primary
hazard of various substances. That is, whether
the substance is a gas, a flammable liquid, a
poison or corrosive substance, etc. The class
labels are shown in the diamond on the right
hand side of any composite labels. (See
Figure 3 for an example.)

Prescribed Aggregate Quantities

The Classes of Dangerous Goods and the
prescribed aggregate quantities specified in
Schedule 8 of the Regulations, together with some
examples of substances of each class, are detailed
below.

10

Table 2 Prescribed Aggregate Quantities

Class

Description

Prescribed Aggregate Quantities

Class 2.1

Flammable gases

250 kg or 50 cubic metres, for example, LP Gas, acetylene.

Class 2.2

Compressed gases

250 kg or 50 cubic metres, for example, oxygen, nitrogen,

carbon dioxide.

Class 2.3

Poison gases

25 kg or 5 cubic metres, for example, chlorine, ammonia.

Class 3

Flammable liquids

500 litres (excluding storage in underground tanks at service

stations), for example, petrol, kerosene, solvent-based paints.

Class 4.1

Flammable solids

100 kg, for example, metaldehyde, red phosphorus.

Class 4.2

Substances liable to
spontaneous combustion

50 litres or 50 kg, for example, activated carbon,

white phosphorus.

Class 4.3

Substances emitting flammable

gases when wet

50 litres or 50 kg, for example, calcium carbide, sodium.

Class 5.1

Oxidising agents

100 litres or 100 kg, for example, ammonium nitrate, potassium

permanganate, calcium hypochlorite (pool chlorine).

Class 5.2

Organic peroxides

50 litres or 50 kg, for example, mek peroxide.

Class 6.1
(a) and (b)

Toxic and harmful substances

50 litres or 50 kg, for example, pesticides, perchlorethylene.

Class 8

Corrosives

250 litres or 250 kg, for example, acids, alkalis,

hypochlorite solution.

Table 3 Classes of Common Dangerous Goods

Kept at Pools

Common Chemical

Class

Carbon dioxide gas

Class 2.2

Chlorine gas

Class 2.3

Petrol

Class 3

Calcium hypochlorite

Class 5.1

Trichloroisocyanuric acid

Class 5.1

Hydrochloric acid

Class 8

Sodium hypochlorite

Class 8

How Close Together Should Chemicals

be Stored?
Separation Distances
Many chemicals can be dangerous if stored too
close to other dangerous goods, or near public
places. There may be interactions and hazards
involved.
Under the Dangerous Goods (Storage and
Handling) Regulations, dangerous goods should
be stored at certain distances from other buildings
and public places. These separation distances are
given in the table below for the most commonly
used disinfectants within the swimming pool
industry.

11

Table 4 Proximity of Chlorine Cylinders to Other Areas

Container

Quantity stored

Protected works

Flammable storages

Public place

Cylinders

< 5 kg

5m

5m

3m

Cylinders

< 250 kg

8m

8m

3m

Cylinders

> 250 kg

25 m

15 m

15 m

Other containers

< 2 tonne

25 m

15 m

15 m

Table 5 Proximity of Sodium Hypochlorite to Other Areas

Item to be separated from

Less than 10,000 kg

10,00050,000 kg

5m

5m

10 m

10 m

15 m

15 m

Public street

3m

8m

8m

Storage of other dangerous goods

8m

8m

8m

Protected works, property boundary

Place of public assembly

Pool managers and operators should ensure

that all appropriate dangerous goods
signage is displayed. It is recommended that
signage be inspected by a qualified OH&S
Auditor to determine its compliance.

SafetyMAP
The Victorian WorkCover Authority has
developed SafetyMAP as an audit tool designed
to assist organisations of all sizes and functions
improve their management of health and safety.
The audit criteria within SafetyMAP enable an
organisation to:

12

Measure the performance of its health and

safety program

Implement a cycle of continuous improvement

Benchmark its health and safety performance

Gain recognition for the standards achieved by

its health and safety management system.

50,000 kg or more

Pool managers are encouraged to develop

and monitor systems of operation which
provide quality management involving
water quality and plant operation.

Material Safety Data Sheets

(MSDS)
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) are a key to
working safely with chemicals. MSDS are
prepared by manufacturers and importers for the
chemicals they produce or supply and are the key
to protecting the health and safety of employees
working with hazardous chemicals.
An MSDS describes the chemical, and any health
hazards and precautions for safe handling and
use. The purpose of the data sheet is to provide
information needed to safely use the substance in
the workplace. If the chemical is also a dangerous
good, an MSDS also provides information about
its classification, United Nations numbers,
packaging group, chemical and physical
properties, storage, incompatible substances and
procedures for handling leaks or spills.

Worksafe Australias National Code of Practice

for the Preparation of Material Safety Data Sheets
provides guidance on the format and content of
an MSDS.

Are MSDS Compulsory?

Occupational Health and Safety (Hazardous
Substances) Regulations require manufacturers
and importers of hazardous substances to ensure
that an MSDS is prepared for the substance before
it is first supplied for use at a workplace. A
supplier and manufacture is also required to
supply an MSDS on request.
Employers must obtain an MSDS for each
hazardous substance they use. The MSDS can be
used to develop ways of minimising exposure
when using the substance in workplace.

What if More Information is Needed?

If employers require additional data or advice
about a substance to help protect employees, it
may be useful to contact:

The manufacturer or importer

Those experienced with handling the

substance safely

WorkCover offices

Health and safety professionals in industry to

trade organisations

Occupational hygienists or occupational health

and safety specialists.

The Four Main Sections of the MSDS

Generally, an MSDS has four main sections. These
are described in Table 6.

Table 6 Four Main Sections of the MSDS

Section

Description

Example

Identification

This section describes the product,

its ingredients and its physical
and chemical properties.

Flashpoint
The lowest temperature at which there is enough
vapour to ignite. Petrol has a flashpoint of about
minus 40C. Therefore, in all normal situations there
will be enough vapour released from liquid petrol to
ignite.

Health Hazard This section describes known health

Information
effects from acute (immediate) and
chronic (long-term) exposures to the
substance. First aid information
is also given for acute exposures.

Acute Exposure
Inhalation of mists may produce respiratory irritation
and coughing. Inhalation of high concentrations
may cause death due to respiratory collapse.

Precautions
for Use

Personal Protective Equipment

PVC gloves should be used when handling
this substance.
Engineering and Other Controls
Capture the substance at the source for safe disposal
using local exhaust ventilation.

Any exposure standards, engineering

controls, such as mechanical ventilation
or isolation, and suitable protective
equipment for use with a substance is
given here.

Safe Handling This section details how the substance

Information
should be stored and transported, how
to clean up spills and what may happen
to the substance in a fire or when mixed
with incompatible substances.

Response to a Fire
Some substances release toxic vapours when they burn,
others may explode. In these cases, staff and others
should know how to evacuate the area and not attempt
to put out a fire involving the substance without
assistance from authorities.

13

Codes of Practice
A range of other Codes of Practice exist with
which pool managers should be familiar. These
include a number of Codes published by Health
and Safety Victoria and include:

First Aid in the Workplace

Manual Handling

Noise

Plant.

Information contained in these Codes may affect

pools, and management and owners of facilities
should be familiar with them and follow them if
they apply.

Australian Standards
Pool operators may find further valuable
information relating to the aquatic industry in a
number of key publications from the Standards
Association of Australia. Table 7 Australian
Standards lists some which may be of value.

Guidelines for Safe Pool

Operation (GSPO)
The Royal Life Saving Society Australia
Guidelines for Safe Pool Operation (GSPO) were
first released in 1991 and a second edition was
released in 1996. As guidelines the GSPO are
secondary to any Act, Regulation or Code of
Practice. However, they provide invaluable
information on many aspects of public swimming
pool operation. Topics include:

Technical operations

First aid

Facility design

Supervision

Learn to swim

General operations.

The GSPO provides advice on bather loads for

public swimming pools, wave pools and aquatic
competitions. They should be used as the
industry guide to the supervision of aquatic

Table 7 Australian Standards

14

AS1470 1986

Health and safety at work principles and practices.

AS1668.2 1991

The use of mechanical ventilation and air-conditioning in buildings: Part 2 mechanical

ventilation for acceptable indoor air quality.

AS1885.1 1990

Code of practice for recording and measuring work injury experience.

AS2610.1 1993

Spa pools.

AS2865 1995

Safe working in a confined space.

AS2927 1987

Storage and handling of liquefied chlorine gas.

AS3663 1989

Private swimming pools water quality.

AS3780 1994

The storage and handling of corrosive substances.

AS3780.8 1990

The storage and handling of hazardous chemical materials Class 8 substances.

AS3979 1991

Hydrotherapy pools.

AS4360 1999

Risk management.

facilities. Other areas which may affect bather

load and supervision are special design features
and activities undertaken in the pool type, for
example, hydrotherapy pools, water flumes
(slides), inflatables and other water play
equipment.

Audits
Audits of aquatic facilities can be carried out to
assess and report on compliance with:

Guidelines for Safe Pool Operation

Compliance with the Occupational Health and

Safety Act

Dangerous Goods (Storage and Handling)

Regulations

Health (Infectious Diseases) Regulations.

Owners and operators of aquatic facilities should

ensure that the audit covers all appropriate
aspects of their situation.

Discharge of Waste from Pools

In the Attainment Program (Schedule D3) of the
SEPP Waters of Victoria, minimum
requirements for discharge from municipal and
commercial swimming pools are given. The
discharge of wastes from municipal and
commercial swimming pools are required to
conform to several requirements relating to filter
backwash and pool content.
Filter Backwash
According to the SEPPs, the filter backwash may
be discharged to land, sewer, treated via a solids
settling tank, with the supernatant recycled back
into the pool or treated and discharged to surface
waters. When filter backwash or pool contents are
discharged to surface waters, the water must have
total residual chlorine less than 0.1 ppm (parts per
million) and suspended solids less than 10 ppm.
When re-used in the pool, TDS and combined
chlorine levels will rapidly accumulate in pool
water.

Environment Protection Authority

The Environment Protection Authority (EPA) is
responsible for protecting Victorias environment
from pollution by minimising and controlling
waste and noise. It does this through a range of
statutory and non-statutory processes and
programs.

SEPPs
The Environment Protection Act 1970 provides for
the formulation of State Environmental Protection
Policies (SEPPs). By the end of the 1980s SEPPs
had been declared for air, water and noise. Of
most interest to pool operators is the SEPP
Waterways of Victoria, 1988.
This policy applies to all government
organisations, private and individuals in Victoria.
It identifies beneficial uses of Victorian surface
waters to be protected, specifies indicators to
measure and define environmental quality, sets
environmental quality objectives and details a
program to attain and maintain these objectives.

Figure 4 Backwash Tank

The backwash tank should be appropriately sized to retain
the entire contents of the backwash.
Discharge Water
Discharge water should be analysed by an
accredited laboratory to ensure conformance with
the SEPP Waterways of Victoria, 1988. The
results of the analysis must be submitted to the
EPA within 28 days of the samples being taken
and the volume of the discharge must also be
recorded.

15

Infrastructure

Swimming Pool Design

Overview
Pools are complicated structures and make
serious demands on design, construction,
operation and maintenance. The Pool Operators
Handbook is principally concerned with
operation; however, design and construction are
critical to successful operation. Design is the first
issue to be considered for new and existing
structures and should be addressed in
collaboration with all parties responsible for
design, construction and operation.
Water treatment systems are an integral part of
the architectural, structural and mechanical
design, and should be addressed from the very
start of the project. Water treatment plant design
must, initially and crucially, take into account
potential bathing load, circulation rate, turnover
and dilution, choice of treatment system,
filtration, circulation hydraulics, plant room and
operation. Overall, the design must conform to
the appropriate standards or guidelines for
maintaining safety and the chemical and
microbiological quality of the water.
Although this chapter cannot give advice on the
details of design, it does indicate the areas that
need to be covered in a design brief. Finally, there
is advice about obtaining specialist design and
contracting help.

Design Brief
Water treatment is just one factor within the
design of what may be a multi-use leisure
complex. The starting point for design is a full
assessment of community needs and potential
demands, which also takes into account existing
facilities. Depending on the particular project,
there may have been a strategy prepared, a multidiscipline project team appointed, a feasibility
study commissioned, and decisions made on
location and finance. The end of this stage should
result in the appointment of a pool manager and
an architect qualified in pool design retained. The
pool manager and architect should work together
to produce a design brief that will consider the

18

type of facility proposed. The design brief should

consider:

The type and amount of use envisaged, for

example: swimming, therapy, education or
leisure.

Structural features, such as moveable floors or

booms to convert competition or diving pools
into teaching or leisure pools.

Joint-use arrangements.

Possible shared treatment plant for different

pools.

Changing rooms and their accessibility.

Street access to the facility.

Fire and emergency evacuation.

It is uncommon for one person consultant,

architect, manager, pool operator or other staff
to be familiar with or have expertise in all these
technical issues. However, persons responsible for
a new building or alteration do need to be aware
of the following important areas, and take them
into account when working on the design of a
pool complex.

Bathing Load, Circulation Rate and Turnover

Bathing load dictates the rate of circulation or
turnover period required. Bathing load and pool
volume should be considered together to
determine the size of filtration plant and the
choice of water treatment system, which makes
these issues central to good water quality.

Water Treatment
From a design perspective on water treatment, the
following factors should be considered:

Pool type (recreation, hydrotherapy, toddlers,

spa and so on)

Pool temperature

Method of removal of suspended and

colloidal matter

Oxidising agents

Disinfection system

Coagulants

pH adjustment

Water balance

Fresh water dilution

Interfaces and coordination with other

building elements including ventilation
intakes (well away from plant room and
chemical stores).

Effects on air quality

Plant size and operation

Plant personnel; training

Water testing and recording

Access for plant replacement/refurbishment.

Plant monitoring and control

Access for chemical deliveries.

Energy and operation costs

Special bunded storage areas for chemicals.

Chemical storage and handling.

Waste water and drainage requirements.

Health and safety requirements.

Hydraulics

The design of water movement demands

attention to:

Plant room environment relating to

temperature, humidity, ventilation and noise.

Builders work requirements.

Pool size and shape (including profile).

Electrical requirements.

Size, number and location (including safety

considerations) of pool water inlets and
outlets.

Specialist Help

Design and correct sizing of the filtration

plant, including filters and filtration rates
(see the chapter on Chemical Testing).

Size and routing of circulatory pipework.

Size and location of balance tank.

Water circulation within the balance tank.

Transfer channels.

Pumping and location of sump pump.

Integration of water features.

Moving floors and booms.

Effect of evaporation (normal and induced by

water features) on relative humidity in the
pool complex.

Effect of water movement on noise levels.

Pool location.

Plant room
Many issues need to be considered at the design
stage:

Size and location of plant room, taking into

account filter specifications, the scale of other
water treatment plant, flooded pump
conditions and short suction pipework lines.

Location of other plant items and ductwork.

Plant layout for ease of operation and

maintenance.

Successfully building or substantially

refurbishing a swimming pool demands a full
understanding of the distinction between design
and installation. It is also important that the
responsibility for issues of design and installation
is clearly identified.

Who Designs the Pool?

Water treatment design requires specialist
engineering knowledge, which needs to be
recruited together with the architect and
structural and environmental service engineers.
This knowledge, which is critical to producing a
satisfactory design, is available from two sources:

Consultants who can provide independent

specialist advice and who are appointed as full
members of the design team.

Contractors who can work to the

consultants brief and specifications, to their
own schedule or a clients.

Bathing Load and Circulation Rate

Bathing load is a difficult issue in pool water
management. There may be pressure to maximise
income by overloading the pool. For a new pool,
at least, there is no excuse for not planning and
maintaining a realistic relationship between
bathing numbers and pool and treatment plant
capacity.

19

The pool capacity should be determined at the

design stage. Unlike some other countries,
Australia does not have set formulas relating to
water turnover or square metres per pool area to
regulate bather loads. However, the Health
Regulations require a half-hour turnover for spas.
Australian Standards (AS3979) recommend a twohour turnover for hydrotherapy pools.

Choice of Treatment System

When choosing a water treatment system, these
areas should be considered:

The nature of the water supply

The type of pool

Likely bathing loads

Desired water quality

The pool hall atmosphere

The skills required to operate the system.

Those responsible for deciding on a treatment

system should call on the experience of other
managers and operators of similar facilities.
When a system is chosen, an assessment should
be made of the types and amounts of chemicals
required and how they are stored, to adhere to
regulations and guidelines on storage. The testing
chemicals may also need to be assessed.

Filtration
Filters should operate for 24 hours a day to deal
with the pollution arising from pool users. If
water quality can be maintained, it may be
possible to reduce the flow rate overnight. If the
filters are not effective, turbidity (generally
meaning suspended solids) will not be
adequately reduced whatever the turnover
period. In some circumstances an inefficient filter
yielding an effluent containing suspended matter
may in fact increase turbidity, rather than improve
the clarity of the water. Effective filtration, wellmaintained filter media and a short turnover
period will ensure that suspended solids are
removed. (More information about filtration
operation is provided in the chapter Filtration.)

Circulation Hydraulics
A well-designed circulation system within the
pool will ensure that treated water reaches all
parts of the pool and contaminated water is
removed from areas most used by bathers. If
effective circulation is not achieved, water
treatment may not necessarily provide good
water quality. Conversely, first-rate circulation
hydraulics may allow an over-stretched water
treatment system to produce decent pool water.
Inlets, outlets and surface water withdrawal are
crucial. A wet deck system (where pool water
level is with the surrounds) with a balance tank
and pool surround collecting channels, is
particularly efficient. In this way, 50100 per cent
of the total circulation volume can be removed
from the surface, where pollution is greatest.
Leisure pools, particularly if they are to have a
freeboard area for water features such as waves,
may allow only a partial wet deck system. (For
more information on circulation, see the chapter
on Microbiological Monitoring.)

Plant Room
Plant room design should take into consideration
four key issues: location, size, access and
segregation.
Location
The location of the filtration and water treatment
system, in relation to the pool, critically affects
hydraulic design. Circulation pumps should,
ideally, operate under flooded suction conditions
and be situated near the balance tank and near
extraction points from the pool. If the pumps have
to be some distance from the balance tank,
increasing the suction pipe size may improve
pump performance. If the plant room has to be at
pool surround level, the pump can be installed in
a well to provide flooded suction conditions. If
there is no balance tank, the connection between
pool water and pumps must be designed to keep
air out of the circulation.
Size and Access
The size of the plant room (water treatment plant
only) will typically be between 15 and 30 per cent

20

of the pool water area. It should be sized to

ensure good access, both to the plant room itself
and for plant room equipment operation,
maintenance and replacement. When designing a
plant room, maintenance and replacement of
major plant components should be considered.
Filter media will need to be replaced periodically.
Segregation
Certain equipment needs to be segregated. For
example, chemical storage and dosing units
should ideally be housed in separate, secure
storage rooms. (See also the section on How
Close Together Should Chemicals be Stored? and
Separation Distances.)
Electrical control panels, chemical control units
and ozone generators should be in clean, dry
areas away from chemical stores.

Operation
The water treatment contractor should provide
training for the plant operator both during
commissioning of the plant and once it is
operating. The management and operator should
be present for the critical process of
commissioning. Commissioning should
incorporate system checking for health and safety
requirements, including plant room and the safety
of any water features.
The water treatment design brief should require
the provision of operation and maintenance
manuals (including plant and pipe layout
drawings and electrical circuits). It should also
detail how the system is to be operated. These
briefs should list the necessary daily, weekly,
monthly and annual checks.

particularly valuable in ensuring that they are

based on an equivalent level of specification and
scope of work.
It is important that the consultant has appropriate
qualifications and experience for the project being
undertaken and does not limit specifications to
any one particular manufacturers equipment.
Purchasers of the consultants services and
owners of the facility should pursue references,
and verify the consultants skills and experience
by interview.

The Contractor
A water treatment contractor can be appointed to
design as well as install the plant if the client has a
good design brief/specification. The choice of
contractor then becomes particularly important.
In any case, the contractor should be responsible
for the supply, installation and commissioning of
the system, and for installing equipment from
reputable manufacturers. There is no single
method for finding the right contractor; however,
the following guidelines may be useful for
selecting contractors and manufacturers:

Consider members of trade and professional

associations first.

Contractors may offer some form of quality

assurance see ISO9000. Where contractors
provide a design warranty, they should be
qualified to Part 1 of this standard. This should
imply a quality system, though not necessarily
a quality product.

Check previous work by visiting installations

and by utilising references from clients,
architects and engineers. References should
comment on: design ability; performance
during contract; reliability of equipment
recommended and used; commissioning and
staff training record; standard of operating and
maintenance manuals; and after-sales service.

A long and successful record of quality work is

a positive indication.

Good contractors, like good consultants and

good suppliers, will be familiar with this
Handbook.

Choosing Water Treatment

Specialists
The Consultant
A water treatment consultant should develop the
brief, produce a competent design, detailed
drawings and specification, and monitor the
installation work on-site. When competitive
tenders are needed, the consultant will be

21

Types of Pools
Overview
The Pool Operators Handbook has been compiled
to provide advice to all non-domestic pool
operators. The majority of pools are rectangular
swimming pools that have no extra water features
and are used by people of all ages. The following
list describes a range of conventional pools in
specific applications as well as a number of nonconventional pools.

Competition Pools
For short-courses (championships) the pool
should be 25 m long, ideally with eight lanes at
least 2.0 m wide, with two spaces of at least 0.2 m
outside the first and last lanes. The minimum
required depth is 1.0 m.

If an existing school pool is to be opened to the

public, care should be taken to ascertain its
design, particularly bathing load, and not exceed
it. In either case, serious consideration should be
given to the training and qualifications of those
responsible for the operation and management.

Olympic and World Championship pools should

be 50 m long by 25 m wide, with a minimum
depth of 2.0 m, with at least eight lanes 2.5 m
wide, with two spaces 2.5 m outside lanes one
and eight.

Adequately trained non-specialist staff using

simple disinfection and filtration systems may
manage school pools that are only ever used by
pupils in controlled swimming sessions quite
successfully. But if the public uses them, or if
there is a real possibility that this will happen in
the future, then the guidance above for dual use
pools should be followed. In any case it is better,
if practicable, to follow the guidelines given in
this Handbook for conventional pools.

Diving Pools

Hydrotherapy Pools

For steep-entry dives from springboards and

fixed platforms, a specially designed pool is
needed. The depth and area of water for a diving
pool or pit is determined by FINA regulations. A
one metre springboard requires water 3.5 m deep
and a ten-metre platform requires a depth of 5 m.

These are generally smaller pools specifically

designed for physiotherapy and gentle exercise.
Operating temperatures of over 32C are
recommend. Specific design and construction
requirements are outlined in AS3979 1991. Pool
users and staff use these types of pools for long
periods. As a result, they are more demanding to
manage than conventional pools or at least the
consequences of basic mistakes can be more
immediate and dramatic.

Further information regarding specifications for

competition pools are described in the FINA
(International Swimming Federation) Handbook.

Adjustable (Flexible) Pools

These pools incorporate a moveable floor and/or
bulkhead (boom). The moveable floor gives
infinitely variable depth. The semi-submerged
bulkhead divides the pool into two, in any
proportion. Perforated panels allow water flow
between pools. It is important that the turnover
period should cope with the largest bathing load
possible.

Dual Use Pools/School Pools

Two or more different types of customer use these
pools at different times. The term is usually

22

applied to a school pool that is also opened to the

public for some sessions. If a new pool is planned
for dual use, the design (circulation, filtration,
disinfection and so on) should accommodate the
demands of a higher bather load.

Lazy and Rapid Rivers

Lazy and rapid rivers are sometimes referred to as
moving water. In rapid rivers, pumps and jets
under the water surface create a rapid water flow.
Because the water flow is rapid, circulation
hydraulics is not a problem. However, lazy rivers
with large volumes of water that are not
continually flowing may cause some water
contamination problems. Pool operators will need
to monitor the water quality carefully in this type
of application or ensure that a constant flow is
created.

Splash Pools

Teaching Pools

These are specially designed areas of water in

which a rider safely completes the descent of a
water slide or water flume. If the splash pool
shares its water circulation with that of a main
pool, the turnover must be able to cope with the
highest bathing load possible. Bather pollution
will tend to be high for the amount of water
involved, so hydraulics is important.

These are separate pools with a depth of less than

1.0 m, that is, they have a large surface-area-tovolume ratio. Pollution is likely to be high when
young children use them, so bathing load control
is particularly important. Turnover periods
should be short and filtration standards as
effective for conventional pools.

Salt Water Pools

Treatment of saline pools should be the same as
for fresh water pools, except that the materials of
filters, pipe and pumps should be resistant to salt
water corrosion.

Spa Pools
There are many types of spa pools, but they all
have in common their use: they are for sitting in,
rather than swimming, and contain water usually
between 32C and 40C, which is filtered and
chemically treated. A pool with untreated water
that is replaced after each user, and water
agitation of some sort, is spa bath.
Bathing loads may be high in spas. Combined
with the high temperatures, this can make it
difficult to maintain satisfactory disinfectant
residuals, pH values and microbiological quality.
In general, good water quality can be maintained
by control of bathing loads and intervals between
sessions (both of which can be specified in the
design), turnover periods of less than 20 minutes,
adequate filtration, and emptying at least once a
week, or daily when loading is high. Refer to
Australian Standard for Public Spas AS 2610.1
1993.
Spas may have particular difficulties over the
safety requirements for inlets and outlets. The
main criterion for designers, manufacturers and
operators is to take all reasonable precautions to
prevent a bather, or part of a bathers body,
becoming trapped. This should be based on the
principles and methods given for swimming
pools.

Particular attention should be paid to design

where a teaching pool is to share filtration plant
with other pools: there should be separate
disinfectant monitoring, controls and heating.

Leisure Pools
There are many different types of leisure pools,
and many conventional pools are becoming
leisurised. They tend to have in common an
irregular shape and more shallow areas than a
conventional pool. This makes for less predictable
hydraulics and disinfectant dynamics. Therefore,
circulation patterns and inlet/outlet positions
should be carefully designed. Bather loads and
turnover periods need to be taken into account
during the design phase. In general, turnover
periods will have to be less than 90 minutes.
The unusual water volumes involved, and a
tendency to high-localised concentrations of
bathers, can also result in contamination
problems.
Water features will tend to distort the dynamics of
water treatment. Disinfection systems should be
as sophisticated (in terms of automatic dosing and
monitoring) as the pools are in terms of features.
It is recommended that water features use water
directly from the treatment plant.
Access to the pool from areas such as artificial
beaches and lawn areas, and varied use of the
pool, can all introduce novel forms of pollution.
At the very least, it is wise to have a realistic
regime of pre-swim hygiene. Good showers and
toilets, well signposted, with encouragement to
use them, will assist with water quality
maintenance.

23

Outdoor Pools

Plunge Pools

Outdoor pools inherit special problems due to

changes in the weather.

These are used in association with a saunas and

spas, to cool bathers by immersion in unheated
water. They may be big enough for just one
person, or large enough to swim in. The water
should be disinfected and filtered like a
conventional pool. Special consideration should
be given to the introduction of body fats and
other contaminants. Good surface water draw-off
and regular water replacement are key
considerations.

In summer sudden sunshine may bring a large

increase in bathers and a degradation of the
chlorine disinfectant by ultraviolet light. Chlorine
can be stabilised by adding cyanuric acid. The
often large volumes of water in outdoor pools
should help the pool cope with increases in
bathing load, but if the turnover of the large
volume is slow, it may be difficult to maintain
the appropriate disinfectant residual throughout
the pool.
Appropriate management and testing will
accommodate pools that are sensitive to
fluctuating demands.

Toddler Pools
Toddler pools are likely to need the same sort of
attention described above for outdoor pools. They
may be highly polluted relative to their volume,
because children will tend to urinate in them and
introduce other forms of pollution.
Disinfectant residuals should be maintained as for
conventional pools. This may be more difficult if
the pool is outdoors due to pollution for other
sources, for example, birds and other foreign
matter blown in. In this case the water may need
to be changed regularly daily if practicable
but this depends on filtration efficiency and buildup of chloramine and total dissolved solids.
If for any reason circumstances make proper
hygiene standards impossible to maintain, pool
managers should consider closing the toddler
pool altogether.

24

Wave Pools
These are usually incorporated in a free-form
leisure pool. Waves are generated at one end,
which requires a high free board. The waves cross
the pool to dissipate on a beach area. Surface
water draw-off needs attention, as does water
quality in the wave generation chambers.

Hygiene and Contamination

Pool Water Contamination

Overview

Swimming pools present no special infection risk,

provided they are properly managed and
disinfected.

From dirt collected on the body before

bathing, for example, on the feet from the pool
concourse, on skin from clothes.

From cosmetics perfumes, oils, hairspray,

lotions, sunscreen and creams.

Pool users are the primary cause of

contamination. Therefore, management of their
numbers, according to maintenance capabilities, is
necessary. Overcrowding in the pool, in change
rooms and at the poolside is to be avoided.
Sensible hygiene rules, such as nappy changing in
change rooms rather than at poolside, should be
encouraged.
Contamination is defined as any addition to the
water that makes it dirty or impure. If pollution is
present there is a risk of bather contamination.
This has legal, ethical and health implications.
Effective maintenance of water chemistry, balance
and quality associated with adequate hygiene
standards will counteract most pollutants.
The following principles need to be fully
understood by pool maintenance staff.

Sources of Contamination
Contamination is introduced predominantly via
pool users, but also via the environment,
including source water.

Environment
Environmental contamination is especially
relevant to outdoor pools where there is dust, soil,
sand, leaves and grass constantly around and in
the pool.

Pool Users
Pool users contaminate the pool in three different
ways:

26

From bodily fluids, solids and wastes urine,

mucus from the nose and chest, saliva, sweat,
hair, scales from skin and faecal matter. These
are pollutants in themselves, but may also
contain harmful microorganisms which could
cause illness in other pool users.

Transmission of Infection
Many microorganisms are harmless and normally
present in healthy people. However, if they are
swallowed in large numbers by a bather who is
unwell or has altered immunity (which may be
the case during pregnancy or illness), then
infection and sickness can result. For this reason
the entire pool environment that is, the change
rooms, toilets, concourse, as well as pool water
should be adequately cleaned and managed at
all times.

Hygiene Standards
Minimum hygiene standards should be met for all
change rooms, toilets and showers. The pool
concourse should be cleaned at least daily. Pool
users should be encouraged to shower prior to
entering the pool to rinse off dust and body oils.

Disinfectants
Some infections can be transmitted through the
pool water from one bather to another if there is
inadequate disinfectant. Other potential infections
are through contamination with spilt blood, vomit
or faecal matter. In these cases immediate action is
necessary and all pools should have emergency
response procedures documented.
Refer to the Department of Human Services
website, which is updated every three
months. The website address is:
http://www.dhs.vic.gov.au/phd/poolfacts/
index.htm

Infections and Conditions

Associated with Pool Use
Gastro-Intestinal Infections, Including
Cryptosporidium
Generally speaking, most microorganisms
responsible for gastrointestinal infections will be
inactivated by the disinfectant residual and
removed by the filtration system. Therefore,
correct maintenance levels of disinfectant and
filtration are necessary. However, two problem
organisms Cryptosporidium and Giardia
remain. These cause watery diarrhoea and
abdominal cramping, associated with symptoms
of fatigue, fever, loss of appetite, nausea and
vomiting. In the healthy individual these
symptoms are usually mild, but they can cause
severe, chronic, debilitating illness if the recipient
is unwell or has a reduced immune system.
Cryptosporidium is resistant to the usual
maintenance levels of disinfectant and can remain
in the pool system for several months. Normal
filtration processes may be ineffective in
removing Cryptosporidium parasites due to their
tiny size. Because normal disinfectant residuals
and filtering processes are not effective in
eliminating Cryptosporidium, special care is
needed in cases of suspected contamination.
Disinfection levels need to be raised to 14 ppm
and kept at that level for 12 hours. The addition of
coagulant and frequent backwashing of filters is
also advisable.
The Department of Human Services is
evaluating the use of other chemicals, such
as chlorine dioxide and ozone for the
treatment of Cryptosporidium. Check the
Department of Human Services website for
up-to-date information at http://www.dhs.
vic.gov.au/phd/poolfacts/index.htm

Infected Users
Pool users suspected of being infected with either
Cryptosporidium or Giardia are advised to avoid
attending a pool for one month after symptoms
cease. As the recommended maintenance level for

disinfectant is less than 8 ppm, the pool must

remain closed until water samples prove no
evidence of the microorganism. If a pool is closed
due to suspected contamination by
Cryptosporidium, signage is advisable to warn
infected persons not to visit or potentially
contaminate other pools.
Patrons who have suffered a gastrointestinal
illness or diarrhoea should be advised not to use
the pool until at least one week after symptoms
cease.

Foot Infections
Usual maintenance levels of disinfection in the
pool water will kill fungi or bacteria associated
with foot infections. However, two common
conditions can be caught from the damp
environment of pool surrounds, change rooms or
showers.
Tinea Pedis (Athletes Foot)
Tinea pedis is a fungal infection causing an
itchy scaling between the toes. This is hard to
distinguish from soggy skin caused by inadequate
drying between the toes. Tinea is spread by
contact on damp floor surfaces, such as showers
or poolside, where there are infected fragments of
skin. Adequate floor cleaning reduces the number
of infective particles. Wearing pool shoes or
thongs in showers and at the poolside reduces
skin contact with a potentially contaminated floor.
Exclusion from the pool is not necessary.
Plantar Warts (Verrucae)
Plantar warts are caused by a virus, and may be
picked up from contact with contaminated
fragments of skin on the surrounds of the pool. As
with tinea, adequate cleaning of pool surrounds is
necessary and users should wear pool shoes or
thongs around the pool. Carriers are advised to
cover warts to prevent contamination of pool
surround surfaces but exclusion from the pool is
not necessary.

Viruses
Viruses are not spread in the pool if adequate
sanitiser levels are present.

27

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and

hepatitis are viruses carried in the blood and
other body fluids. They are inactivated by the
disinfectant residual at normal maintenance
levels. Blood, vomit or faecal spills from
swimmers with these viruses are treated as above.

Ear and Sinus Problems

Wetting, de-waxing and degreasing of the outer
ear may cause swimmers ear (otitis externa). This
may result in skin drying and damage, with or
without infection caused by the usual bacteria
found on normal, healthy skin. It is most common
in endurance and competitive swimmers. High
numbers of Pseudomonas aeruginosa present in the
water may cause an unusually high incidence of
this condition (as well as skin infections). Normal
sanitation levels should eliminate the presence of
Pseudomonas.
Infection of the middle ear (otitis media) and
sinusitis following swimming are usually caused
by infected mucus forced into the nose and throat
while swimming. People are encouraged not to
swim if they have an upper respiratory tract
infection, but need not be excluded.

Meningitis
Meningitis associated with swimming is
extremely rare in Australia and has not been
detected in Victorian pools that are properly
treated and maintained. The free-living amoeba
naegleria fowleri causes it. In each case associated
with swimming, the pool has been found to be
receiving polluted, warm spring water and to be
inadequately disinfected. Normal disinfection
levels are necessary. Pool make-up water must be
clean and come from secure sources. Circulation
systems, including balance tanks, should be
designed to avoid prolonged periods of
stagnation. Any debris should be removed
regularly.

Legionnaires Disease
Legionella pneumophila bacteria cause a severe form
of pneumonia known as legionnaires disease. For
it to be spread there must be an infected spray,
such as with spray humidifiers or cooling towers.
Legionnaires disease has not been associated
with conventional swimming pools. However, it
is easily spread in poorly maintained and
disinfected spa pools due to the fine spray
(aerosols) generated at the turbulent water
surface. Careful maintenance, frequent filter
backwashing and close attention to disinfectant
levels are critical.

Skin Irritations and Rashes

Skin irritation and rashes can be associated with
pool use. Good water management and adequate
dilution will keep these to a minimum. Skin
rashes associated with pool use are usually due to
one of the following factors:

Drying of the skin due to a reduction in

natural body oils common with prolonged
immersion and warm water in hydrotherapy
pools and spas.

Residual disinfectant left on the skin.

Infection (more common in spas due to higher

bather loads) skin abrasion from the aerated
water jets and higher water temperature.

These factors contribute to common skin

conditions, such as pool rash, bromine itch and
folliculitis.
Pool Rash
Pool rash is essentially a mild dermatitis caused
by prolonged immersion and the effect of the
disinfectant creating a dry, irritated skin. It
responds well to unperfumed moisturising
creams and/or reduced exposure to the pool.
Bromine Itch
Bromine itch is another form of dermatitis
caused by sensitisation to bromine and its byproducts used to disinfect the pool. Incidence

28

increases with age and exposure, particularly

with prolonged immersion. It is intensely itchy
and occurs within 12 hours of exposure. It often
recurs with repeated exposure to brominated
pools.
Folliculitis
Folliculitis is an infection of the hair follicle
caused by the bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa. A
combination of intense skin wetting and high
levels of the bacteria is necessary for the infection
to occur. It is most common in spas, where there
are higher temperatures (over 35C), longer
exposure times (one to two hours) and inadequate
disinfection. Unlike bromine rash, it tends not to
be itchy.

Respiratory Complaints
Generally speaking, the warm, humid air around
a pool assists respiration. High levels of
chloramines, the by-product of chlorine
disinfection, may trigger asthma attacks. These
levels can be high because the pool is poorly
designed, overloaded or poorly maintained.
Chloramines themselves, and other substances in
the air, do not cause asthma, but may provoke an
attack.

Summary
The bather load generally introduces pollution to
a pool. If this is controlled to avoid overcrowding,
at the same time as maintaining standard hygiene
procedures and normal pool disinfectant levels,
then cross-contamination of pool users is
minimised. When appropriate, emergency
procedures are established and used in
conjunction with regular maintenance, crosscontamination is unlikely to then occur.
People suffering from diarrhoea or gastroenteritis
should not use a pool until at least one week after
the symptoms have cleared. Faecally incontinent
people should not use a pool or spa unless their
condition is managed by a health professional.
Signage to this effect should be displayed.

Emergency Procedures
Exposure of Pool Water to Faecal Matter
The treatment required will depend upon the
condition of the faecal matter introduced. Loose
faecal matter (diarrhoea) requires greater
treatment than a firm stool, as it is more likely to
contain a large number of microorganisms, will
spread rapidly over a large area and is not easily
retrieved from the pool.
Pool operators will need to assess each situation
and make a judgment about the exact action to be
taken.
Loose Stool
The following are guidelines for responding to
loose faecal matter in the pool:
1. The pool, in the vicinity of the faecal accident,
should be cleared of people.
2. The faecal matter should be removed as
thoroughly as possible using a fine mesh scoop
net or vacuumed to waste.
3. The pool should be superchlorinated, with the
bulk of the disinfectant added to the
immediate vicinity of the accident.
4. The pool should be superchlorinated that
night.
5. The pool filters should be backwashed that
night.
6. Details of the accident and treatment should be
noted in the pool operation log.
7. Patrons should only be allowed back into the
water when disinfectant and pH levels are
within recommended ranges and all faecal
matter has been removed from the water.
Firm Stool
A firm solid stool requires the following action:
The pool in the vicinity of the faecal accident
should be cleared of people.
1. The stool should be removed.
2. Water should be tested to ensure compliance
with the Health Regulations.
3. If the water meets the Regulations, patrons
may be allowed to re-enter the water.

29

Contamination of the Pool Water by Blood

or Vomit
If blood or vomit contaminates the pool water, the
following action should be taken:
1. The pool in the vicinity of the accident should
be cleared of people.
2. Large particles should be removed using a fine
mesh scoop net, vacuumed to waste.
3. Allow and assist any remaining contaminant
to disperse.
4. Water should be tested to ensure compliance
with the Health Regulations.
5. If the water meets the Regulations, patrons
may be allowed to re-enter the water.

Disinfection of Contaminated Surfaces

Any contaminant on the pool deck should not be
washed into the pool water circulation system.
Chlorine based disinfectants are commonly used
for dealing with blood or body fluid spills. For
example, a 1:10 dilution of sodium hypochlorite
in water can be used. Dangerous Goods (Storage
and Handling) Regulations should be consulted
before preparing chemical dilutions.
The procedure for dealing with a contaminated
surface is:
1. Wear rubber gloves and remove excess
contaminant using disposable paper towels or
similar.
2. Wipe non-porous surfaces with hot water and
detergent and then flood with a chlorine based
disinfectant and leave for ten minutes.
3. Porous surfaces, such as the pool deck, are
more difficult to clean. Wash the area
thoroughly with detergent and allow the run
off to go down the drain. Flood with a chlorine
based disinfectant and leave for ten minutes.
4. Towels, gloves, excess contamination and
other items should be placed in a bag and
sealed. All contaminated items should be
disposed of appropriately.

30

Pool Hygiene and Cleaning

Overview

Toilets

Good pool water management and adequate

hygiene procedures will prevent pollution and
cross-contamination in most cases. The next
chapter, Pool Water Contamination, deals with
types of contamination, and the following
chapter, Disinfection, deals with maintaining
appropriate disinfectant levels. This chapter
concentrates on cleanliness and hygiene in the
pool surrounds and in the pool itself.

These need to be placed so they can be

conveniently used prior to entering the pool.
Public education is necessary, especially with
children, to minimise involuntary urination in the
pool. Babies should be in bathers rather than
nappies, and be encouraged to empty bladders
before entering the pool. Frequency of cleaning
will depend on numbers attending, but toilets
should be cleaned at least once daily, and more
frequently in times of heavy use. Sanitary and
nappy disposal units should be made available.
Regular inspection should be part of routine
management.

Public Education
Swimmers need to understand the importance to
them of pre-swim hygiene; it helps provide more
comfortable water. Posters, pool rule handouts
and informal education all help to inform the
public of their part in keeping the pool clean.
However, if the toilet and shower facilities do not
accommodate swimmer numbers, or they are
inaccessible or dirty, no amount of education will
encourage swimmers to use them.

Pool Users Personal Hygiene

The pre-swim shower will remove most
potential contaminants dead skin cells,
fibres from clothes, dirt, body oils and
sweat before the swimmer enters the
pool water.

Hot Water Systems

Hot water systems serving showers and hand
basins should deliver water at less than 43C to
prevent scalding. The main boilers should be
maintained at temperatures not below 60C to
prevent the colonisation of Legionella bacteria.
The temperature reduction required can be
achieved by mixing valves. Tepid water systems
or modified tepid water systems that maintain
water below 50C must be maintained in
accordance with the Standards prescribed by the

In Australia it is not compulsory to shower, wear

a swimming cap or walk through a footbath
before entering a pool, as it is in some other
countries. However, there seems to be some sense
in encouraging the pre-swim shower.
Footbaths were once considered invaluable for
preventing contamination with tinea and plantar
warts but this no longer appears to be the case.
Showers clean the feet more effectively and bring
extra benefits of rinsing the body at the same
time.
Swim showers should be supplied with fresh
water and run to waste. The frequency of cleaning
showers will depend on number of swimmers
using them, but regular inspection and at least
daily cleaning should be part of routine
management.

Figure 5 Instantaneous Hot Water Systems

Instantaneous hot water systems can be set to provide
warm water without mixing valves or having to store hot
or warm water.

31

Health (Infectious Diseases) Regulations to

minimise colonisation by Legionella bacteria.
Instantaneous hot water systems can be
controlled to provide water at these ranges
without the need for storage or mixing valves.

Cleaning in and Around the Pool

and Changing Rooms
From a hygiene perspective to prevent
transmission of infection, the pool surrounds and
change rooms need to be cleaned regularly.
Frequency will again depend on the number of
swimmers attending but should be monitored
and inspected as part of routine management.
Minimising dirt from shoes can be controlled with
good design. The use of cleaning agents needs to
be strictly controlled and storage should comply
with the Dangerous Goods (Storage and
Handling) Act 1989.
Floors need to be hosed, mopped, washed or
scrubbed at least once each day. Keeping cleaning
products out of the pool water is almost
impossible, particularly with wet-deck pool. For
this reason, pool water can be used as the
cleaning solution, as it already has a disinfectant
in it. On the sides of the pool, deposits of dirt just
above the water line can be cleaned off with a
scourer, using sodium bicarbonate solution.
Goggles and gloves should be worn. Tanks and
channels should be inspected and cleaned
periodically.
It is extremely important that commercial
products used for cleaning in and around the
pool area are compatible with pool water
and chemicals used for disinfecting it. Care
needs to be taken that cleaning chemicals do
not affect residual levels or interfere with
monitoring. Chlorine and pool chemicals
interact with other chemicals in a way that
can be hazardous. Care should be taken to
avoid outright incompatibility between
cleaning and pool chemicalsparticularly
potentially explosive reactions between acids
and alkalis.

32

Bottom of Pool
There should be some method of cleaning debris
and algae from the floor of the pool. The simplest
method is to use a long-handled, wide, weighted
brush and sweep the debris to the deepest outlet
grating. Algae or staining requires suction to
remove it. There are a number of suction vacuum
units on the market that may require manual
handling or may be remote controlled. Some will
pump out through the pools filtering system;
some have built-in filters that need cleaning after
each use. All electrical systems need to comply
with Australian Standards (AS3000).

Emptying the Pool

Generally speaking the pool should not be
emptied unless absolutely necessary, due to
potential structural damage. Detailed information
about this process is included in the chapter on
Maintenance.
When emptied, the walls and floor can be
assessed for cracked, broken or loose tiles or vinyl
and these should be mended or replaced. The
surfaces can then be cleaned with a chlorinebased disinfectant. Acid washing may be
necessary to get the tiles clean refer to the
manufacturers advice as this can damage the
grouting. In either case, the solution needs to be
neutralised then rinsed to waste prior to the pool
being refilled.

Water Treatment

Choosing a Disinfectant
Overview

Best Practice Model

Disinfection occurs when sanitation of the pool

water is achieved. This means that transmission
of infections between persons or from the pool is
minimised and that growth of algae and other
nuisance organisms is inhibited.

Design disinfectant dosing systems for

all pools to cope with a range of bathing
loadings.

Use automatic monitoring and dosing of

disinfectant and pH in all spa pools and
other pools that are subject to
inconsistent chlorine demand.

Maintain disinfectant residuals at the

lowest end of the regulatory scale,
where possible. Pools with poor
circulation rates or dosing systems may
need to maintain higher residual levels
to accommodate demand from the
influx of pool users.

Ensure that cyanuric acid is present in

all outdoor pools to minimise chlorine
loss to sunlight.

Conduct superchlorination at least

weekly to disinfect filters, control algae
and oxidise bather pollution.

Maintain a stable pH when using

automatically controlled disinfectant
dosing to avoid fluctuations in
disinfectant levels.

Dilution reduces bather pollution,

disinfection by-products, excessive TDS
and cyanuric acid build-up.

Chlorine and Bromine Based Disinfectants

Disinfectants need to kill bacteria very quickly,
and free chlorine or bromine are the most effective
treatments available that can be safely used in
swimming pools. These disinfectants have
another advantage because they also oxidise
bather wastes, such as sweat, skin particles,
mucus and urine in the pool water.
Chlorine and bromine based disinfectants
are the only disinfectants suitable for use in
public pools as their levels can be established
on-site with relatively simple test kits.

Ozone or UV Treatments
Disinfectants should be of a residual nature and
be present in the main pool water body to
encounter microorganisms as they are introduced
to the water. Off-line treatment systems, such as
ozone or UV, are not regarded as disinfection
systems alone, as neither can prevent person-toperson transmission of disease, nor sanitise pool
surfaces.
Ozone is excellent for oxidation and destruction
of chemical pollutants or disinfection by-products
within the circulation and filtration plant. UV has
been shown to be beneficial in the breakdown of
chloramines. The chapter Water Treatment Using
Ozone and Ultraviolet Radiation provides more
information about the use of ozone and UV.

Choosing a Suitable Disinfectant

Other Disinfection Treatments

There are other disinfectant systems that are
marketed in Australia, which involve the use of
mechanical or other chemical methods. These
systems generally have no application to public
pools and should be avoided. If in doubt contact
the regulatory authority for advice.

34

Type of Pool
The type of disinfectant chosen depends on these
factors:

Indoor or outdoor situation

Swimming pool or spa pool

The chemical characteristics of the water

supply

The bather loadings that have to be treated

Circulation capacity and pool design

Chemical handling and safety issues

Supervision and maintenance issues

Pool water temperature.

Chlorine Based Chemicals

Chlorine based chemicals available include:

and injection points are located within external

buildings and not within the pool hall or attached
plant rooms. Refer to AS2927 1987.

Elemental chlorine gas

Liquid chlorine (sodium hypochlorite)

Hypochlorites

Granular chlorine (calcium and lithium

hypochlorite)

Chlorine tablets (calcium hypochlorite)

Electrolytic generation of chlorine from saline

salt (salt chlorination)

Stabilised chlorine granules/tablets

(dichloroisocyanurate and
trichloroisocyanurate).

Sodium hypochlorite is the most versatile pool

disinfectant and is widely used. It does pose
chemical handling risks, however, particularly in
a bulk handling and storage situation. Sodium
hypochlorite is strongly alkaline and tends to
keep high pH levels. It is generally used in
combination with acid or carbon dioxide dosing.
It is easily dosed by metering pump, therefore it is
flexible in meeting demand. It is stabilised in a
caustic solution, thereby having a shelf life of
some weeks.

Bromine Based Chemicals

Bromine based chemicals available include:

Tablet (BCDMH)

Sodium bromide with an activator

(hypochlorite or ozone).

Chlorine Gas
Chlorine gas is one method available to
professional pool operators to disinfect large
community pools. It usually requires dosing with
an alkali, such as sodium bicarbonate or soda ash
to maintain pH, as hydrochloric acid is formed
when elemental chlorine gas is added to water.

Figure 7 Bulk Sodium Hypochlorite Container

in Bund
Calcium hypochlorite is widely available and
suitable for manually dosing pools following
closure. It is useful for soft waters in maintaining
hardness levels lost by dilution and backwashing.
It is generally not used for metered dosing.
Tablets are also available which have a number of
applications.

Figure 6 Chlorine Gas, Weight Scales and Regulator

The Dangerous Goods (Storage and Handling)
Regulations limit the use of chlorine gas to pools
that have sufficient buffer distances from
residences and places of public gathering to
minimise the risk of injury, should there be a
chlorine gas leak. For this reason gas cylinders

Lithium hypochlorite is shelf stable, non-scaling

and highly soluble in water. It is ideal for use in
spa pools.
In outdoor situations, cyanuric acid should be
used with hypochlorites to reduce chlorine loss
from sunlight.

35

chlorine and pH measurement

pressure
sand filter

balance
tank

pool

vent valve

chlorine and pH
measurement

coagulant
dosing

acid dosing
calorifier/heat exchanger

circulating
pump

hypochlorite
injection

air scour

Figure 8 Pool Water Treatment with Chlorine Disinfectant

Salt Chlorination

Chlorinated Isocyanurates

Salt chlorinators use a low voltage electric current

to convert chloride salt contained in the pool
water into free chlorine. Salt-water pools involve
minimal chemical handling and daily
maintenance, are low in complexity and are
therefore recommended for hotels and motels,
caravan parks and apartment blocks where
professional pool operators are not usually
employed. A timer or an automatic sensor and
control system can control the operation of a salt
chlorinator. A residual of between 2,0008,000
ppm of salt is maintained in accordance with
manufacturers specifications which requires
periodic topping up to maintain chlorine
production rates.

This type of disinfectant (for example, trichlor,

dichlor) combines chlorine with cyanuric acid
stabiliser and is therefore suited to pools exposed
to direct sunlight. In outdoor use a start-up
concentration of 25 ppm of cyanuric acid is
recommended. When levels of cyanuric acid
increase to 100 ppm, more frequent dilution of
the pool water is indicated to control cyanuric
acid levels.

The output of the chlorinator is related to the size

or number of the electrode plates. As the chlorine
output is fixed, careful consideration of bather
loads and chlorine consumption should be
considered when installing systems.
Scaling of the electrode plates may occur if there
is too much calcium hardness in the water,
however this should be considered in line with
protecting the pool surfaces. The plates should be
cleaned with acid periodically in accordance with
manufacturers directions.
In outdoor use, cyanuric acid should be present in
salt chlorinated pool water.

36

Trichlor is used in many pools because of the ease

of chemical storage and the simple dispensing
methods using erosion feeders. It is suitable for
hard, alkaline water, as it does not contain
calcium and helps keep pH down. It is suitable
for outdoor hotel/motel and caravan park pools
as the tablets are easily handled. It has also been
used in community pools but is not as flexible as
gas/hypochlorite systems. Care should be taken
to ensure that cyanuric acid does not reach
excessive levels. This can be corrected by
backwashing or draining the pool on a regular
basis.

Chlorine Chlorine Dioxide

Chlorine dioxide is also an effective disinfectant
and oxidant and is not affected greatly by pH.
Stabilised chlorinous oxide solutions that form
chlorine dioxide when added to water are
beginning to be used at low levels (0.20.3 ppm)
in swimming pools to supplement chlorination.

Chlorine dioxide must be used in

conjunction with free chlorine under tight
supervision.
A potentially problematic by-product is chlorite
formation or reconversion, which is controlled by
continued free chlorine addition and periodic
superchlorination.
Chlorine dioxide may also be generated on-site by
mixing hydrochloric acid with sodium chlorite.
However these systems are more likely to
introduce chlorite than stabilised chlorinous oxide
solutions. This type of generation is more
applicable to drinking water treatment.
Chlorine dioxide treatments have been
proposed as a treatment for pools affected by
Cryptosporidium contamination.
Check the Department of Human Services
website http://www.dhs.vic.gov.au/phd/
poolfacts/index.htm for latest
recommendations.

Bromine
Bromine has been popular for some years,
particularly in warm water pools (notably for
hydrotherapy), but is losing popularity in some
circles. Bromine has been associated with
instances of skin irritation, and some pools have
had difficulty remaining within regulatory limits
for total bacteria count.
Bromo-chloro-dimethyl-hydantoin (BCDMH) has
been popular in hydrotherapy pools, due to better
retention of disinfectant in heated situations and
the absence of chlorinous odours. Brominated
pools do have a particular odour. Like trichlor,
BCDMH is dispensed by erosion feeders and is
acidic. Bicarbonate buffering is usually adequate
to control pH where BCDMH is used.
Bromide-oxidant activator systems use a reserve
of sodium bromide in the body of the pool with
an activator. In this system sufficient bromide ions
are maintained in the pool water. Sodium

hypochlorite, or ozone, when injected into the

water forms hypobromous acid. After reaction
with contaminants, the hypobromous acid reverts
back to bromide and so the cycle restarts.
Bromine can be purchased as a preformed
hypobromite/hypochlorite liquid. It can also be
manufactured on-site by pre-mixing sodium
bromide with sodium hypochlorite in line prior to
injection into the water stream. These solutions
invariably form a chloramine build-up after
continued use. Hence, the sodium
bromide/sodium hypochlorite system relies on
dilution with fresh water to reduce chloramines.
Problems with Bromide/Ozone Pools
Bromide/ozone pools have had problems because
the rate of bromine production is related strictly
to the ozone production capacity. Reserve
bromide ions react with ozone to form free
bromine. As the system relies on the bromide
reaction to prevent ozone getting into the pool, it
may be unsafe to add chlorine to supplement
bromine production while the ozone generator is
on because ozone could escape into the pool.
If the ozone system breaks down and it becomes
necessary to add sodium hypochlorite to activate
the bromide, problems with chloramines and
other compounds may emerge. A minimum
bromide level must be maintained within the
system. The use of this type of system has been
discontinued in some pools because of these
issues.

Chloramine Removal
Chloramines are formed by a reaction between
hypochlorous acid and nitrogen based products
from pool users. Chloramines can be reduced by a
number of processes. Superchlorination/shock
dosing, ozonation and dilution are three
conventional methods of chloramine reduction.
Continuous dilution is the best way to minimise
the build-up of combined chlorine, particularly
the stable organicnitrogen complexes formed
from nitrogen-based compounds present in sweat
and urine. The continuous maintenance of a free

37

chlorine residual, which is at least 50 per cent (but

preferably 75 per cent) of the total chlorine
residual during normal pool operation, should
control the accumulation of simple inorganic
chloramines.

Chloramine concentrations may also be increased

if make-up water supplies contain chloramines.
Periodic superchlorination is recommended in
these circumstances as the best method of
removing inorganic chloramines.

Superchlorination

For pools using chlorinated isocyanurates as their

regular disinfectant, superchlorination using these
products may elevate cyanuric acid levels over
time. Operators should consider using a
hypochlorite for superchlorination purposes
when cyanuric acid is at the preferred
concentration.

Superchlorination is an industry term for a

periodic maintenance procedure where the free
chlorine residual is raised 2 4 times the normal
operating level to prevent algae, remove colour
and maintain clarity. Superchlorination also
assists in reducing combined chlorine, in most
circumstances. It also assists in keeping the pool
water within bacteriological requirements during
normal operation by periodically removing
biofilms (bacterial harbourages) that resist normal
chlorine levels.

38

Superchlorination should be conducted

when the pool is closed to bathers (for
example, overnight). This will prevent
the introduction of pollution that may
hinder the superchlorination process.
Superchlorination must be carried out
with the pH between 7.6 and 7.8. If the
pH drops below 7.5, nitrogen trichloride
may be formed, which is a stable
compound that causes chlorinous
odours and irritates eyes.

Under most circumstances

superchlorination is achieved at chlorine
levels around 68 ppm. This level is
sufficient to remove chloramine and will
return to normal operating levels by the
next morning.

It is generally recommended that

superchlorination is conducted at
weekly intervals. Some pools may
require more frequent treatment,
depending on their pollution profile.

Shock Dosing
Shock dosing is an industry term used to describe
the process of superchlorination when it is
specifically used to solve problems such as
destroying algae blooms and treating colour and
clarity problems. The chlorine dose is usually
higher than that used for preventative
superchlorination.
Shock dosing to 1015 ppm, or around 57 times
the normal free chlorine residual, may be used to
help correct a serious problem, however dosing
above this level would lead to excessive waste of
chlorine.
Shock dosing immediately after refilling an empty
pool from a town water supply that is heavily
chloraminated will remove the chloramine
present. In this situation, the free chlorine should
not be raised by more than ten times the
combined chlorine residual, otherwise nitrogen
trichloride will form.

pH should be maintained between 7.6

and 7.8 when shock dosing, for the same
reasons as for superchlorination.

Shock dosing good quality pool water

will not change the water quality, and is
simply a waste of chemical.

More serious problems, such as

persistent combined chlorine, can be
solved by dilution through backwashing
and by the introduction of fresh water.

Consideration must always be given to

the Regulations and bather comfort, as
well as the levels of chemical in the
water when the pool is open for use.

If chlorine levels are too high to allow

bathing even after allowing sufficient
time for the process to work (for
example, overnight), then
dechlorination may be required prior to
reopening the pool.

Dechlorination
Dechlorination can be achieved by adding sodium
thiosulphate to the pool water if chlorine levels
are above the regulatory limits. This will enable
the operator to reduce chlorine levels and allow
bathing.
Situations that require dechlorination should
be avoided.
When using sodium thiosulphate, it is important
to fully dissolve the crystals before adding them
to the pool, as inadequate dissolution may
prevent satisfactory chlorine neutralisation.
Overdosing may result in a higher residual of
sodium thiosulphate than required and this may
prevent adequate chlorine levels being achieved.
Approximately 10 g of sodium thiosulphate per
10,000 litres (10 m3) of pool water is required to
lower chlorine levels by 1 ppm.

Ozone and UV
Ozone is an effective oxidant and ozonated pools
have reduced need for superchlorination.
Superchlorination is still periodically required to
sanitise pool surfaces and prevent algal
colonisation. UV light from both natural and
unnatural sources has a positive benefit in
chloramine reduction. (See the chapter on Water
Treatment Using Ozone and Ultraviolet
Radiation for a fuller description.)

Oxygen Based Oxidisers

Oxygen based oxidisers are available, but they are
difficult to control. Expert advice should be
sought prior to application. They have no
application in ozonated pools, as ozone works in
a similar manner.

Cyanuric Acid
Cyanuric acid is a granular compound which,
when dissolved in pool water, shields a
percentage of chlorine from sunlight, thereby
significantly reducing chlorine loss. It is an
essential ingredient in outdoor pools, but has
reduced benefit for indoor pools.
A slightly higher level of disinfection residual
should be maintained within the pool water body
because some studies have suggested that the
speed of disinfection is slower when cyanuric acid
is present. Oxidation is also impaired by the use
of cyanuric acid as the oxidation-reduction
potential is reduced, particularly in still water
conditions. This can be demonstrated by
measuring the oxidation potential of a chlorine
solution of equal chlorine concentration and pH
when cyanuric acid is absent or present.
At least 25 ppm of cyanuric acid is needed for it to
work efficiently but there is no advantage
increasing levels above 50 ppm except to allow for
a drop-off in levels, due to backwashing and
water losses on the pool deck.
Disinfectants that contain isocyanurate continue
to add cyanuric acid through the swimming
season, so there is no need to top up cyanuric acid
levels. High levels of cyanuric acid may
contribute to water cloudiness and are controlled
by dilution with fresh make-up water. In these
pools a start up dose of 25 ppm is recommended
after refilling.
Cyanuric acid is extremely difficult to dissolve,
and the gradual addition of chlorinated
isocyanurate disinfectants to bring up the level
may be the easiest method for some operators.

39

Oxidation-Reduction Potential
(ORP) as a Disinfection Parameter
Oxidation-Reduction Potential (ORP, redox)
measurements are a reliable indicator of the
condition of the water, as they measure the
relative oxidative properties that are immediately
available. Research has shown that in chlorinated
water, ORP values in excess of 720 millivolts (mV)
using a silver/silver chloride electrode or 680 mV,
using a Calomel electrode, should guarantee
water that is in good microbiological condition.
Values in excess of 750 mV can be achieved in
good pools with excellent filtration and
supplementary oxidation processes. However, the
action of other chemicals, pH and temperature
may affect ORP values. Therefore, desirable ORP
control settings are site-specific to a degree.
If ORP is used as a water quality parameter in its
own right, then comparing the sensor response
using Lights solution is necessary before
interpreting the reading. The desirable ORP
values above are based on a Calomel sensor
reading 435 mV or a silver/silver chloride sensor
reading 475 mV respectively when placed in
Lights solution. Lights solution is available from
scientific instrument suppliers.
ORP measurements themselves do not guarantee
the capacity of the system to disinfect or oxidise a
minimum quantity of contaminants per litre of
water, so regulatory authorities prescribe that
minimum free disinfectant residuals need to be
measured by other means.

Control of Algae
Algae are a single-celled green plant which
thrives in water and sunlight. Spores are
introduced into water via raindrops, wind-borne
dust and on the feet of water birds, and can grow
rapidly. Conditions conducive to algae growth
include high pH, low chlorine, sunlight, warm
water and mineral content particularly
phosphates and nitrates.

40

In a pool that is subject to regular use and is

maintained in accordance with the Regulations
using best practice, algae problems should never
occur. Regular superchlorination should be all
that is required to oxidise algae spores.
Algacides should not be present in pool water
during the swimming season unless permission to
do so has been obtained from the Department of
Human Services (Victoria) for exceptional
circumstances.
Most algacides are toxic to plants and stream life.
Some algacides, particularly those containing
metal ions or residual herbicides, have residual
properties that last for many months and are
harmful to the environment, even if discharged to
sewer. EPA policies require all unnecessary
chemicals be avoided and that commercial pool
operators undertake waste minimisation
practices. Most algacides actually increase the rate
of chlorine consumption as metallic compounds
and other complexes are oxidised by chlorine. The
presence of metallic or other compounds may
alter the oxidation profile of the pool water and
can inhibit chloramine destruction and
disinfection. Algicidal compounds generated from
ionising electrodes have no fundamental
difference from residual metal-based algacides
obtained from liquid or powder.

Unsuitable Disinfectants
Some pool disinfectants sold are not suitable
disinfectants for public pool use. This is usually
because the rate of disinfection (biocidal efficacy)
is insufficient to prevent infectious disease in
public pool situations. Some of these include:

Hydrogen peroxide

Silver/copper ions

Polymeric biguanides

Quarternary ammonium compounds

Ionisers

Electromagnets

Energy polarisers.

41

Granules

Granules

Sodium
dichloroisocyanurate
(dichlor)

Years

Tablets

Lithium
hypochlorite

Years

Granules

Calcium
hypochlorite

Years

Years

412
weeks

Liquid

Sodium
hypochlorite

Years

Gaseous
cylinder

Form

Chlorine gas

Chemical
or process

5863%

35%

6570%

65%

12.5%

100%

6.8

10.5

11

Typical
concentration pH when
of active
made into
Shelf life
ingredient
solution

Nil

Increases

Increase

Increase

Increases

Decreases

Effect
on total
alkalinity

Table 8 Summary of the Characteristics of a Range of Pool Water Disinfectant

Nil

Nil

Increases

Increases

Nil

Nil

Effect on
calcium
hardness

No
No

No
contains
stabiliser

Can be used
in erosion
feeders but
solubility
is poor

No

Yes

Yes

Suitable
for in line
dosing

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Stabiliser
required
for outdoor
use

continued next page

Mostly used in outdoor spa pools.

Has little effect on pH/alkalinity.
Must monitor cyanuric acid levels.

Mostly used in indoor spa pools.

Used for shock dosing.

Can be used in manual dosing for
lightly loaded pools prior to
pool opening.
Good for soft water.
Useful for winterising.

General use in all pools.

Usually requires acid dosing.
Flexible in dosage requirements.
High operational maintenance.
Shelf life depends upon storage
conditions.

Mostly used in large pools with

trained pool operators.
Dangerous Goods Regulations
restrict the siting of gas plant.
Usually requires alkali dosing.
Low operational maintenance.

Comments

42

Tablets

Electrode
plate
using
salt in
saline
pool

Tablets

Liquid

Salt
chlorinator

Bromine
(BCDMH)

Bromine
(sodium
bromide/
sodium
hypochlorite)

Form

Trichloroisocyanurate
(trichlor)

Chemical
or process

412
weeks

Years

Years

Years

Depends on
formulation.
822%
chlorine
equivalent.
Can be
manufactured
on-site.

90%

Depends
on the
size of
electrodes,
flow and
operating
time

8590%

11

4.5

mildly
alkaline

2.4

Typical
concentration pH when
of active
made into
Shelf life
ingredient
solution

Increase

Decrease

Increase

Decreases

Effect
on total
alkalinity

Table 8 Summary of the Characteristics of a Range of Pool Water Disinfectant (cont.)

Nil

Nil

Decrease

Nil

Effect on
calcium
hardness

Not suitable

Not
suitable

Yes

Yes
(erosion
canister)

Yes

Yes
(erosion
canister)

No
contains
stabiliser

Yes

Suitable
for in line
dosing

Stabiliser
required
for outdoor
use

Mostly used in indoor spa pools.

Chloramine can form and be a
problem and is not easily
removed.
The presence of bromide inhibits
chlorine oxidation and
superchlorination/shock dosing
is not practical.

Mostly used in indoor spa pools and

hydrotherapy pools with elevated
temperatures.
Slow to respond to sudden large
increases in bather loads.

Low maintenance system suitable

for non-professional operators
Good where chemical handling and
storage are issues of concern.
Not suitable for pools that are
subject to sudden large increases
in bather load.

Small pools with low/medium

bather load.
Good for hard water areas.
Not suitable for pools with variable
bather loads or long operating
seasons.
Must monitor cyanuric acid levels.

Comments

43

Variable

n/a

Adapted from AS3633 1989 Private Swimming Pools Water Quality.

Stabilised See label Manufacturers

liquid
directions specifications
plus any also see
form of
chlorine
chlorine.

limited
by ozone
output

Chlorine
chlorine
dioxide

Years

Liquid and
corona
discharge
ozone
generator.

Form

Sodium
bromide/
ozone

Chemical
or Process

Typical
concentration pH when
of active
made into
Shelf life
ingredient
solution

Variable

n/a

Effect
on total
alkalinity

Table 8 Summary of the Characteristics of a Range of Pool Water Disinfectant (cont.)

Nil

n/a

Effect on
calcium
hardness

Yes

Not
suitable

Stabiliser
required
for outdoor
use

Yes

Yes

Suitable
for in line
dosing

Must be used with chlorine.

Regular superchlorination required
to reduce chlorite build-up.
Suitability currently under
investigation by the Department
of Human Services.

System has been demonstrated to

be not practical in many working
situations. Does not cope well
with varied bather loads.
Is not compatible with chlorination.
Bromine residual difficult to control.
If ozonator breaks down, pool has to
be closed or chlorine substituted as
activator.

Comments

Water Treatment Using Ozone and

Ultraviolet Radiation
Overview
Ozone and ultraviolet radiation water treatment
systems are different from the other methods
discussed because they purify the pool water as it
passes through the plant room. Both deal with
water contaminants without providing a
disinfectant residual, and allow the water in the
pool itself to operate with a lower level of
conventional residual disinfectant than it
otherwise would.
Both ozone and ultraviolet radiation are
potentially hazardous and attention should be
paid to the safety of plant room operators,
particularly during maintenance. Ozone plant
rooms should be ventilated to Occupational
Health and Safety Regulations.
Of the two, ozone is the more established in
Australian pools. Ultraviolet radiation is
beginning to be explored in commercial pools.

Ozone
Until recently, the prime objective of chemical
treatment of a pool was to create a body of water
that was clean and healthy in which one could
swim with safety. An additional concern of pool
operators and health authorities was to have a
water and pool hall environment that looks
appealing to the pool customer.
With the increasing demand for improved water
quality, ozone is now being used with a measure
of success and is being more widely used in
public pools. Its use results in vastly improved
water quality, both from health and aesthetic
aspects where water quality problems exist.

Chemistry
Ozone is a bluish/purple gas. Chemically, it
is three oxygen atoms (O3 ), as opposed to two
in the oxygen molecule (O2 ). It can appear
naturally around electrical equipment, for
example, photocopiers, but for pool water
disinfection it is generated on-site.

44

Ozone is produced in a generator when high

voltage electricity is passed across a discharge
gap. When dried air containing oxygen passes
through this gap, the oxygen molecule is activated
up to an ozone molecule. Only a small
percentage of the oxygen in air is converted to
ozone.
As ozone is relatively unstable, it cannot be
manufactured somewhere else and transported to
the pool in cylinders like chlorine. As it is
unstable, ozone is an extremely strong oxidant,
and therefore a good disinfectant. As it
decomposes into oxygen, no new chemicals are
added to the water. However, it is also toxic in
significant atmospheric concentrations, so excess
(unreacted) ozone must be removed within the
treatment system.

Dealing with Contaminants

The chemistry of the relationship between ozone
and pool contaminants is complex. Ozone
interferes with the reactions that produce
contaminants, moreso than actually destroying
urea, amino acids or trihalomethanes. And there
are also significant reactions that allow
subsequent filtration of the organic molecules by
a process of microfloccuation. A slow reaction
with chloramine to form chloride and nitrate also
occurs, thus enhancing breakpoint chlorination
and the removal of ammonia. The filters
especially granular activated carbon (GAC) that
remove ozone from the water before it returns to
the pool, also remove some contaminants
(activated carbon filters will also remove
chlorine). The effect of ozonation and GAC
filtration is to remove most of the chloramine, so
the purity of the water is enhanced before it reenters the pool.
As a result, the low dose of chlorine added to the
water after filtration is completely available as a
free chlorine residual for the pool. Well-managed
ozone pools are generally odour free.

chlorine and pH measurement

circulating
pump

balance
tank

pool

ozone
generator

vent valve
pressure
sand filter
coagulant
dosing

acid dosing
chlorine and pH
measurement

air scour
booster pump

de-ozonising filter
vent
valve

hypochlorite
injection
water trap
bypass line

calorifier/
heat
exchanger

ozone
control

vent
valve

de-ozonising
vessel

eductor
ozone
in-line
mixer

contact
vessel

water trap
ozone/air
sample
point

Figure 9 Pool Water Treatment with Ozone and Hypochlorite

Dosing with Ozone

De-Ozonation

There are two different ways in which ozone can

be used. In each case the contact time between
ozone and water should be two minutes or more;
and the O3 concentration during this period
0.81 ppm.

The de-ozonation stage immediately follows

ozonation; all traces of ozone must be removed
from the treated water before it enters the pool.
Granular activated carbon (GAC), activated heattreated anthracite and thermal destruction
methods are commonly used for de-ozonation.

On new installations all the water to the pool

should be dosed with O3 at a concentration that
depends on what specific system is used. Ozone
acts best in contact with filtered water, so
systems with separate filtration, ozonation and
de-ozonation are best; all-in-one systems are an
acceptable compromise.
On existing installations where, due to space
restrictions, it is not possible to install equipment
to ozonate the total flow rate of the system,
treatment of a percentage of this flow rate may be
considered. This so-called slipstream ozonation
should dose a minimum of 20 per cent of the flow
rate. The benefits of slipstream ozonation will be
proportional to the percentage of water ozonated;
but installation costs will not be. Therefore, costeffective benefits are likely to be difficult to
achieve.

Figure 10 ORP Probes

ORP probes can be installed to detect the oxidation level of
the pool water pre and post de-ozonation. These probes
check the effectiveness of the ozonation and de-ozonation
process.
ORP probes (above) installed detect the oxidation
level of the pool water before de-ozonation and

45

after de-ozonation. These probes check the

effectiveness of the ozonation and de-ozonation
processes.

Plant Safety
Ozone in concentration is a dangerous gas and
leakage into the plant room presents a serious
occupational health risk. Ozone has a distinctive
smell, however, an ozone leakage detector should
be installed within the plant room. Ozone carrier
pipes need to be fully sealed and pressure tested
periodically to ensure that the installation can
withstand the pressures involved. Where air
containing ozone is bled off the top of filters
(degassing), the air should be passed through a
carbon destructor to destroy ozone gas prior to
discharge outside the plant room.

Bacterial Colonisation
Chlorine is removed with the ozone. If it is totally
removed, there may be bacterial colonisation of
the filter. Therefore it is important to maintain
some degree of residual disinfection throughout
de-ozonation. Bed depth and filter velocity
appears to be critical here. Recent experience has
indicated that colonisation is likely in the deozonation media (particularly GAC) if the bed
depth exceeds the levels recommended above, or
if the velocity through the media is too low.

Residual Dosing
After ozonation and de-ozonation, the water
should be essentially free from bacteria, and the
majority of the organic matter oxidised. It does
not, however, contain enough residual
disinfectant to prevent cross-infection within the
pool itself. A disinfectant residual must therefore
be provided, normally sodium hypochlorite.

pH Value
In all cases the pH value should be maintained
within the Regulations. The agent for pH control
should be selected according to the nature of the
fresh water supply and disinfection type.

Ultraviolet Radiation (UV)

Figure 11 Ozone Leak Detector

The disinfectant ability of radiation from the

ultraviolet section of the electromagnetic
spectrum is well established. UV treatment has
been used in drinking water, industrial and
effluent applications.
The primary action of UV is to kill bacteria,
viruses, moulds and spores, thus reducing the risk
of transmission of stomach, skin and respiratory
tract infections to pool users. UV has an important
secondary action: it initiates photochemical and
photo-oxidation reactions which destroy
chloramines. This is particularly important in
leisure pools where features such as water slides
and waves give a greater surface area for the
release of chloramines into the air. UV reduces the
burden, making the atmosphere safer and more
pleasant.

Figure 12 Ozone Off-Gas Destructor

46

The limiting factor tends to be the water clarity, as

dissolved and suspended material inhibits UV
penetration. Filtration will remove some of these
solids from swimming pool water; but to optimise
the effectiveness of the UV it is important that the
full flow of water returning to the pool is exposed
to the ultraviolet radiation. This will ensure the
pool water is treated on a regular and continuous
basis. An automatic wiper removes solids that
settle onto the quartz thimble around the UV arc
tube.
A chlorine or bromine based disinfectant must be
used in conjunction with UV systems to maintain
a disinfectant residual in the pool. UV radiation
inactivates bacteria and helps break down
chloramines and other pollutants.

47

Water Balance
Overview

Total Alkalinity

Water balance is a term that describes the scale or

corrosion activity of pool water. These aspects
must be controlled while remaining within correct
pH for disinfection efficacy and bather comfort.
Water balance is affected by four factors:

Total alkalinity is a measure of the amount of

alkaline salts present in the water. Total alkalinity
works as a shock absorber to reduce pH
fluctuation when alkalinity is above regulatory
limits. Conversely, total alkalinity above 200 ppm
can make any necessary pH adjustment difficult.

pH

Total alkalinity

Calcium hardness

Temperature.

These factors are discussed individually below.

pH
pH is a measure of the relative acid/alkali
strength of a solution. pH is measured on a scale
from one to 14, with 7.0 being neutral. Correct pH
is essential for three reasons:

Equipment protection

Bather comfort

Sanitiser (disinfection) efficiency.

When pH is too high (relative to the other water

balance parameters), water is more likely to have
scale-forming properties. When pH is too low,
water will become corrosive to pool equipment
and surfaces. The pH of the eye fluid is around
7.4, so good quality water within the prescribed
pH range should not cause eye irritation.
As pH increases, free chlorine loses oxidative
activity. At a pH of 8.0, only 20 per cent of free
chlorine is immediately available as hypochlorous
acid to kill germs; whereas, at a pH of 7.5, about
50 per cent is immediately available.
pH change in pools is caused by the addition of
disinfectants, which can be strongly acidic or
alkaline, and the acids present on pool users skin.
Aeration in spa pools tends to drive the pH up by
removing acidic gases. Dilution water may affect
the pH in extreme cases. See Table 8 Summary of
the Characteristics of a Range of Pool Water
Disinfectant for the pH effect of disinfectants.

48

Higher total alkalinity is appropriate when using

acidic disinfectants, such as chlorine gas, trichlor
or BCDMH.
To increase total alkalinity, the number of
dissolved alkaline substances should be
increased.

Calcium Hardness
Calcium hardness is a measure of the amount of
calcium salts present in the water. Relative to the
other water balance parameters, if calcium
hardness is too high, scaling of heaters and pool
finishes may occur. If calcium hardness is too low,
etching of cement and tiles and corrosion of
heating and circulation components may occur.
Calcium behaves differently from most chemicals
as it becomes less soluble as temperature rises.
In areas of high calcium source water, specialist
advice should be sought prior to the
establishment of recommended water balance
parameters and choice of disinfectant and pH
chemicals.

Temperature
The higher the temperature, the more likely
scaling is to occur, because calcium solubility is
lowered. At a lower temperature the water can
absorb more calcium. Concrete, marblesheen or
tiled pool surfaces may become etched,
particularly at low temperatures.

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

via automatic dosing equipment. Otherwise, a

dilution of at least one in ten should be
prepared before manually adding it to the pool
water. Never add acid to the water body of the
pool while it is in use.

TDS is a measure of all solids and salts dissolved

in pool water. TDS is increased by the addition of
chemicals and salts from pool users and
concentrated further by the evaporation of water.
Salt in salt chlorinated pools constitutes the bulk
of TDS and must be accounted for when
measuring TDS.

Adjusting Water Balance

Parameters
Increase Total Alkalinity

Add 1 kg sodium bicarbonate per 10,000 L of

pool water to increase the total alkalinity by
50 ppm.

Decrease Total Alkalinity

Dilution of pool water will lower alkalinity in

most situations. If consistently high total
alkalinity is creating problems, expert advice
should be sought on the choice of disinfectant
and pH correction chemicals.

Figure 13 Carbon Dioxide Tank

Carbon dioxide is often used in preference to acid to
lower pH.
For safe handling, always add acid to water
when making a dilution and use personal
protective equipment.

Decrease pH

Before adjusting pH, ensure the total alkalinity

is appropriate and stable.

Add 100 mL of hydrochloric (muriatic) acid or

120 g of sodium bisulphate (dry acid) per
10,000 L of pool water for a decrease in pH by
approximately 0.10.3. Always dilute the acid
in fresh water before adding it to the pool.

No more than 100 mL of hydrochloric acid or

120 g of sodium bisulphate should be added at
once. Otherwise, the pH may be lowered
dramatically.

The pH should be retested after a turnover

period before adding further acid.

Carbon dioxide gas can also be used to

decrease pH and can be injected automatically.

Hydrochloric acid and sodium bisulphate

should be diluted according to the
manufacturers instructions when dispensed

Increase pH

Before adjusting pH, ensure the total alkalinity

is appropriate and stable. If pH is not corrected
by setting the total alkalinity level, it can be
further raised by the addition of more sodium
bicarbonate (pH 8.2). However, this will cause
a further increase in alkalinity.

In most pools, pH can be effectively controlled by

using sodium bicarbonate without increasing
alkalinity excessively. Sodium carbonate, also
known as soda ash (pH 12.1) is sometimes used
but is more dangerous to handle than sodium
bicarbonate and contributes to scale formation.
The addition of sodium hydroxide, also known as
caustic soda (pH 14) to correct pH will cause high
pH problems and should not be used.

49

Calculating Water Balance

Water balance can be calculated using a number
of indexes or tables. The Saturation Index below is
the most universally accepted method.

Saturation Index (SI)

SI is also referred to as the Langelier Scale. SI is a
formula used to determine whether water is
balanced and is determined by the following
factors:

Figure 14 The Hazards of Poor Labelling

Putting the wrong white powder in the pool can spell
disaster. Have a system of storage that all staff can
understand.

Increase Calcium Hardness

Add 110 g of calcium chloride, or 140 g of

calcium sulphate, per 10,000 L of pool water to
increase calcium hardness by 10 ppm.

If calcium hardness is consistently too low,

consider using calcium-based disinfectants.

Decrease Calcium Hardness

Dilution of pool water is the only practical

way of lowering calcium hardness. If calcium
hardness is high, disinfectants containing
calcium should be substituted with those
containing sodium.

To Lower Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

50

Dilute pool water usually by backwashing and

refilling with fresh water. Regular dilution
according to bather loading and backwashing
should eliminate high, unaccounted-for TDS
from occurring.

1. pH
2. Total Alkalinity (TA)
3. Calcium Hardness (CH)
4. Temperature (T(C)
5. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS Constant = 12.1).
If the balance of these factors is too low, water will
be corrosive to fittings and finish. These corrosive
conditions occur when SI is less than 0.5 (for
heated water, SI should not be less than 0.2).
When the balance of these factors is too high,
water will cause deposits to form on fittings and
finish. These scale-forming conditions occur when
SI is more than +0.5.
The formula for Saturation Index is:
SI = pH + TF + AF + CF 12.1

Table 9 SI Index of Factors

Temp
(C)

TF

Total
Alkalinity

AF

Calcium
Hardness CF

0.0

0.7

0.3

0.1

25

1.4

25

1.0

0.2

50

1.7

50

1.3

12

0.3

75

1.9

75

1.5

16

0.4

100

2.0

100

1.6

19

0.5

150

2.2

150

1.8

24

0.6

200

2.3

200

1.9

29

0.7

300

2.5

300

2.1

34

0.8

400

2.6

400

2.3

41

0.9

800

2.9

800

2.5

51

1.0

1,000

3.0

1,000

2.6

Best Practice Model

Pool water should be appropriately

balanced to prevent scaling and
corrosion of fixtures and fittings.

Automatic monitoring and dosing of pH

correction chemicals should be used in
all spa pools and other pools that are
subject to fluctuating pH.

Maintain total alkalinity levels that are

appropriate to the type of disinfectant
used.

Maintain pH within tight tolerances

when using automatically controlled
disinfectant dosing.

Excess Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

should be diluted with fresh water.

51

Dosage and Control Systems

Overview
All pool disinfection systems should be designed
to match the expected rate of disinfectant
consumption at the worst conditions expected.
For some pools this may be bright sunshine at
40C and standing room only.
The higher the pool turnover rate, the easier it is
to circulate the disinfectant, measure and respond
to demand. Some systems, such as chlorine gas
and liquid chlorine, are quite flexible in the
amount that can be injected per hour. Systems
such as salt chlorinators and erosion feeders
(BCDMH, trichlor) must be correctly sized on the
basis of pool volume, flow rate and anticipated
bather load and have a reserve capacity to cope
with peak situations.

Figure 16 Carbon Dioxide Controller

Tablets are dosed by installing a flow through an
erosion canister (feeder) where the circulation
flow passes through eroding the tablets within.
This is usually done in-line or on a side-stream
basis where flow is controlled by a valve.

Design of Dosage Systems

Metering pumps are used to dispense liquid
systems at pressure into the circulation system.
Usually the stroke volume and frequency can be
adjusted to change feed rates. These pumps
require priming to ensure that air bubbles are not
present in the lines, which may cause ineffective
pumping.

Figure 17 Erosion Canister (Erosion Feeder)

Points of Dosing
Figure 15 Metering Pump
Metering pump mounted on liquid container.
Gas systems (chlorine and carbon dioxide) use
valves and an injector into a circulation loop. The
feed rate can be set using a sight glass valve on
the cylinder.

52

There are varying arguments about the merits of

where chemicals should be dosed.
Disinfectants, when dosed before the filter, have
the advantage of continuously disinfecting the
filter media preventing colonisation of organisms,
such as Pseudomonas and Legionella. The
disadvantage is that more chloramines may be
created and disinfectant consumption may

increase. However, if disinfectant is injected after

filtration, regular superchlorination will also
control filter colonisation. Where ozonation is
present, disinfection should take place after the
removal of ozone.

Control Systems
Control systems analyse disinfectant and pH
levels using a sensor and electronic meter, and
when outside the set parameters, sends a signal to
the pump or solenoid valve to allow more
chemical to be injected or released.
Controllers are divided into two types:
1. Proportional controllers that feed faster when
the measured concentration is far away from
the set point. Conversely, the addition rate
slows when the pool condition is close to the
set point.
2. Feed wait control. Chemical addition is
performed at the same rate when away from
the set point.

Safety
Relevant markings to Australian Standards or
international standards prescribed by Standards
Australia should be present on the controller. The
units should be mounted in a safe area and not
directly subject to accidental water splashes, such
as may happen when cleaning electrodes. The
mains power supply to the controller should have
safety circuit breakers fitted, both for the pool
operator safety and to provide some protection of
the controller electronics.
Disinfectant and acid should not be added
simultaneously. The controller system itself, or
some other means, should prevent acid and
disinfectant contact.
Pumps and other chemical delivery units should
be constructed from materials rated for use with
the pool chemicals being delivered. Close
attention should be paid to tubing used for
disinfectant and acid. Chemical delivery tubing
should be inspected at least weekly.

Sensors
pH
pH is measured by a glass electrode that
selectively measures the relative hydrogen (acid)
activity and sends a reading in millivolts to a pH
meter/controller. The meter/controller converts
this into pH units.

Disinfection
Figure 18 Pool Control Panel and Chemical
Measuring Station
Either type of controller should have facilities to
minimise controller bounce (that is, dampening of
signal variations). The pumps should be adjusted
accordingly to deliver chemical at an appropriate
rate per hour given the pool turnover
characteristics in order to minimise overdosing.
Some control systems can also measure electrical
conductivity and operate a dump valve to ensure
dilution of pool water and control of TDS.

There are two commonly used methods of

automatically analysing disinfection: Direct
Chlorine Residual Measurement (Amperometric)
and Oxidation-Reduction Potential Measurement
(ORP, Redox, Rh).
Direct Chlorine Residual Measurement
(Amperometric)
This method uses a chlorine sensor to estimate the
actual concentration of free chlorine by measuring
the hypochlorous acid component. Because pH
affects the ratio of hypochlorous acid/ion, it
should be kept constant so that the free chlorine is
measured accurately.

53

Oxidation-Reduction Potential Measurement

(ORP, Redox, Rh)
This method uses a platinum electrode to measure
the relative oxidative strength of the water. When
the pH is kept constant, there is generally a close
relationship between free chlorine and ORP
readout. Because pH affects the ratio of
hypochlorous acid/ion, it should be kept constant
so that the free chlorine effect is measured
accurately.
At higher levels of free chlorine residual
(> 3 ppm) ORP becomes less sensitive.
Accordingly, disinfectant residual becomes
increasingly difficult to control at higher levels
using ORP controllers.
Other factors may also affect ORP measurements.
For example, the presence of cyanuric acid lowers
the ORP value. Other substances in the water may
also have an effect, but where these factors are
constant, they will not adversely affect the
operation of the system. The values selected for
the control will reflect these factors.
Changes in concentration of combined chlorine
can influence ORP readings. At a given free
chlorine concentration and pH, water without
combined chlorine will have a higher ORP than
water with combined chlorine. It is therefore
better to set minimum ORP readings when there
is no combined chlorine in the water and when
bather loads are low. The free chlorine residual
must also be set to at least above the minimum
regulatory limit when setting ORP. When
combined chlorine is formed during the course of
the day, extra free chlorine residual will be then
maintained in the system until the combined
chlorine is destroyed. The free chlorine level
should not drop below the original set point when
ORP control equipment is set up this way.

Analyser Cell/Probe Buffering

Both ORP and direct chlorine residual methods of
measurement or control work best when the pH is
kept stable below 7.6 in chlorinated pools. Where
this is not possible, and precise chlorine control is
required, buffered cell analysers can be used.
Buffered cell analysers inject a pH buffer into the
water at the point of measurement to give a stable
54

pH reading (usually around pH 6), which ensures

accurate measurement of free chlorine. Most
pools should not need buffered cells.

Brominated Pools
ORP sensors are often used to control bromine
levels. Because bromine is less sensitive to pH
change, automatic systems should work well
throughout the normal pH range for swimming
pools. For direct bromine residual measurements,
some chlorine sensors can also measure bromine.
Check with the manufacturer for the
compatibility. Operators should also note that
bromine might affect the response of a
silver/silver chloride sensor.

Calibration of Sensors
Chlorine
Because it is difficult to obtain stable chlorine
solutions, primary calibration of equipment is
usually not done. Comparing the readout with the
result obtained from a DPD photometer or
comparator, and realigning the readout to match
the DPD test, is all that is required.
ORP
Calibration is not required for ORP sensors that
are used to control disinfection, as the individual
readings are electrode- and site-specific. Finding
the correct minimum ORP setting for each pool
requires monitoring of pool performance and
correlation with measured water quality and
disinfection parameters with ORP readings
measured.
pH
Primary calibration of a pH sensor should be
done with two standard solutions. Standard
solutions should cover the swimming pool pH
range. These standard solutions can be obtained
from scientific suppliers. Solutions commercially
available as pH 7.01 and pH 9.01 are
recommended, as this will produce an accurate
response in the desired range. Measuring the pool
water with a separate pH meter or phenol red
indicator and adjusting the controller accordingly
can be used to make secondary calibration of
controllers.

Location of Sensors
Sensors should be located at a point that is
indicative of the actual swimming conditions.
Sensors can be inserted directly into the
circulation loop, subject to manufacturers
specifications on pressure and flow velocities.
Alternatively, a loop can be created which sidestreams a small flow to a wall mounted sensor
installation.

Best Practice Model

Disinfectant dosing systems for all pools

should be designed to cope with a range
of bathing loadings.

Continuous dosing that matches

consumption rates should be aimed for.

Automatic monitoring and dosing of

disinfectant should be used in all spa
pools and other pools that are subject to
inconsistent chlorine demand.

Regular calibration of control systems is

necessary to ensure accurate results.

Dosing systems should be designed so

that disinfectants do not come in contact
with acids.

Figure 19 Chemical Sensors Installed in a

Side-Stream Loop

Cleaning Sensors
Sensors should be regularly inspected, cleaned
and calibrated in accordance with manufacturers
directions or when fouling or faulty operation is
suspected.
As a general rule, sensors should be cleaned
regularly if an accurate readout is required.
Sensors that have not been cleaned for several
months may prove to be extremely inaccurate.
Comparing the controller readout with pool test
results will indicate the necessary cleaning
frequency. After cleaning sensors, recalibration is
required.

55

Monitoring Systems

Chemical Testing
Overview
Best Practice

Photometers or comparators using dry

chemical reagents should be used for all
manual chemical tests.

Operators should prescribe their desired

range of operating parameters within
the Regulatory range.

Operators should be competent in the

use of test kits.

Test Kits
Photometers or comparators, for commercial
applications, using tablet or powdered reagents
are recommended for all chemical tests and
provide reasonable accuracy. However, operator
colour blindness may affect the use of these
devices.

Figure 21 Comparator
Test kits using liquid reagents are less reliable
than dry reagents because the reagents are less
stable. The intensity of colour developed can vary,
due to imprecise amounts of reagent being added.
This can lead to misleading results.

Figure 22 Dry Reagents

Dry reagents are shelf stable and reliable.
Figure 20 Photometer
The equipment should stored away from direct
sunlight and kept clean, as inaccurate
measurements may result from faded comparator
discs or plates, dirty glassware and suspended
matter in the sample.

58

Dip strips may be of use to indicate that a pool is

somewhere within regulatory range. However, it
is nearly impossible to quantify the reading
accurately because the scale intervals are too far
apart. Dip strips containing syringaldezine are the
only ones suitable for indicating free chlorine
concentrations.

The formula is:

DPD 4 DPD 1 or (DPD 1+3) DPD 1

pH
Phenol red indicator is used as the colour range
operates across that of a properly operating
swimming pool. A properly calibrated pH
electrode may also be used.

Alkalinity
Figure 23 Test Strips
Always follow the manufacturers instructions
when using a test kit. Further training in the
proper use of test kits is strongly recommended to
ensure competency and to identify problems with
the use of test kits.

Test Methods
The following test methods are recommended for
those tests required by regulatory authorities: free
chlorine/total bromine, total chlorine, combined
chlorine, pH, alkalinity, cyanuric acid, calcium
hardness and some others.

Free Chlorine/Total Bromine

The DPD (dimethyl-phenylene diamine) test
developed by Palin is the most universally
accepted test method for measuring disinfectant
concentrations within the swimming pool
industry. DPD No 1 reagent is used for both free
chlorine and total bromine tests. Total bromine
should be recorded as free chlorine equivalent.

Total Chlorine
A DPD No 3 tablet is added to the completed free
chlorine test to obtain total chlorine concentration.
(DPD 1+3). The use of a DPD No 4 tablet also
gives total chlorine concentration, but without
obtaining the free chlorine concentration first.

Combined Chlorine
This is obtained by subtracting the free
chlorine/total bromine (as free chlorine
equivalent) concentration from the total chlorine
concentration.

Any commercially available pool water

colorimetric test method can be used. Most
indicator tests use a colour range from yellow
through green to blue.

Cyanuric Acid
Melamine test reagent can be used and forms a
cloudy suspension. Accuracy is dependent on
concentration and equipment factors.

Calcium Hardness
A colorimetric tablet method is commonly
available to estimate hardness. Hardness is
calculated based on the number of tablets
required to reach the required colour change, or a
photometer may be used.

All Other Tests

Colorimetric, titration based reagents or
electrochemical methods are available for most
other test parameters.

Dilution of Samples
When a test result is at the top of the range of a
test kit, samples that are measured in ppm may be
diluted with distilled water before adding the
reagent to obtain a reading that is on scale. The
result is multiplied by the dilution factor.
If chlorine is excessively high, the chlorine may
bleach the tablet and make it appear that there is
no chlorine in the water. This result may cause
pool operators to add more chlorine to the pool
and finally realise that excessively high levels
have been reached. This can be avoided by
crushing a tablet in a small volume of pool water

59

before completely filling the sample cell with pool

water and observing the pink colour turn clear.
Dilute the sample so that the reading is
within the range and multiply that reading
accordingly to measure the actual
concentration. Refer to test kit instructions to
improve this description.
pH measurement samples cannot be diluted. If
the reading is off the scale, use another indicator
or a pH meter to determine the correct value.

Chemical Limits
Proprietors should set their own desired chemical
limits for operation within the range prescribed
by the Regulations. A table suitable for recording
this type of information is provided in the section
Example Log Sheets: Chemical Limits
Worksheet. Operators should ensure that they
refer to the most up-to-date Regulations when
completing the table.

Keeping Records
Operators are required by law to maintain
records. A suggested logbook is provided in the
section Example Log Sheets: Sample Pool
Operator Log Book. Logbooks should be kept for
at least 12 months after the last date of entry to
made available on demand to an authorised
officer of the Health Act. The records should then
be archived for a further six years.

60

Records should cover the following tests and be

carried out to at least the frequencies prescribed
by Regulatory Standards:

Date

Time

Free chlorine/total bromine

Total chlorine

Combined chlorine

pH

ORP (where fitted)

Electronic pH (where fitted)

Total alkalinity

Cyanuric acid

Calcium hardness

Comments

Actions

Initials of recording operator

Pool water temperature.

See the following Example Log Sheets.

Example Log Sheets

Chemical Limits Worksheet
Pools
Levels
Free chlorine
Total bromine
(ppm)

minimum

maximum

Spas
minimum

maximum

Frequency
of testing

Regulations

Recommendations

Combined
chlorine (ppm)

Regulations

Recommendations

Total chlorine
(ppm)

Regulations

Recommendations

pH

Regulations

Recommendations

Total alkalinity
(ppm)

Regulations

Recommendations

Cyanuric acid
(ppm)

Regulations

Recommendations

Redox (mV)

Recommendations

Recommendations
Calcium
hardness (ppm)
Temperature of
operation (C)

Recommendations

61

Sample Pool Operator Log Sheet

Date
Time
Measurements
Free Cl2
Combined Cl2
pH
Redox (mv)
Electronic Cl2
Electronic pH
Temperature
Total Alkalinity
Calcium Hardness
TDS
Langeliers Index
Cyanuric Acid
Adjustments/Additions
Disinfectant
pH Correction
Bicarbonate
Alum/Coagulant
Others
Others
Observations
Filter Pressures
Backwashes Done
Clarity
Make Up
No. of Bathers
Water Meter Reading
Backwash (litres)
Dilution (litres)
Operators Initials
Actions/Comments

62

Pool

Microbiological Monitoring
Overview
As described in the chapter Pool Water
Contamination, certain infections have been
associated with the use of swimming pools and
spa pools. These usually result from poor
management of water treatment leading to the
survival of pathogenic organisms introduced by
pool users.
Cryptosporidium is the only organism of
pathogenic significance that can withstand
properly treated pool water. However, as pool
water can provide optimal conditions for growth,
other microorganisms of environmental origin can
multiply in poorly managed pools. Most
organisms capable of living in water grow best at
temperatures between 20C and 45C. Those
normally associated with the human body grow
well at 37C. Most pool bacteria tests are
incubated at 37C for this purpose. Each viable
bacterium multiplies to form a colony and is
therefore called a colony-forming unit (CFU).
Bacterial results are reported as CFU per millilitre
or CFU per 100 mL of sample (CFU/mL or
CFU/100mL).
Microbiological monitoring for pool operators is a
quality assurance activity. Good water treatment
practices and control of critical physical and
chemical parameters is quality control.
Microbiological standards for pools are used by
health authorities to establish the seriousness of
non-compliance with chemical parameters and
identify causes. A short-term fall in chlorine
residual may not be enough to allow the growth
of Pseudomonas or rise in plate count within pool
water. Such growth may be present if a pool was
not chlorinated adequately over many hours or
days.

Frequent monitoring of chemical parameters is

necessary to ensure that critical limits of
disinfection are not breached. Close attention to
filter performance is also required.
Microbiological problems should be
insignificant in a well-managed pool with an
adequate disinfectant residual, a pH
maintained at the recommended level and
regular filtration and backwashing.
When occasional, minor deviations from the
Regulatory limits occur and are identified and
corrected promptly, health or water quality
problems seldom occur.
All pools are required to be closed while
chemical and physical parameters are
outside Regulatory limits.
Occasionally, microbiological problems develop in
pools because there is poor circulation and
turnover caused by design inadequacies. These
may occur in certain parts of the pool, such as
entrance steps, which are cut away from the side
of the pool. When there is a gathering of colloidal
matter or a lowering of chlorine levels in these
areas, microbiological contaminants may be
present and pool operators should satisfy
themselves that the water treatment regime is
satisfactory by conducting microbiological testing.

Deficiencies in microbiological parameters

resulting from poor management practices
can contribute to serious illness and are
grounds for prosecution by health
authorities.

63

Best Practice Model

Only pool operators who have a

microbiological sampling program can
achieve verification of the effectiveness
of their everyday quality control
parameters.

The frequency of monitoring should

reflect the relative microbiological risk
that each type of pool presents.
Quarterly monitoring is regarded as
sufficient for most pools.

Where there is a significant deviation in

disinfection below regulatory limits
microbiological tests should be
undertaken and the data recorded for
future reference.

Where microbiological samples do

not comply with accepted Standards,
re-sampling should be undertaken to
ensure that corrective actions have been
effective in restoring microbiological
quality.

Document all observations, results and

findings.

Appropriate Microbiological
Testing
Microbiological samples should be submitted for
analysis at a laboratory that is NATA accredited
for the particular tests required.

Assessing Microbiological
Quality
Taken together, the standard plate count test, the
coliform test and Pseudomonas aeruginosa test
provide the simplest means of assessing the
microbiological quality of swimming pool water.
Chemical parameters, such as pH, disinfectant
residual, ORP, TDS and cyanuric acid, should be
tested and recorded at the time of sampling. Any
other relevant observations, such as bather
loading or plant failure, should be noted.

64

Standard Plate Count

The standard plate count grows a number of
different bacterial species without differentiating
between them. It gives a good indication of the
overall bacterial population within the pool
environment. The result is normally reported as
colony forming units per millilitre of water
(CFU/mL). A standard plate count of less than
10 CFU/mL and the absence of coliforms and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa can be expected from most
well-managed pools.
A standard plate count in excess of 100 CFU/mL
clearly indicates that operating conditions are
unsatisfactory and require investigation
regardless of the disinfectant used. It may be
related to filter performance or physical matter
present in the pool.

Coliform Count
Coliform bacteria, particularly Eschericia coli
(E. coli), are normal inhabitants of the intestinal
tract of humans and other warm-blooded
mammals where they are present in great
numbers.
The coliform test is extremely important in
assessing the immediate efficacy of the
disinfection process, especially when bathers are
using the pool at the time of testing.
If coliforms are found to be present there is likely
to have been a serious failure in the disinfection
process at the time of sampling, and a risk of
gastric illness to pool users from bacteria and
viruses found in the intestines.

Pseudomonas Aeruginosa
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a pathogenic organism
and often the cause of ear and skin infections,
particularly folliculitis. Pseudomonas is an
inhabitant of drains and slimes and can often
colonise in filter media, particularly where there is
not frequent backwashing, superchlorination or
other oxidising processes that penetrate the filters.
The presence of Pseudomonas may indicate the
possible presence of other environmental
pathogens, such as Legionella, which, if
unchecked, can thrive in warmer pools.

Other Organisms
Provided satisfactory results are obtained for
these three specified tests, it is not recommended
that other organisms be routinely tested unless a
particular health problem has been associated
with a pool.
Staphylococcus is often found where pool users are
present and its distribution within the water tends
to favour the surface. It is associated with flaking
skin, dandruff and nasal secretions because
chlorine sometimes cannot immediately penetrate
some particles. Staphylococcus is further
controlled by effective water removal at the
surface by skimmers and spill gutters and
subsequent filtration.

Take a microbiological sample by removing the

cap with one hand and making sure nothing
touches the inside of the cap or bottle. The bottle
is immersed neck down in the water to about 30
cm below the surface and tilted to face
horizontally away from the hand and allowed to
fill. The bottle can be moved away from the
sampling hand until it is sufficiently full. It is then
removed and the cap is replaced. The sample
should be refrigerated immediately and
transported to the laboratory without delay.
Ideally testing should be commenced within six
hours of sampling. Testing that is commenced
after 24 hours of sampling cannot yield reliable
information.

Cryptosporidium is an issue of importance to the

pool operator. It is a complex issue as it has wider
implications to pool management.
Refer to the Department of Human Service
Pool Fact Sheets located at http://www.dhs.
vic.gov.au/phd/poolfacts/index.htm for
further advice on Cryptosporidium.
Health authorities may be required to sample
pool water and test for specific pathogens when
investigating specific illnesses. Generally, in the
absence of notified cases, testing for other
organisms other than required by the Regulations
is unwarranted. Pool operators should seek
advice from the public health authority prior to
taking samples for specific pathogens.

Sampling Procedure
About 250 mL of sample is required to conduct all
recommended tests. Sterile plastic bottles are
recommended because of the risk of glass
breakage. Bottles should be pre-treated with
sodium thiosulphate to neutralise chlorine or
bromine, thereby giving a true indication of the
water quality experienced at the time of sampling.
Laboratories will normally prepare these for their
pool users.

Figure 24 Microbiological Sampling Technique

Sampling Location
A study commissioned by the Department of
Human Services in 1995 showed that in most
pools there is no significant difference between
sampling points when it comes to water quality
parameters, provided samples are not taken from
a return point.
It is recommended that water samples be taken
from near a suction point in the pool where users
have not been swimming nearby in the previous
60 seconds. This should ensure that the tester is
assessing the efficacy of the residual treatment
process and has allowed a reasonable time for any
immediate contamination to be treated.

65

Sampling Frequency
It should not be necessary to take frequent
samples for microbiological examination when
appropriate disinfectant residual and pH range is
maintained, the pool has good clarity and is free
from extraneous matter.
For quality assurance purposes, sampling at the
beginning of a season for seasonal pools,
commissioning of new pools and at periodic
intervals thereafter, is usually enough to confirm
that the disinfection regime is adequate and the
pool is functioning adequately.
Quarterly bacteriological testing is recommended
as a guide for most pools.
Specialty pools, such as toddler pools,
hydrotherapy pools and spa pools can be
considered a higher risk because of temperature,
high bather loading and pollution sources, and
can justify more frequent monitoring. Pools with
variable water quality or poor circulation and
hydraulics can also justify more frequent
monitoring.

Documentation
Documentation is an essential part of a quality
assurance program. Data recorded from a quality
assurance program will be of assistance in the
future in making operational decisions based on
objective evidence.

66

Physical Management of Water

Water Circulation
Overview

Deck-Level (Wet Decks)

The purpose of circulating water is simply to

make sure that filtered, disinfected water reaches
all areas of the pool, and polluted water is
removed efficiently. This requires an
understanding of the circulation patterns within
the pool. Like the circulation rate and turnover
period (see the chapter on Filtration), circulation
patterns are influenced by the depth, volume and
shape of the pool. Other factors also include the
purpose of the pool, for example, free play, lap
swimming, wave pools and rivers, since each will
have inherent demands on water circulation.

This system is becoming increasingly common.

The water in the pool is at the same level as the
pool surround (wet deck). Some water always
floods over the edge and through a grill into a
perimeter channel. The water entering these
channels is transferred to a balance tank some
balance tanks utilise the perimeter channelling as
well. The balance tank acts as a reservoir, storing
any excess, and keeping an amount available for
when it is needed, such as when the pool users
get out, or when a backwash is undertaken,
thereby preventing air from being drawn into the
filtration plant. Wet decks also reduce wave action
and enable maintenance of a stable water level.

Effective circulation requires attention to overall

design; surface water draw-off; inlets and outlets;
circulation pumps; flow rates; turnover; and the
associated interconnecting pipework.

Surface Water Draw-Off

Unsightly, unhealthy particulate matter will tend
to remain on the surface of the water and the
majority of organic pollution and contamination
is concentrated at or near the surface
irrespective of the mixing effects of the circulation
system. Body fats, oils, sunscreens and other oilbased contaminants do not mix with water, and
tend to remain at or near the surface. This is also a
source of potential infection, and can result in the
formation of a scum line around a pool.
It is recommended that pools with low bather
loads be constructed so that 20 per cent of the
surface water is drawn off for filtration. In leisure
pools, or those with a higher bather load, this may
need to be increased to as high as 80 per cent.
Spas, which have a particularly high bather load
for the volume of water they contain, should
almost always be designed with the higher figure.
There are three basic systems for removing
surface water in decreasing order of efficiency
(best to worst): deck level, overflow channels, and
skimmers.

68

Care in the design of the channelling can

substantially reduce the noise created by the
water flowing into the channel. Attention should
also be placed on ensuring that contaminants
from the wet deck are not washed into the
filtration system there should be an alternative
means of cleaning the wet deck, with suitable
drainage.

Figure 25 Wet Deck on a Modern Indoor Pool

Overflow Channels
These are also known as scum gutters and are
common in older pools. Sills around the pool
perimeter allow surface water entering them to
flow through connecting pipes to the filtration
plant. The sills should be uniformly level
throughout their length to avoid problems with
variations in water level from bather
displacement.

A number of refinements are available to ensure

that the water remains at the optimum level for
effective overflow action. Water displaced by pool
users can be accommodated in a balance tank
from which it can be returned to the circulation
system. The balance tank must be sized to suit
requirements for water displacement and
backwashing volumes.
An automatic make-up system can be
incorporated into a balance tank system, topping
up to a given level to keep a minimum amount of
water in the system. The automatic make-up
system must not be set to fill to the capacity of the
balance tank otherwise it may fill when there
are no users, and when users enter the pool,
therefore displacing water, the system will be
overfull. Overflow channels can be renovated to
incorporate a modified wet deck system.

Figure 27 Skimmer Box and Lint Trap

Inlets and Outlets

It is critical for safety reasons that inlets and
outlets should be strong enough to withstand any
likely impact, and be fixed securely.

Inlets

Figure 26 Overflow Channel on an Older

Outdoor Pool

Skimmers
This basic device is installed at intervals around
the side of the pool. These act as short, selfadjusting weirs which deal with variations in
water level arising from bather displacement.
Since their efficiency is far less than the other
methods described, their use is only
recommended for domestic and low bather loads
pools.

Inlets carry water to the pool and must be

arranged so as to ensure that each takes only its
required proportion of flow. There should be
enough inlets to ensure that the velocity of the
water entering the pool does not generally exceed
1.52 m/s at depths less that 1.8 m. This should
perhaps be as low as 0.5 m/s in shallow or
sensitive areas, for example around steps, where
turbulence might be a problem. Procedures for
dealing with inlets, which are also water features
(geysers, sprays and jets), are usually dedicated
for the purpose. These are not regarded as an
integral part of the circulation system, since they
often do not run constantly, but as intermittent
features of a centre.

Outlets
These must be arranged so that there is no risk of
pool users being drawn towards them, or trapped
by them. All suction pipes that are capable of
being connected to the full suction pressure of the
pump should be connected to at least two
separate outlets at least two metres apart, and
three metres from the side walls. The velocity of
the pumped outlet water should not exceed
0.5 m/s. Outlet covers should be fitted to prevent
body parts from being caught by the suction from
outlets.

69

Circulation Design

Floor Inlet, Surface Outlet

Figure 28 shows three basic circulation designs for

a traditionally shaped pool tank. Each has
advantages and disadvantages, and careful
consideration must be given before choosing the
appropriate option and building a pool; changes
are often not possible once a pool has been built.
Each option is discussed below.

This common arrangement offers good

circulation. However, it can be a long distance
between the supply and return, where circulation
dead spots can occur. Skimmers usually run
around the whole pool, providing consistent
recovery of soiled water. A recent improvement
has been to introduce a second row of supply
outlets along the pool, improving circulation to all
points. However this also increases construction
costs.

balance tank

deep end

shallow end

Side Inlet, Surface Outlet

return

supply
balance tank

deep end

shallow end

Filtered water is supplied through the wall at one

end of the pool, and taken from the opposing or
adjacent edge (skimmer), which often does not go
around the whole pool. This can lead to large
dead spots in the area furthest from the supply
and scum lines on walls without skimmers.

Combination Inlet, Surface Outlet

to
plant
room

Supply water enters the tank from both the floor

and the walls, in a strategic combination aimed at
minimising dead spots. This is by far the most
effective method of circulation, often used in less
regularly shaped pools however it is also the
most expensive.

from
plant
room

balance tank

deep end

shallow end

return

supply
base outlets
wall inlets
collection channel

Floor returns can also be used to return water to

the treatment plant. These are often located at the
deepest part of the pool tank, and double as
drains to allow for maintenance of the tank itself.
Valves can be installed to control the amount of
supply and return water where there is a
particular need, such as for pools with variable
depth floors, moveable bulkheads, or other
changes which might affect circulation.

Figure 28 Three Circulation Options for a 25 m Pool

It is recommended that pool tests be periodically
undertaken at several locations (at the same time)
to provide the operator with some knowledge
about the circulation patterns occurring within
the pool. A higher concentration in one area than
another may indicate either a lower bather load,
or a lower flow of treated water to that point.

70

Multiple Pools in a Complex

It is increasingly common for facilities to offer a
combination of pools, each with a separate
filtration plant.
Older facilities often have multiple pools
operating with only one filtration plant. A single
system for two or more pools is quite common.
Care should be taken to ensure the hydraulics,
chemical monitoring and dosing are properly
designed and managed in each pool, not in the
overall plant.

71

Filtration
Overview
Several key areas are important here:

Clarity

Turbidity

Filtration

Backwashing

Flocculation or coagulation.

Clarity of pool water is critical for customer

safety. It should be possible to see the bottom of
the pool at its deepest point. If not, there is a
physical danger to anyone in distress below the
water surface. Lack of clarity may also increase
bather discomfort and reduce disinfection. In
practice, it must be possible to see a small child on
the bottom of the deepest part when the pool is
being used.
Poor clarity is caused by turbidity, colloidal or
particulate matter suspended in the water. It is
important to establish the cause of turbidity, so
that it may be dealt with directly. The most likely
remedy however, will be correct filtration and
backwashing, coupled with flocculation or
coagulation. This will convert the particulate and
colloidal matter into filterable flocculus, or floc.
There are a number of factors to be taken into
account when specifying filters. However, the
baseline is that there must be enough filtration
capacity, (that is, filter area), circulation rate and
turnover period, to cope with the heaviest
expected load. It is prudent to over-specify, rather
than under-specify filtration capacity. This will
allow for a future increase in patronage without
loss of water quality.

attention than sand filters. They cannot always be

relied on to cope with the bathing conditions that
public pools may expect at certain times.

Figure 29 Medium Rate Pressure Filter for

Larger Pool
The capacity of the filtration system should be
based on expected maximum bathing load,
operating 24 hours a day.
Pools will benefit greatly from the increased
flexibility and the safeguards of having more than
one filter. Through isolation of one or more filter
units, a restricted turnover rate can enable the
pool to be used during backwash, maintenance or
repair. This flexibility permits and encourages a
planned inspection and maintenance program,
which is essential for filter efficiency.

Filtration Principles
In general, the greater the velocity of water
through the filter, the lower the filtration
efficiency. In practice, efficiency falls off rapidly at
high velocities.
Sand filters are recommended for all nondomestic swimming pools. Cheaper alternatives,
such as cartridge filters and pre-coat or
diatomaceous earth filters demand more care and

72

Figure 30 Plant Room with Multiple Filters

Types of Filters

Specifications

Pressure Filters

A filter should be designed to the appropriate

Australian Standards for the type of filter and
material used in its construction, and it is
recommended that the following quality and
performance standards should be specified.

Pressure sand filters vessels are usually

constructed from fibreglass, glass reinforced
plastic, prefabricated mild steel or stainless steel.
These may be medium and high rate, and are
commonly used in conjunction with flocculants
and coagulants for commercial pools and spas, as
well as hotel, hydrotherapy and school pools that
are subject to variable bather loading demands.

A pressure or loss of head gauge should be

fitted to indicate the operating pressure of the
filter.

An automatic air release/vacuum breaker and

a safe, manually operated quick air release
mechanism should be fitted to each filter.

A flow meter should be fitted (and regularly

serviced) to indicate filtration water and
backwash water flow rates.

A sight glass should be incorporated into the

outlet water pipe to observe backwash
effluent.

Figure 31 High Rate Sand Filter For Spa

or Small Pool

Low-Rate Filters
These may include vacuum sand, open bed
gravity fed filters. Though very efficient, they are
rarely utilised in indoor pools because they tend
to be large and expensive. Gravity feed filter
vessels are usually constructed from concrete and
operate by gravity rather than pressure. They
have been used in many older outdoors pools and
are also used in town drinking water treatment
systems.

Figure 33 Filter Off-Gas Bleed and Collectors

The Sand Bed

The normal grade of filter sand size for
conventional pool filtration is 0.45 to 1 mm. The
bed depth should be at least 0.5 m. Depths have
tended to increase from 0.75 m on average up to
about 1 m. A common rule of thumb is: two-thirds
filter space for the media bed, leaving one-third
for expansion during backwash.

Figure 32 Old Style Gravity Sand Filter Beds and

Backwash Channel
73

Sand filters can have either single or multi-grade

beds. An advantage of multi-grade beds is that in
the event of minor collector failure, the largegrade substrate will prevent the finer sand from
entering the pool and operation will be
uninterrupted. In the event of failure with singlegrade media filters, collector failure will usually
result in sand entering the pool. Whichever bed
design is used, the specification and minimum
depth of the filter sand recommended by the filter
manufacturer must be maintained.
460 mm minimum dia. access hole
bulk and auto
air release
viewing window

inlet

filter sand

250 mm
minimum dia.
sand hole

coarse media
(various grades)

outlet

Coagulation and Flocculation

Coagulants enhance the removal of dissolved,
colloidal or suspended material by bringing it out
of solution or suspension as solids (coagulation).
These solids then clump together (flocculation),
producing a floc, which is more easily trapped in
a filter.
Coagulants will be less effective where pH values
are above the recommended operating range. A
minimum alkalinity of about 75 ppm as calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) is required for effective
flocculation. Operators should follow the
manufacturers recommendations for the use of a
particular product to achieve best results.

slotted or perforated
lateral system

Ozone Treatment

collection system
support (concreted)

Ozone treatment breaks down colloids and

encourages microflocculation. A coagulant may
not be needed. Certainly, if the water is turbid,
dull or not sparkling, alum (aluminium sulphate),
or PAC (poly-aluminium chloride or aluminium
hydroxychloride) can be used.

Multi-grade bed design

460 mm minimum dia. access hole
bulk and auto
air release
viewing window

inlet

suspended matter including colour and other

colloidal matter of sub-micron size.

filter sand

Dosing Coagulants and Flocculants

250 mm
minimum dia.
sand hole

coarse media
lateral system
with slotted nozzles

outlet

collection system
support (concreted)

Single-grade bed design

Figure 34 Medium Rate Pressure Sand Filters

Pressure Differential Gauges

The Limits of Filtration

The average pore size of a pool sand filter is 100
microns. There is no lower limit to the size of
particle that can be removed given the many
passes common in pool circulation. With the aid
of a coagulant, a single pass at an appropriate
flow rate can almost completely remove all

74

Dosing can be by means of chemical dosing

pumps or by manual hand dosing. Where they
are dosed continuously, the pumps must be
capable of accurately dosing the small quantities
required.
Within a swimming pool circulation system, it is
important that coagulants do not build up or
reach the pool in any appreciable concentration.
It is also important that the gelatinous floc does
not impair filtration by creating blockage. This
can be achieved by applying the correct dosage
rates and by frequent backwashing, which also
contributes to dilution. Increases in pH should
also be avoided to prevent the coagulant from
disassociating and returning to the pool.

Backwashing should be conducted from daily to

weekly, depending on bathing load. If users are
present at this time, care must be taken not to
significantly reduce the depth of the water in the
pool. Consideration should also be given to the
effect cold make-up water may have on pool
users. This may be of particular significance for
people with disabilities, pre-school swim lessons
and hydrotherapy pool operators. Therefore, it is
advisable to schedule backwash for the end of
day.

Figure 35 Dosing Tanks with Mixers for

Adding Coagulant

Injection
The injection point should ensure that coagulant
mixes well with the circulation water before the
water reaches the filter media. Injection points
should also be located well away from sampling
points for chlorine residual, pH value or ORP
determinations. Contamination of the sensors by
the localised high concentrations may give a false
picture of water quality and adversely affect the
sensors themselves. For safety reasons, they
should also be sited away from other chemical
dosing points.

Backwashing
Reversing the flow of pool water back through the
filters (to flush the trapped material to waste) is
essential in caring for the filters and maintaining
water quality. It should be conducted whenever
the differential between the filter inlet pressure
and the filter outlet pressure reaches the level
identified by the filter manufacturer.

Period
The various filter types may differ in backwash
duration. The duration recommended by the
manufacturer may only seem to clean the filter.
However, a viewing window or clear sight glass
on the backwash discharge pipe is the only way to
positively check progress. It should be possible to
observe the clarity of the effluent water
throughout the period of filter backwash. Ideally,
backwashing should continue until the backwash
water is clear. After backwashing, there should be
a brief pause before normal flow is restarted this
will allow the expanded filter bed to settle. Some
backwash systems have a rinse cycle for this
purpose.

Flow
The backwash flow must be fast enough to
expand the media bed without losing any media
to waste, so the manufacturers recommendations
are critical. Air scouring heavy filter beds first can
help separate the media particles and coagulated
material, thereby increasing the efficiency of
backwash. A viewing window to show the top of
the media bed will allow operators to check that
correct expansion is achieved. Backwash flow
rates should not be so high that the bed expands
beyond the overflow level, resulting in loss of
filter media to waste. The backwash water pipe
must be large enough to discharge the wastewater
without a build-up of pressure inside the filter
tank. The pump(s) must therefore be able to
supply the correct amount of water for the correct
amount of time, to achieve effective backwash.

Figure 36 Pressure Differential Gauges

75

Filters should be opened up and inspected

internally at least once per year by an expert,
familiar with the problems that can arise. This
means attention to sand quality/quantity,
collector condition, corrosion and structural
integrity. Any unusual signs fissures, an uneven
bed, mud balling and channelling need
investigation. Changing filter media is
periodically required and depends upon a range
of factors including:

Pool volume

Figure 37 Multiport Valve on a Large, Open

Gravity Filter

Turnover

Pool water temperature

Discharge

Bather load

Water balance

Cleaning regime

Location (indoor/outdoor)

Type of filter media

Type of filter.

Backwash water must be discharged according to

the requirements of the local water authorities
and the Environment Protection Authority. The
volume, quality and frequency of the backwash
water discharge may be regulated.

Maintenance
A word of caution: it was common practice in
filter construction prior to 1970 to use asbestos.
This includes pressure sand as well as vacuum
sand (gravity fed) filters. Accordingly, any
remedial work will need to be conducted by
experts in this area.

76

Professional advice may be required to assist with

decisions to replace filter media.

Heating and Air Circulation

Overview
Maintaining satisfactory environmental
conditions in the pool hall and all other areas of
the building is essential for the comfort of pool
users, staff and spectators and for the pool to
operate successfully over a reasonably extended
working life.
The heating and ventilation of the pool hall needs
to take into account a wide range of factors. These
include: bathing load; water temperature and
quality; plant room location; integration with the
building structure; materials and insulation of the
pool hall envelope; capital; operating; and life
cycle costs.
The temperature of the air and the water need to
be linked and balanced so as to get the right
humidity, optimise user comfort and minimise
evaporation from the pool water. It is also
necessary to ensure that the air circulation system
distributes the air effectively over the whole of the
pool hall area. This is necessary in order to:

Provide comfortable conditions for occupants

Remove any chlorinous odours

Reduce the risk of condensation

Control air movement within the occupied

area so it does not produce uncomfortable
draughts.

Figure 38 Closed Loop Heat Exchanger

Figure 39 Gas Fired Direct Pool Water Heater

Pool Water Heating

The actual heating of the pool water is a relatively
simple operation. It is generally carried out by
either a closed-loop heat exchange system, or
through direct heating of the pool/spa water
using a pool/spa heater (and/or solar energy).
Sometimes heat recovery systems are used as the
primary source of heat.
The heater is generally sized on the basis of
raising the pool water temperature by 0.5C per
hour. If a pool is being heated from cold, the rate
must be no more than 0.25C per hour, otherwise
rates of expansion of materials may cause
problems to the pool structure or lining.
Particularly in a new pool, designers need to
determine the precise rate of temperature rise.

Figure 40 Heavy Duty Gas or Electric Boilers

Heavy duty gas or electric boilers supply water to heat
exchanger closed loop.

77

The heating control system must be capable of

coping accurately with a wide range of
temperatures. It may be possible, through the use
of mixing valves and associated equipment, to
serve different pools at different temperatures
from a single heat exchanger. But it is
recommended that a separate heat exchanger and
controls be provided for each separate pool water
area, so that different temperatures can be more
easily achieved.

Temperature
There has been a consistent trend towards higher
water temperatures in recent years, encouraged
by the substantial growth in aquatic leisure
activities. The temperatures of multi-function
indoor pools, however, need to reflect the aquatic
activities being undertaken. Outdoor heated pools
tend to operate within a range of 2629C.
People with limited mobility may require higher
water temperatures to gain therapeutic benefits
from aquatic based activity. However, operators
tempted to join the move towards higher
temperatures should bear in mind that they do
create a number of problems:

Microorganisms multiply faster so filters are

increasingly likely to become colonised.

Pool users get hotter limiting more vigorous

swimming and increasing bather pollution
through sweat and body oil contamination in
the water.

Energy costs, direct and indirect, are higher

whatever efficiency or conservation methods
are used.

Air temperatures, which are linked to those of

the water, rise too making the atmosphere
less comfortable for staff and others (as can the
higher moisture levels).

There is more moisture in the pool

atmosphere, even when relative humidity is
controlled at the same level. This carries a risk
of condensation, and possibly corrosion and
deterioration of the building fabric, structure
and equipment.

78

Chloramines tend to form more rapidly.

With an increasingly wide variety of pool uses,

and operators attempting to program more
flexible pool operations, it is difficult to select a
single appropriate or optimum operating
temperature for any particular pool. Rather than
catering to any single user group, it may be better
to seek a happy medium. The large volumes of
water involved make it impossible to vary water
temperatures rapidly in any one water area. This
means that the selection and accurate control of
the optimum water temperature for each pool is
essential to maintain operational efficiency and
customer satisfaction.
The temperature of the pool hall air should
normally be maintained at around the water
temperature no more than 1C above. However,
it is recommended that an air temperature of 29C
or more should generally be avoided. However,
there may have to be compromises where, for
example, the elderly or parents and toddlers have
to be accommodated in the same area as fitness
swimming.

Pool Hall Ventilation and

Air Circulation
This is a complex and critical area. It is generally
recommended that air is well distributed over the
whole area, and that air movement within the
occupied zone is maintained within acceptable
conditions for bather comfort.
The ventilation system is normally the primary
means of removing contaminants from the air. It
also controls pool hall air quality, temperature,
humidity, evaporation from the pool surface and
condensation to maintain comfortable
environmental conditions. It is generally
recommended that the relative humidity be
maintained between 50 per cent and 60 per cent
throughout the pool hall area. Levels higher than
60 per cent produce a risk of discomfort and
condensation, and levels lower than 50 per cent
can increase evaporation and energy use.
The ideal ventilation rate for a pool hall, taking
into account varying external conditions, bather
loads, evaporation rate and water quality, is very

difficult to estimate. It will, by necessity, change

with varying circumstances. Effective, welldistributed mechanical supply and extraction
ventilation systems are, however, essential to
maintain satisfactory internal environmental
conditions under all potential variations.
The Australian Standard AS1668.2 1991 can
offer some guidance in this area. But it is
generally recommended that advice is sought
from a design engineer with experience in
swimming pool and handling systems.

Separate Areas
Areas for eating and drinking within the pool
building are a potential problem. Their individual
requirements should be assessed carefully. These
areas do not necessarily need to be physically
separated from the pool hall, but environmental
conditions which are different from those around
the pool should be considered.

Sources of Ventilation
The best source for ventilation is fresh air. This
should be the first consideration for new pools. A
system with a high ratio of recirculated pool air
increases the potential for deterioration of
equipment and components made of metal or
nylon (for example, structural steelwork, roof and
ceiling fittings, air handling plant and
equipment). Therefore, if an air recirculation
system is used for energy efficiency, it should be
possible to vary the ratio of fresh air to
recirculated air. During periods of very high
bather loads or if high levels of contaminants are
present in the pool atmosphere, 100 per cent fresh
air may be required. Air intakes should be located
away and upwind from exhaust outlets.

potentially high heat losses and means that all

pool buildings should be well insulated above
basic building regulation standards if possible.
They should also be well sealed from the outside
and surrounding areas.
Heating the ventilation air will generally be one
of the major energy loads for a pool. A simple
heat exchange device, such as a plate heat
exchanger or run-around coils, should generally
be provided to reclaim as much energy as possible
from the exhaust air, in order to optimise energy
efficiency.
Other heat recovery devices and energy sources
can be considered, such as thermal wheels (rotary
heat exchanger), heat pumps, combined
heat/power units, geothermal and solar energy.
These should be carefully evaluated over the
projected life cycle of the building services
installation.
It may be necessary to run the pool ventilation
system when the pool is not in use, to maintain
environmental conditions within the pool hall
and prevent condensation and possible building
or equipment damage. An effective pool cover
may reduce condensation, evaporation and pool
water heat loss and minimise the need for the
ventilation system to operate out of hours. This
will also substantially reduce energy use.

Energy Management
Swimming pools are one of the few building
types operating at high temperature and
humidity throughout the year. This results in

Figure 41 Pool Covers

Pool covers save on heat and prevent leaves and windblown
debris from entering during closure.

79

Maintenance

Maintenance Systems
Overview

Air handling units

The maintenance of equipment should only be

undertaken by suitably qualified persons and in
strict accordance with manufacturers
recommendations. Incorrect maintenance can not
only lead to a shortened equipment life span, but
in some circumstances may place operator and
public safety at risk.

Meters and gauges.

There are two philosophies regarding

maintenance. The first is a reactive approach. This
involves waiting until equipment is faulty before
taking action. This approach is fraught with peril,
as there is also the risk of damage to ancillary
equipment in event of total failure. For example,
circulation pump bearing failure may result in
damage to the pump motor. Managers should
also consider the unscheduled interruption to
operations and customer service.
A more responsible attitude toward equipment
maintenance is the proactive or preventative
approach. This involves periodical, or
programmed, maintenance of equipment within
set timeframes monthly, quarterly and annually.
The primary advantage to this approach is that
any interruption to operation can be scheduled
for a time that will have the least impact on
customer service.
Manufacturers are a good source of information
as to when and what maintenance is required to
keep equipment operational, as well as a budget
estimate of cost.
The following plant and equipment should be
considered in a periodical maintenance schedule:

82

Circulation pumps

Dosing pumps/feeders

Heating hot water pumps

Filters

Control panels

Sample cells

Heat exchanger/calorifier

Disinfection system

Pipes and valves

Sensors

Heaters/boilers

Winterisation
Winter and off-season care of a swimming pool is
important to prevent potential damage to the pool
structure and equipment.
If a pool must be emptied, it is advisable to do so
for the minimum amount of time possible. When
full, there is equal pressure exerted on the pool
structure from the water within as well as from
groundwater and the surrounding earth on the
outside. When emptied there is no longer the
support of the water within the pool. This can
lead to movement and subsequent damage to the
pool structure and can result in water leakage
when refilled. The result can be excessive water
usage, inability to maintain temperature (if
heated) and a drop in water quality.
It is therefore safer, easier and more economical to
keep the structure protected from temperature
and pressure changes that may cause cracking
and straining of the pool structure and expansion
joints by leaving the pool filled.

General Procedure for Winter Care

Traditionally, in Australia, outdoor pools are left
full of water and unattended during winter or the
off-season. This results in a significant build-up of
contamination from organic material (leaves,
algae, etc). This is usually dealt with by draining
the pool and scrubbing the walls and floor, before
re-filling and treating in preparation for usage.
Alternatively, utilise a winter/seasonal
maintenance program. This involves periodical
water turnover, testing, chemical addition,
including superchlorination, and vacuuming to
minimise debris, algae and corrosion. This should
result in minimum expense and preparation time
before reopening for the new season. Algae can be
prevented by maintaining good disinfectant
residuals and avoiding excessive cyanuric acid
levels, as this may reduce the effectiveness of the
chlorine in controlling algae. It is important that
any chemicals used during a winterisation
program do not leave any undesirable residues.

Chlorine is an effective chemical to use in a

winterisation program. It is readily available,
easy to use, prevents algae growth and
leaves no undesirable residue.

Chemical Dosage Pumps

Flush the head by placing the suction hose of

the pump into a bucket of fresh water and
manually operate the pump for a short period.

Clean the exterior with warm soapy water

(with the power disconnected!) to remove any
build-up of chemical residue.

Pumps and injectors should also be serviced at

this time by qualified personnel.

Replace any worn or damaged chemical

delivery tubing.

Unattended Pools
If the pool is left unattended, the following action
should be taken:

Pumps

Power should be disconnected.

Surface corrosion should be removed.

The shaft of the pump should be periodically

rotated.

Heaters/Boilers

Gas Chlorinators

Decommissioning and servicing should be

according to the manufacturers
recommendations and only by suitably
qualified personnel.
Incorrect servicing of this equipment can be
life-threatening.

Erosion (Tablet) Feeders

Decommission and flush clean according to

the manufacturers recommendations.

Adequate safety precautions should be taken

when opening the feeder, as chlorine gas may
have formed.

Sensors

Sensors should be removed, cleaned and

stored in an appropriate wetting solution.

The manufacturer will usually be able to

supply instructions, as well as wetting solution
and bottles, for this purpose.

Sensors should not be left to dry out, as this

will cause irreparable damage.

Maintenance and decommissioning/

recommissioning should be carried out
according to the manufacturers
recommendations and only by suitably
qualified personnel.

Winter/Seasonal Maintenance
Program
In addition to the actions described for the above
equipment, the following procedure should also
be carried on a regular basis by operators utilising
a winter/seasonal maintenance program:

Add fresh water to the pool to restore the

volume to the normal operating level.

Turn on the circulation system and allow it to

run for at least one turnover period. Pumps
may need to be primed.

Vacuum the pool.

Backwash the filters.

Measure and manually adjust the water

chemical parameters (disinfectant, pH,
alkalinity, cyanuric acid, calcium hardness,
etc).

Shut down the circulation system.

83

Problem Sorter
Overview
This problem sorter should be treated as a guide only. The possible causes listed may not necessarily be
the correct, or only, ones. Misdiagnosis or inappropriate action can exacerbate some problems to a point
where patron and staff safety is at risk. Accordingly, only suitably qualified or experienced staff should
endeavour to diagnose or undertake corrective action. If there is any doubt whatsoever, it is best to seek
professional advice.

Problem

Possible Cause(s)

Total alkalinity too high

Initial Response
Re-test and confirm reading.

In some instances high supply water

levels can cause this problem.
Overuse of carbon dioxide can also
contribute to this problem.
pH too high

Backwash pool (or dilute) and re-test next day.

Repeat until the correct level is attained.
Alternatively, reduce the level with dry acid.
Re-test and confirm reading.
If the pH is above statutory requirement, close
the pool/spa until within range.
Ensure that the pH correction system is turned on
and operating normally.

The pH correction agent (CO2 or

acid whichever is applicable)
storage tank may be empty.

Check the pH correction agent storage tank level.

No sample stream flow.

Check that there is no flow restriction to the

sensor sample water.

The pH sensor may be fouled, out of

calibration or faulty.

Clean/calibrate/replace sensor.

Some disinfectants can cause the pH

level to rise (sodium hypochlorite)
and may be an indicator of
disinfectant over dosage.

Test the disinfectant level. If above statutory

requirements take action as per Disinfectant
High in this Problem Sorter.

pH too low

Re-test and confirm reading. If the pH is outside

statutory requirement, the pool/spa must be
closed to pool users until within range.
Ensure that the pH correction system is operating
normally.
Check the system components for malfunction.
An interruption to sensor sample
stream flow may cause inaccurate
readings.

Check that there is no restriction to the sensor

sample stream flow.

The pH sensor may be fouled, out of

calibration or faulty.

Clean/calibrate/replace sensor.

pH erratic

Check frequency and quantity of pH correction

agent, dosage.
The total alkalinity level may be
incorrect for the pH level required.

84

Check the total alkalinity level.

Problem

pH difficult to change

Calcium hardness
too high

Possible Cause(s)

Initial Response

The pH sensor may be fouled, out of

calibration or faulty.

Clean/calibrate/replace the pH sensor.

Electrical, electromagnetic or radio

interference may be causing the
sensor reading to fluctuate.

Seek technical advice.

The total alkalinity may be too high.

This may be due to high source
water levels.

Check the total alkalinity level.

High levels of calcium are uncommon

in source water. It is normally
attributable to inadvertent excess
dosage of calcium chloride or
calcium hypochlorite.

Re-test and confirm reading.

Check that the pH correction system is operating

normally (pumps, injectors, controller set point,
etc).

Backwash (or dilute) the pool and retest the next

day. Repeat backwashing (or dilution) until the
correct level is attained.
Discontinue use of calcium-based products.

Scale build-up appearing

Hardness salts may coming out of

solution.

Test chemical levels and adjust according

Langeliers Saturation Index.

Disinfectant too low

High disinfectant levels may cause

the test reagent to bleach and
mistakenly appear to be low.

Re-test and confirm the reading with a 10:1

dilution test. If the disinfectant level is outside
statutory requirement, the pool/spa must be
closed to pool users until within range.
Check the level in the disinfectant storage tank.

The disinfectant sensor may be

fouled, out of calibration or faulty.

Check that the dosage control and delivery

system are operating normally.

If the solenoid fails in the closed

position it will prevent water from
delivering disinfectant.

Clean/calibrate/replace the sensor.

For sodium hypochlorite systems:

Check that the power supply to the dosage
pump is turned on and there is power available.
Check for airlocks in the chlorine pump head
and delivery tubing.
Check also the suction/discharge valves for
contamination and the delivery tubing for
leakage.
Ensure that the dosage controller is turned on
and has power.
Check the dosage controller set point. (If the
controller is at, or above set point, no dosage
will occur). The set point may require
adjustment.

continued next page

85

Problem

Possible Cause(s)

Initial Response
For erosion feed systems:
Ensure that the dosage controller is turned on
and has power.
Check the dosage controller set point. (If the
controller is at, or above set point, no dosage
should occur).
Check that the solenoid valve is working
correctly.

Disinfectant too high

The disinfectant sensor may be

fouled, out of calibration or faulty.

Check that there is no restriction to the sensor

sample stream.

A lack of sample stream flow may be

causing incorrect readings.

Re-test and confirm the reading with a 10:1

dilution test. If the disinfectant level is outside
statutory requirement, the pool/spa must be
closed to pool users until within range.

The system may be siphoning due to

contamination of the dosage pump
valves or pressure retention (antisiphon) valve.
The solenoid valve may be stuck
open and delivering disinfectant
continuously.

If necessary, reduce disinfectant levels with

sodium thiosulphate.
Check that the dosage control and delivery
system are operating normally and
clean/calibrate/replace the sensor.
For liquid chlorine systems:
Check the dosage pump suction and discharge
valves for contamination, as well as the
diaphragm of the pressure retention (antisiphon) valve for contamination.
For erosion feed systems:
Check that the solenoid valve is operating
correctly.

ORP too low

Disinfection low, pH too high,

cyanuric acid too high.
The ORP sensor may be fouled, out
of calibration or faulty.

ORP too high

Disinfectant level is
difficult to maintain

Clean/calibrate/replace the sensor.

Disinfectant too high, pH too low.

The ORP sensor may be fouled, out
of calibration or faulty.

Clean/calibrate/replace the sensor.

In pools not stabilised with cyanuric

acid, the sunlight can rapidly reduce
disinfectant levels.

If the level is outside statutory requirement, the

pool/spa must be closed to pool users until within
range.
Check the disinfectant delivery and control
systems.
Add cyanuric acid to at least 30 mg/L.

Excessive contamination may be

overloading the disinfection system.

86

Check the bather load history and look for a

correlation.

Problem

Possible Cause(s)

Initial Response

Cannot get test kit

readings for free chlorine
residual

The reagent may be bleached by

excessive chlorine level.

Test the disinfectant level with a 10:1 dilution

test. If the disinfectant level is outside statutory
requirements, the pool/spa must be closed to
pool users until back within range.

The reagent may have deteriorated.

They have a limited life span,
particularly in a warm environment.
Contact the supplier for more
information on shelf life.

Check the reagent use-by date.

This may be attributable to high

combined chlorine levels caused by
excessive bather load or
contamination from other sources.
Quaternary ammonia based
chemicals, for instance, are
sometimes inadvertently used for
concourse clean down. These
ammonia based chemicals combine
with chlorine to form the offensive
compounds.

Test the combined chlorine level.

A build-up of organic material in

overflow channels and/or balance
tanks can also contribute to the
problem.

Cleaning of overflow channels and balance tanks

should occur as periodical maintenance (if
practical).

If the growth is green/black in colour,

it may be algae. If not, it may be
biofilm of a bacteria colony.

Superchlorinate during closure, scrub the affected

area and vacuum to waste. Backwash and add
coagulant.

The water has an

offensive odour and is
causing eye and/or throat
irritation

Slimy growth on the pool

walls, floor or grouting

Superchlorinate during closure, then backwash

and add coagulant. It may be necessary to repeat
this course of action on a regular basis, as a
proactive measure.
If the problem persists it may be necessary to
undergo continuous dilution of the pool/spa
water. Alternatively, it may be necessary to reevaluate the filtration systems efficacy in
managing the bathing load.

If the problem persists it may be worthwhile

having a sample analysed to help identify the
organism.
Cyanuric acid High

Cloudy water

High levels of cyanuric acid may

reduce the effectiveness of chlorine.
This may result in algal blooms.

Re-test and confirm reading.

The circulation pumps may have

failed, or flow may be restricted by
clogged lint screens/baskets.

Check the circulation pump(s) and lint

screens/baskets.

The filter(s) may be dirty and require

cleaning.

Check the filter(s) pressure differentials.

Backwash the filter(s).

The bathing load may be too high for

the filtration system capabilities.

Reduce the bathing load, allow the water

to recover.

The filter media may be old and

clogged. This may result in
channelling and ineffective filtration.

Superchlorinate the filter media during closure. If

symptoms persistent, inspect the filter vessel.

Backwash (or dilute) the pool and re-test the next

day. Repeat until the correct level is attained.

continued next page

87

Problem

Possible Cause(s)

Initial Response

If the filtered water collector system

is broken, contaminants and filter
media may enter the pool.

Inspect and replace if necessary the filtered

water collector system.

Mineral salts may be coming out of

solution.

Check and where necessary correct pH, alkalinity

and calcium hardness according to Langeliers
Saturation Index.

A high pH may cause coagulant to be

present in the water. This is usually
characterised by a white
discolouration.

Check for coagulant overdose and/or high pH.

The discolouration could be due to

contamination by algae.

Superchlorinate during closure, backwash and

add coagulant. Maintain disinfectant levels at all
times.

High cyanuric acid levels may reduce

the effectiveness of the chlorine, to a
level that allows an algae bloom.

Water clarity generally

poor

If symptoms persist, check for high levels of

cyanuric acid. If high levels of cyanuric acid are
present, dilute the pool water until normal levels
are attained. It will then be necessary to take
action as per above.

In high concentrations chlorine and

bromine (especially) may cause a
green coloration of water.

Test the disinfectant level with a 10:1 dilution

test. If the disinfectant level is outside statutory
requirement, the pool/spa must be closed to pool
users until within range. Action as per
Disinfectant High in this Problem Sorter.

In full-stream ozone/chlorine
systems, it is very common to
experience green coloration if the
ozone is off-line for extended
periods.

Coagulation with poly-aluminium-chloride may

assist in the removal of this coloration.

Systems utilising anthracite or other

carbon products in the filters can
also experience a green
discolouration.

Coagulation with poly-aluminium-chloride may

assist in the removal of the coloration in this
instance also.

Although uncommon, copper

presence in the water may also
cause the green discolouration.

Particularly if the saturation index is tending

toward scale forming according to Langeliers
Saturation Index. If the discolouration persists it
may be necessary to test for copper presence.

Check for a pattern to the problem.

For example, is it only during periods
of heavy usage? Does it clear after
backwash?

Check disinfectant residual levels. If an outdoor

pool, check stabiliser level is not too high, or too
low.
Ensure correct backwash frequency and
coagulant dosage.
Check the filter media for contamination,
deterioration or for the need to flocculate or add
media.

88

Problem

Possible Cause(s)

Temperature Low

Initial Response
Check that the heating thermostat is set at the
normal temperature.
Check that the circulation pump(s) are
operational. If not, refer to Circulation failure in
this Problem Sorter.
Check that the Boiler is operational. If not refer to
Heater malfunction in this Problem Sorter.

Temperature High

Dilution with cold make-up water

after backwashing may cause a
temporary drop in temperature.

Check when the last backwash was performed.

Wrong temperature setting. Solenoid

or valve failure.

Check that the thermostat is set at the normal

temperature.
Check that the heating valve is not stuck open.

Heater malfunction

The heating hot water pump may

have failed.
Note: in some installations the
heating hot water pump is
interlocked with the heater operation
and will automatically shutdown
with the heater and therefore may
not be at fault.

Check that the heating hot water pump is

operational. If not, call service personnel.
Reset the heater once only.
If still unresolved, call service personnel.

There may have been a power failure

and the heater did not restart
automatically.
Circulation failure

Incorrect valve positions on pump(s)

or filter(s) can cause extensive
damage to any filtration system.

Check that there is sufficient water for the

circulation pump(s) to operate. If the water level
is low, ensure that the make-up system is
functioning correctly.
Check that the circulation pump is turned on at
the power supply and control panel. Check
suction and discharge pressure gauges (as well
as any other flow indicators) for normal pump
operation.
Check the valve positions on the pump and filters.

Filter inlet pressure is

high and the outlet
pressure is low

Filter is dirty.

Backwash filter.

If the problem persists, it may

indicate that the filter is blocked and
the media requires replacement. It
may also indicate that there is not
enough water flow to backwash
effectively.

Check the quantity of coagulant utilised.

Excessive coagulant may cause the filter media to
become clogged and result in poor filtration.

continued next page

89

Problem

Possible Cause(s)

Initial Response

Filter inlet and outlet

pressures are both high

If a valve on the discharge side of

the filter is closed past its normal
position, the water flow may be
restricted and cause an increase in
filter pressure.

Check the valve positions on the discharge

pipework of the filter.

Poor air quality

Check that the air-handling system is operating

normally. Check the air filters and clean or
replace as required.
If necessary, check damper operation.

90

References

Glossary
Acid A chemical which lowers pH value when
added to pool water.
Acidity A measure of the acid content of water;
generally expressed in mg/L or ppm; important
for pH value control.
Activated carbon Carbon treated for use as an
adsorption filter medium for removing chlorine,
ozone and contamination.
Air scour Air forced up through a filter bed prior
to backwash for the purpose of expanding the
filter media and loosen dirt particles.
Algacide A chemical that aids in killing,
controlling and preventing algae.
Algae Simple form of microscopic plant life that
contains chlorophyll and thrives on sunlight.
Alkali A chemical which raises pH value of pool
water, also called a base.
Alkalinity A measure of the alkaline content of
water; generally expressed in mg/L or ppm; a
measure of the resistance to change in pH value.
Aluminium sulphate (alum) A coagulant, usually
supplied in a granular form.
Ammonia A chemical that forms from the
breakdown of urea in urine and sweat.
Amoeba Single-celled organism.
Amperometric sensor Pool water analysers that
measure hypochlorous acid and calibrated to
monitor free chlorine.
Backwashing Cleaning of the filter by reversing
the direction of water flow up through the filter
media to waste.
Balance tank A reservoir of water between the
pool itself and the rest of the circulation system on
the return side of the pump. It maintains a
constant pool water level and supply to the
pumps, and holds water displaced by bathers.
Bather load A measure of the number of bathers
in a pool over a set period of time; it should be
linked to the capacity of the treatment system and
pool safety.

92

BCDMH Bromo-chloro-dimethyl-hydantoin. It
produces hypobromous acid when dissolved in
water.
Boiler Heats water or air via a heat exchange
device, that is, a closed loop boiler.
Breakpoint chlorination The point at which the
combined chlorine level in the pool, rising as
chlorine is added, falls; it indicates that
nitrogenous pollution is being successfully
oxidised.
Bromamines Products of the reaction between
bromine and ammonia.
Buffer A combination or weak acids, weak alkalis
and their salts that resist changes in pH.
Calcium chloride Used to increase calcium
hardness.
Calcium hardness A measure of the calcium salts
dissolved in pool water.
Calorifier A heat exchanger used to heat pool
water indirectly.
Carbon dioxide Gas used to lower pH.
Chloramine Produced when free available
chlorine combines with ammonia and other
nitrogenous wastes.
Chloroform A product of the reaction between
chlorine and organic nitrogen compounds; one of
the trihalomethanes.
Coagulant A material which forms a gelatinous
precipitate in water and causes the agglomeration
of finely divided particles into larger particles.
Coagulation The action of a coagulant.
Coliforms Bacteria of the intestine, of which E. coli
is a common example.
Collectors (laterals, filter nozzles) Interior bottom
part of the filter that collects the filtered return
water.
Colloids Very fine suspended matter in water that
contributes to turbidity.
Combined bromine A measure of the bromamines
in pool water.

Combined chlorine A measure of the chloramines

in pool water.
Cyanuric acid A stabiliser that can be added to
pool water to reduce chlorine loss due to sunlight.
Decommissioning The process of ceasing the
operation of equipment.
De-humidifier A device for removing moisture for
the air.
De-ozonation Removing ozone disinfectant from
water before it returns to the pool.
Diatomaceous earth A powder consisting of
fossilised skeletal remains of microscopic marine
plant life that is capable of filtering extremely
small particles.
Dichlor Short for dichloroisocyanuric acid. A type
of stabilised pool chlorine.

E. coli A bacterium in faeces one of the coliform

organisms routinely monitored for signs of
pollution.
Erosion feeder A simple device that allows a
steady flow of water to erode a stick or tablet of
disinfectant liberating the active ingredient.
Adjusting the flow rate through the feeder can
control the erosion rate.
Flocculant A chemical compound (commonly
alum) added to some sand filters that aids
filtration by forming a gelatinous mass on the
surface of the filter bed to trap fine particles.
Flocculus/floc The gelatinous mass that forms
with the addition of a flocculant.
Flooded suction Describes the process of
introduction of supply water to the pump where
the level of the supply water is above the level of
the pump inlet.
Fluidisation of sand filter beds Suspending the sand
by backwashing force and sometimes air
scouring.
Folliculitis An infection of the hair follicle caused
by bacteria.

Free chlorine A measure of the chlorine (the sum

of hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion) that is
available for disinfection.
Gas chlorinator A device that controls the release
of chlorine gas from bulk supply.
Halogen The chemical family that includes
chlorine and bromine (and iodine).
Hardness A measure of all the calcium and
magnesium salts in pool water (total hardness).
See also calcium, permanent and temporary
hardness.
Heat pump A refrigerant-based heat pumping
system.
Humic acid A constituent of water that reacts with
halogen disinfectants to form trihalomethanes.
Hydrochloric acid (muratic) An acid used (with
care) to lower pool water pH value.
Hypobromous acid The main active factor in all
bromine disinfectants.
Hypochlorite Ionic base of hypochlorous acid.
Hypochlorite based disinfectants (hypo) Sodium
hypochlorite (liquid pool chlorine); calcium
hypochlorite (granular pool chlorine).
Hypochlorous acid The main active factor in all
chlorine disinfectants.
Injector Fitting enabling a chemical liquid or gas
to be injected into the water circulation loop.
Ions Electrically charged chemical particles.
Langelier Index One measure of balanced water.
Loss of head Describes the loss of operating
pressure (at the filter or pump outlet).
Make-up water Fresh water used to fill or top up
pools, particularly after backwashing.
Nitrogen trichloride The most irritant of the
chloramines.
Oxidation The process of by which disinfectants
destroy pollution.

93

Oxidation-Reduction Potential (ORP) A measure of

the oxidative powers of the water which is
measured in millivolts.
Ozone (O3), ozonation A gas generated on-site and
used to purify pool water by oxidation.
PAC Poly aluminium chloride a commonly
used liquid coagulant.
Permanent hardness That part which does not
precipitate from the water on heating; it consists
of calcium and magnesium salts other than
carbonates and bicarbonates.
pH A measure of the acidity, alkalinity or
neutrality of water on a logarithmic scale of
1.014.0. A pH below 7.0 is acidic and above 7.0 is
alkaline.
PPE Abbreviation for personal protective
equipment which may include breathing
respirator, safety goggles, hearing protection,
gloves and coveralls.
ppm Abbreviation for parts per million. A
measurement that indicates the amount of
chemical by weight in milligrams per litre of
water (mg/L).
Redox (ORP) sensors Pool water analysers that
measure only the oxidative power of the water.
See Oxidation-Reduction Potential.

Sodium bisulphate (dry acid) Used to lower pH.

Sodium carbonate (soda ash) Used to raise pH.
Sodium chloride Commonly referred as pool
salt added to pools with salt chlorinators.
Sodium thiosulphate A neutraliser used for
dechlorination and in the microbiological testing
of water disinfected with halogen.
Superchlorination Routine preventative dose of
chlorine to control algae and maintain clarity.
Temporary hardness That part of the total hardness
which precipitates from the water on heating; it
consists of calcium and magnesium carbonates
and bicarbonates.
Thermal wheel (rotary heat exchanger) A heat
recovery device that recovers heat from the pool
hall return air, and in the process, also dehumidifies the pool hall air.
Total alkalinity Measure of alkalinity to used to
determine pH buffering capacity of pool water.
Total chlorine A measure of free plus combined
chlorine.
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) A measure of all the
solids dissolved in the pool water.

Salt chlorinator An electronic device that

produces free chlorine from salt (chloride) present
in the pool water.

Trichlor Short for trichloroisocyanuric acid. A

type of stabilised chlorine.

Scaling The deposition (usually calcium

carbonate) on pool walls, pipework, etc.

Trihalomethanes Compounds formed by reaction

between chlorine or bromine and humic acid or
certain components of human waste.

Sensor An electrical or electronic device for

measuring a specific parameter. For example, pH,
water flow, chlorine, ORP, temperature and so on.
Shock dosing Reactive dose of excess chlorine to
combat an algae bloom or other form of
contamination.
Slipstream ozonation A system that ozonates a
proportion only of the total pool water.

94

Sodium bicarbonate (bicarb) Used to raise pH and

raise total alkalinity.

Turbidity Cloudiness, murkiness or lack of clarity

in water caused by colloidal or particulate matter
in suspension.
Turnover period The time taken for a volume of
water equivalent to the entire pool volume, to
pass through the filtration and circulation system
once.

Bibliography
AS 147 1986 Health and Safety at Work
Principles and Practices

and Community Service Victorian and Ministerial

Advisory Committee on HIV/AIDS, 1994

AS1885.1 1990 Workplace Injury and Disease

Recording Standard

Public Swimming Pool and Spa Guidelines. NSW

Department of Health, 1996

AS2610.1 1993 Spa Pools

SAA HB112 1998. Residential spa pools selection,

maintenance and operation. Standards Australia

AS2865 1995 Safe Working in a Confined Space

AS2927 1987 Storage and Handling of Liquefied
Chlorine Gas
AS3780 1994 The Storage and Handling of
Corrosive Substances
AS1668.2 1991 The use of mechanical ventilation
and air-conditioning in buildings Part 2
Mechanical ventilation for acceptable indoor air
quality
AS4360 1999 Risk Management
Breakpoint chlorination of swimming pools, 1980,
ICI Australia
Broadbent, C, 1996, Guidance for the Control of
Legionella. National Environmental Health Forum
Monographs, Water Series 1, South Australian
Health Commission
Clinical Standards for Physiotherapists Working in
Hydrotherapy, Australian Physiotherapy
Association, 1995
Guidelines for Safe Pool Operation, RLSSA
Melbourne, 199X
Guidelines for the Control of Legionnaires Disease,
Health Department Victoria, 1989
Handbook of Sports and Recreational Building Design
Volume 11, UK Sports Council
Infection Control Guidelines. Australia National
Council on Aids and Department of Community
Services and Health, 1990
Palin AT, 1973, Chemistry to control of modern
chlorination
Protection in Practice Infection Control Guidelines on
HIV and Hepatitis for Health Care Workers and
Emergency Service Workers. Department of Health

SAA HB65 1998. Residential swimming pools

selection, maintenance and operation. Standards
Australia
Salvato JA, 1992, Environmental Engineering and
Sanitation, 4th edition). John Wiley and Sons Inc.
Standard for the inspection and maintenance of
swimming pools and spa pools in South Australia.
South Australian Health Commission, 1992
Standard for the operation of swimming pools and spa
pools in South Australia. South Australian Health
Commission, 1991
Standard for the operation of swimming pools and spa
pools in South Australia Supplement A. Waterslides.
South Australian Health Commission, 1992
Standard for the operation of swimming pools and spa
pools in South Australia Supplement B.
Hydrotherapy Pools. South Australian Health
Commission, 1992
Standard for the operation of swimming pools and spa
pools in South Australia Supplement C. Bromine
Disinfection of swimming pool, spa pool,
hydrotherapy pool and waterslide pool water.
South Australian Health Commission, 1992
Stewart A., 1992, Swimming Pools. Lothian
Publishing Co, Port Melbourne
Survey of 25 metre, heated indoor metropolitan
municipal swimming pools using sodium hypochlorite
disinfection residuals, Aquascience Consultants Pty
Ltd on behalf of Department of Health and
Community Services Victoria, November 1995
Swimming Pool Management Manual. Pennsylvania
Department of Community Affairs Harrisburg,
1995

95

Water Purification Standards for Public Swimming

Pools and Spa Pools. Health Department Victoria,
1990
White GC, 1992, The Handbook of Chlorination and
Alternative Disinfectants. Third Edition. Van
Nostrand Reihold, New York
AS3979 Hydrotherapy pools
Pool Water Guide The treatment and quality of
swimming pool water, PWTAG, 1995
Penny, 1983, Swimming Pool Dermatitis
Focus on water treatment for aquatic facilities
Filtration and hydraulics Part A, Ministry of Sport
and Recreation WA, 1999
Focus on water treatment for aquatic facilities
Disinfection Part B, Ministry of Sport and
Recreation WA, 1999

96

Index
quaternary ammonia based

chemicals, 87

acid
mixing of chlorine-based

amoeba
naegleria fowleri, 28

disinfectant with, 6
corrosives, 11

amperometric sensor
direct chlorine residual

explosive reaction with acids, 32

measurement, 53

in measuring pH, 3541

used to measure hypochlorous

dry acid, 49, 84, 94

acid, 92

acidity, measuring, 92, 94

activated carbon

anthracite

prescribed aggregate quantities, 11

dealing with contaminants, 44
filters that remove ozone, 45
adjustable pools (moveable

biofilms, 37
colonisation, 4647
using UV to kill, 34
temperature at which
incubated, 63
standard plate count, 64
coliform count, 64
causing slimy growth on the pool
walls, floor or grouting, 87
baking soda

used for de-ozonation, 45

see sodium bicarbonate

in filters, 88

to clean sides of the pool, 32

athletes foot, 27

as an alkali, 35

Australian Standards

to increase total alkalinity, 49, 94

list of relevant standards, 14

floors), 18

balance tank

air scouring of filter beds, 75

for spas, 20

algacides, 40, 92

electrical systems, 32

algae

on control systems, 53

in wet decks, 20

filter specifications, 73

overflow channels, 6869

cleaning from bottom of

see also references

pool, 3240

discolouration arising from, 88

babies, 31
backwashing

explosive reaction with acids, 32

to eradicate infections, 15, 2729

dosing, 35, 41

when cyanuric reaches excessive

in pH value, 48
alkalinity
prescribed aggregate quantities, 11
total alkalinity, 4142, 61
in water balance, 51
affecting pH change in pools:
increasing, 49
decreasing, 49
in SI index, 51

levels, 36
used for dilution, 39
to lower total dissolved solids, 50
to manage microbiological
problems, 63
and the balance tank, 6869
and filtration, 72
dosing coagulants and
flocculants, 72

test methods, 5860

rates, 73

minimal level required for

procedure, 7576

effective flocculation, 74
winter/seasonal maintenance
program, 82
alum
see aluminium sulphate
in ozone treatment, 74
aluminium hydroxychloride
in ozone treatment, 74
ammonia

systems, 19, 20, 28

bathing load
in pool design, 4, 18

winter care, 82
alkali

in hydraulics and circulation

causing a drop in temperature, 89

bacteria
from human contamination, 12
substances which are hazardous to
health, 8
foot infections, 27
ear and sinus problems, 28
legionnaires disease, 28, 32
folliculitis, 29

human contamination, 4

in hot water systems, 3132

class of gas, 11

disinfectants that can kill, 34

removal of, 44

regulatory limits, 37

and circulation rate, 1819

in various types of pools, 2024
in designing disinfectant dosing
systems, 34, 55
BCDMH (bromo-chloro-dimethylhydantoin), 35, 37, 42
an acidic disinfectant, 48
biofilms
bacterial harbourages, 37
as a slimy growth on the side of
pool, 87
blood spillage, 26, 28, 30
boiler
maintaining temperature in, 31
in maintenance schedule, 8283, 92
breakpoint chlorination
enhancing, 44
description, 92
bromamines, 92
bromine
itch and rash, 28, 29
-based disinfectants, 34
-based chemicals, 35
using, 37
tablets, 35, 42
full description, 37
residual, 42

97

used in conjunction with UV

systems, 47
ORP sensors are often used to
control, 54
sensors, 54

calcium hardness, 48
description, 92
capacity see bathing load
carbon dioxide

test methods, 58, 65

prescribed aggregate quantities, 11

tests required by regulatory

as a dangerous good, 11

authorities, 60, 61
total bromine, 58, 60
causing a green coloration of
water, 88
combined bromine, 92
buffer
distances between storage of
chemicals, 35
bicarbonate buffering, 37
analyser cell/probe buffering, 54
definition, 92
bulk storage of chemicals
signage, 9
storage of sodium hypochlorite, 35

C
calcium chloride
to increase calcium hardness, 50
when calcium hardness is too
high, 85
calcium hardness
scaling of the electrode plates, 36
in water balance, 48
definition, 48
increasing and decreasing, 4850
in SI Index of Factors, 51
test methods, 5860
and regulatory standards, 61
in winter/seasonal maintenance
program, 83
calcium hypochlorite (granular pool
chlorine)
prescribed aggregate quantities, 11
as a dangerous good, 11
one of the chlorine based
chemicals, 35
characteristics, 41
excess dosage, 85
manually dosing pools after
closure, 35
not used for shock dosing, 35
as a cause of high calcium
hardness, 85

98

calcium salts

used in combination with sodium

hypochlorite, 35
to decrease pH, 49
in dosage systems, 52
as a cause of too high total
alkalinity, 84
certification
providing a safe, healthy
environment, 8
changing rooms

formed from reaction with

chloramine, 44
to increase calcium hardness, 50
chlorine
free, 34, 3638, 44, 48, 92
direct chlorine residual
measurement, 53
close relationship between free
chlorine and ORP readout, 54
using dip strips containing
syringaldezine for measuring
accurately, 58
test methods, 5859
in record keeping, 60
chemical limits, 61
sampling, 65
dosing, 75

in designing the facility, 18

used to control algae, 82

cleaning of, 32

in winterisation, 82

chemical reagents

chlorine gas, 83

for measuring, 5859

liquid chlorine systems, 86

mistakes in measuring caused

chlorine residual, 87

by, 85
bleaching, 87
chloramines

excessive levels, 87
as an eye irritant, 87
cyanuric acid affects, 87, 88

build-up and formation, 24, 37, 78

causing green discolouration, 88

affecting respiratory

removing, 92

complaints, 29
removal and control of, 3740,
42, 44
UV breaks down, 34, 46, 47
fresh water in the breakdown
of, 37
when the ozone system breaks
down, 37
formation of, 44
produced by disinfectants, when
dosed before the filter, 52
production of related to
temperature, 90

monitoring free, 92
reaction between chlorine and
organic nitrogen compounds, 92
combined chlorine, 15, 38, 39,
54, 58
reducing combined chlorine, 37
influence on ORP readings, 54
test measures, 58
chemical limits, 60
definitions, 93, 94
chlorite
as a by-product, 37
reducing build-up, 42

description, 92

circulation feeder see erosion feeder

nitrogen trichloride as most

circulation pumps

irritant form, 93
chloride

in the plant room, 20

in design of facility, 68

converted by salt chlorination, 36

maintaining, 82

formation during

as a cause of cloudy water, 87

superchlorination, 38
silver/silver chloride electrode,
40, 54

circulation rate see turnover rate

coagulant, coagulation
in design, 18

in eradication of
Cryptosporidium, 27
in filtration methods, 7275
use after superchlorination
coal (anthracite) filters, 45, 88
coliforms
using a standard plate count to
detect, 64
definition, 92, 93

risks in mixing, 6

Health (Infectious Diseases)

regulations covering, 8

Regulations, 15, 20, 29, 32, 39

separation distances, 11

adhering to, 20, 2930, 40, 60

FINA, 22

residuals, 2328

chemical regulations, 46, 60

used for blood spill and faeces, 30

choosing, 34

dechlorination, 39, 94
decommissioning
of equipment, 83

diving pools, 18, 22

dosing
segregation from chemical

definition, 93

collectors (laterals, filter nozzles), 92

de-humidifier, 93

colloids, colloidal matter

de-ozonation

storage, 21
in design, 23

on steps, 63

process of, 4546

points of, 34

as a cause of poor clarity, 72

definition, 93

dosing pumps, in coagulants and

removal of with coagulants and

flocculation, 74
breakdown using ozone, 74
definition, 92
comparators
photometers, 58
contractors
using and hiring, 19, 21
controllers, 5354
copper
testing for presence of, 88
causing green discolouration, 88
copper/silver ions

caused by Cryptosporidium and

dry acid see sodium bisulphate

definition, 93

dry chemicals

dilution of pool water

34, 87

chlorine disinfectant by

to decrease calcium hardness, 50

ultraviolet light, 24, 35, 36, 86

to control cyanuric acid levels,

storing LP Gas in, 9, 10

location of, proximity of and
transport of, 12, 35, 44

36, 39
in the sodium bromide/sodium
hypochlorite system, 37
in chloramine and combined
chlorine reduction, 37, 39
affecting pH levels, 48, 49
to decrease total alkalinity, 49
to lower total dissolved solids, 53
affecting temperature, 89
dilution of samples, 59
dip strips, 58

D
Dangerous Goods (Storage and
Handling) Regulations, 6, 812, 15,
30, 32, 35, 41
Dangerous Substances (Placarding of
Workplaces), 8
Regulations, OH&S, 13, 44

UV treatment of, 46

characteristics of, 41

to correct hardness levels, 85

cylinders

water, 37

a chlorine based chemical, 36

to counter the degradation of the

too high levels, 86, 87, 88

disinfection compared to pool

dichloroisocyanuric acid (dichlor)

loss of chemicals from, 35

tests, 58

for, 73

pool, 29

as a dangerous good, 11

affecting ORP levels, 54

use of gravity feed filter vessels

diatomaceous earth filters, 72

to reduce bather pollution, 28,

description, 39, 59, 93

diamine), 54, 5859

drinking water

procedures for removing from

Cryptosporidium, 27, 37, 63, 65

monitoring levels, 36, 38, 41

DPD test (dimethyl-phenylene

Giardia, 27
pool users suffering, 27, 29

in design of pool, 4, 18, 19, 28

reducing build-up of, 34, 36

in maintenance systems, 82

diarrhoea

unsuitable disinfectants, 40
cyanuric acid

flocculants, 74

dermatitis, 28

discharge (backwash, pool

emptying), 15, 40, 75, 76
discharge valves and gauges, 85, 86,
89, 90
disinfectants, 2338
in design of pool, 4, 34

used in manual chemical tests, 58

E
ear infections, 28, 64
eating and drinking areas, 79
education
public, 31
electrical
equipment and employees, 5, 6
in design of pools, 19, 21
regulations, 32
conductivity, 53
interference, 85
ions, 93
electrolytic generation
of chlorine from saline salt, 35
electromagnets
an unsuitable disinfectant, 40
emergency procedures
emergency services, 9, 10
Hazchem regulations 1011
responses and procedures, 18,
26, 29
contamination by faecal matter, 29
emptying pools, 23, 32, 38
energy management, 79

99

energy polarisers
an unsuitable disinfectant, 40
Environment Protection Act 1970

G
gas chlorinator, 83, 93

in SEPPs, 15

Giardia, 27

regarding discharge, 40, 76

granular activated carbon (GAC),

40, 4446

using trichlor, 36

grout problems, 5, 32, 87

using BCDMH, 37

Guidelines for Safe Pool Operation

using calcium hypochlorite, 41

correct size, 52
definition, 93

formed when sodium hypochlorite

gastro-intestinal illness, 27

erosion feeder

or ozone injected into the water,

37, 92
hypochlorite based disinfectants, 11
hypochlorous acid
forming chloramines, 37
to kill germs, 48

(GSPO), 14

in direct chlorine residual and

ORP measurement, 5354

Eschericbia coli (E. coli), 92, 93

halogen, 93, 94

measuring, 92

eye irritation, 6, 38, 48, 87

hardness see calcium hardness

definition, 93

Hazchem, 810

Health (Infectious Diseases)

faeces
in water, 30, 29
E coli in, 93
filter backwash

Regulations, 15, 20, 29, 32, 39

I
infection
sources of, 4, 68

heat exchanger and heat pumps

risk, 2628

achieving different pools at

cleaning to avoid transmission, 32

different temperatures, 78

regulations concerning, 15

reclaiming energy, 79

frequent, 28

in maintenance schedules, 82

observations during, 75

calorifier, 92

suitable operators, 83

thermal wheel, 94

as cause for pH level difficult to

filter sand, 7374

filtration, water

cross-infection, 46
injectors

change, 85

hepatitis, 28

in design, 46, 18, 22, 29

hot water systems, 31, 32

operation, 2029, 7279

human immunodeficiency virus

GAC filtration, 44

inlets and outlets

description, 6970
in hydraulics design, 19, 20

(HIV), 28

separate systems best, 45

humic acid, 93

particularities for spas, 23

removing pollutants and bacteria,

humidity

in circulation, 68

47, 65
preventing air from being drawn
into the filtration plant, 68
and wet decks, 68
ineffective, 87, 89

in design, 4

effect on hydraulics, 19

Langelier Index, 50, 85, 88, 93

in considering heating and air

Legionella bacteria, 31, 32, 52, 64

circulation, 7778

legislation, 615

hydrochloric acid (muriatic)

filtration plant, 18, 19, 23, 34, 68, 71

as a dangerous good, 11

first aid

formed when elemental chlorine

in the MSDS, 13

need for operators and employers

to consult, 6, 8
Hazchem, 8

gas is added to water, 35

see also references

in codes of practice, 14

to form chlorine dioxide, 37

in the GSPO, 14

Lights solution, 40

to decrease pH, 49

log sheets, 6162

definition, 93

loss of head gauge, 73, 93

flocculation, 72, 74
flocculants
in design and management, 4
using sand filters in conjunction
with, 73
dosing coagulants and
flocculants, 74
definition, 93
fluidisation of sand filter beds, 93
folliculitis, 2829, 64
definition, 93
footbaths, 31

100

in ozone treatment, 74
hypobromous acid

hydrogen peroxide
an unsuitable disinfectant, 40
hydrotherapy pools

M
magnesium salts in pool water, 93, 94

Australian Standard, 14, 20

make-up water, 28, 38, 39, 75, 89, 93

description, 22

material safety data sheets (MSDS),

use of BCDMH in, 37, 42

6, 8, 1213

as high risk pools, 28

melamine test reagent, 59

backwashing, 75

meningitis, 28

hydroxychloride see PAC

aluminium sulphate (alum)

microbiological testing of
water, 6366

required by Health (Infectious

problems with bromide/ozone

Diseases) Regulations 1990, 7

photometers
types, 54

pools, 3738

in design, 4

and UV, 39, 44

using sodium thiosulphate, 94

sodium bromide and, 37, 42

comparators, 5859
pipework

microflocculation, 74

causing green discolouration, 88

in design, 19

monitoring, 6366

definition, 94

in water circulation, 68

motels, pools in

problems with, 90

ozonation

using salt chlorination in, 36

scaling on, 94

as a method of chloramine

moveable floors, 18, 22, 70

reduction, 37, 4446

plantar warts, 27, 31

mucus, 26, 28, 34

in points of dosing, 53

plate count, 6364

multi-grade filters, 74

definitions, 94

pollution, 4, 15, 20, 2326, 29, 31, 34,

38, 66, 68, 78, 92, 93

ozonation, slipstream, 45

N
Naegleria fowleri, 28
nappies, 26, 31
nitrogen trichloride
formation of, 38, 93
nose/throat (nasopharyngeal)
infection, 28

definition, 94

Occupational Health and Safety Act

(OH&S), 68
meeting the requirements of,
1213, 15, 19
in audits, 21
ventilation and, 44
off-season care, 8283
see also winterisation
otitis externa (swimmers ear), 28
outdoor pools, 24, 26, 34, 35, 39, 41,
73, 78, 82, 88
overflow channels, 6869, 87
oxidation, 34, 3940, 42, 46, 93
oxidation-reduction potential (ORP)
measuring for disinfection,
40, 5354
probes, 46
in sampling, 64
too low/too high, 86
definition, 94
ozone (O3)
use of in pools, 4445, 74
generators, 21, 37, 42, 44
for the treatment of
Cryptosporidium, 27
as an unsuitable disinfectant, 34
as an activator, 35, 37
use of in the circulation and
filtration plant, 34
removing see de-ozonation

74, 94

ozone removal, 53

polymeric biguanides

P
pathogens, 6365
permanent hardness, 94
personal hygiene (pool users), 4, 23
personal protective equipment , 7, 10,

polyaluminium chloride (PAC),

13, 49, 94
pH, 4654
in design of water treatment, 18
in spa pools, 23

an unsuitable disinfectant, 40
pool cover, 79
Pool Water Treatment Advisory
Group (PWTAG), 2
pre-coat filters see diatomaceous
earth
problem sorter, 84
pseudomonas aeruginosa, 28, 29, 64

after removal of stools, 29

automatic monitoring and

quality assurance, 21, 63, 66

dosing, 34
maintaining when using chlorine
gas, 35

R
records
of safety measures and staff

high levels when using sodium

training, 7, 21

hypochlorite, 35

code of practice for keeping,

trichlor helps keep pH down, 36

14, 6066

chlorine dioxide not affected by, 36

necessary, 15

controlling where BCDMH is

used, 37
in superchlorination, 38
in shock dosing, 38

logbook entries, 61
redox see ORP
Regulations, OH&S, 13, 44
Health (Infectious Diseases)

when using cyanuric acid, 86

Regulations, 15, 20, 29, 32, 39

when using ORP, 40

conditions conducive to algae
growth, 40
pH too high/too low, 4849, 84
pH erratic, 48, 84

adhering to, 20, 2930, 40, 60

replacing pool water with mains
see make-up water
respiratory complaints, 13, 2829, 46

maintaining, 51, 63

control systems, 53

safety, safe working practices, safety

testing, 5960

policy, 38, 1221

pH difficult to change, 85

SafetyMAP, 6, 12

acid and alkali, 92

saliva, 4

definition, 94

salt chlorination, 3536

phenol red reagent, 54, 59

salt water

101

pools, 23

silver/copper ions as unsuitable

disinfectants, 40

corrosion, 23
sampling

response affected, 54

essential for quality control, 64

sinus infection, 28

what to sample, 6466

skimmers, 65, 6870

sampling points, 66

skin

size of the pool and treatment

needs, 3, 19
scales from skin and faecal
matter, 26
disinfectant residual regulatory
scale, 34
water balance as the scale or
corrosion activity of pool
water, 48

6465

as a scourer, 32
as an alkali, 35, 37, 49, 94
definition, 94
sodium bisulphate (dry acid)

sodium bromide, 35, 42

and ozone, 37
sodium carbonate (soda ash)
definition, 94

types of, 40, 5355

cleaning and contamination, 56,
75, 84
maintenance, 8284
shock dosing (superchlorination)
as a method of chloramine
reduction, 37
destroying algae blooms and
treating colour and clarity
problems, 38
pH in, 38

sodium chloride (pool salt), 94

sodium dichloroisocyanurate
(dichlor) see dichlor
sodium hydroxide (caustic soda)
as unsuitable for increasing pH, 49
sodium hypochlorite
as a dangerous good, 11
proximity to other areas and
chemicals, 12
to deal with blood or body
fluid, 30
a class of chlorine based chemicals,
35
as a widely used
disinfectant, 3537

chemicals used for, 41

characteristics, 41, 42

where not practical, 42

for residual dosing, 46

definition, 94

may be an indicator of disinfectant

showers
as part of pre-swim hygiene, 23,
26, 31

overdosage, 84
definition, 93
sodium thiosulphate

hygiene and design standards, 31

used for dechlorination, 39

as source of infection, 27

to neutralise chlorine or

silver
silver/silver chloride
electrodes, 40

superchlorination see shock dosing

supervisors, 4

pH scale definition, 60

and controllers, 53

effect on equipment, 58

soda ash see sodium carbonate

sodium bicarbonate (bicarb)

to increase pH, 49

ORP sensor, 40

effect on disinfection, 4, 3436, 39,

syringaldezine, 58

readings within the scale, 59

automatic, 36

sunlight

slipstream ozonation, 45, 94

definition, 94

sensors

102

irritation of, 6, 2729, 37, 46, 48,

scale formation, 4850, 85, 88

poor scale intervals, 58

stools, in water, 29

40, 86, 93

to lower pH, 49

Index, 50

Policies (SEPPs), 15

contamination by, 4, 26, 27, 31, 34

pH scale, 48, 60, 94

Langelier Scale and Saturation

State Environmental Protection

silver/silver chloride sensor

who should sample, 64

scale

Staphylococcus aureus, 65

bromine, 65
definition, 94
source water, 26, 48, 85

temperature, 48, 78
flashpoint, 13
in design, 18, 19
in hydrotherapy pools, 22
in spa pools, 23
effect on skin irritations and
rashes, 28
affecting folliculitis, 29
in hot water systems, 31
in choosing disinfectants, 34
affecting ORP values, 40
affecting water balance, 48
affecting calcium hardness, 48
Saturation Index, 50
in records, 60, 61
in microbiological monitoring,
63, 66
in maintenance, 76
environment and air
temperature, 7778
water heating, 7778
energy management, 79
in winterisation, 82
test kits, 34, 5860
operators using, 58
tinea pedis see athletes foot
toddler pools, 18, 24, 66, 78
toilets, 23, 26, 31
total dissolved solids (TDS)
in filter backwash, 15
dilution to eliminate, 34, 51, 53
description, 49
to lower, 50
Saturation Index, 50
testing, 64
definition, 94
training, staff, 48, 19, 2122, 58

trichloramine (nitrogen trichloride)

formation of during
superchlorination, 38
definition, 93
trichloroisocyanuric acid (trichlor)
characteristics, 41

W
warts (papillomas, verrucas), 27
water balance
in design, 18
achieving, 4850
in maintenance, 76

as a dangerous good, 11

water level, 20, 6869, 89, 92

a chlorine based chemical, 35, 36

wet decks, 20, 68, 69

in alkalinity, 48

winterisation, 8283

definition, 94
trichloride, 38, 93
trihalomethanes (THMs), 44, 9294
turbidity
in management, 5
filtration, 20, 72
and colloids, 92
definition, 94
turnover period
in design, 4, 18, 2024
and water balance, 49
in dosage and control, 5253
and circulation, 68
and filtration, 72
in microbiological monitoring, 62
in winterisation, 8283
definition, 94

U
unsuitable disinfectants, 40
urea
destroying, 44
breakdown of in urine and
sweat, 92
ultraviolet radiation
degrades disinfectants, 24
as a water purifier, 34, 4446
urine, 4, 26, 34, 37, 92

V
ventilation
in design, 5
in using dangerous chemicals, 13
Australian Standard, 14
in plant room, 19
pool hall ventilation and air
circulation, 7779
viruses, 8, 2728, 46, 64
vomit, 2628, 30

103