Manufacture
Chapter 2
Manufacture
Contents
This chapter describes the manufacture of concrete
masonry units, tracing the development of the
process from its origin in the nineteenth century
through to the third millennium. A description of
modern manufacturing equipment is included to
give designers, builders and bricklayers a feel for
the features, limitations and versatility of concrete
masonry units.
2.1
HISTORY
2.2
MANUFACTURING METHODS AND
QUALITY CONTROL
2.3
REFERENCES
Manufacture
2.1
HISTORY
Masonry construction is one of the oldest forms of
construction used by man. Structures of stone, mud
brick and clay brick, some built thousands of years ago,
remain to bear witness to the durability of masonry.
Not until the nineteenth century, with the development
of hydraulic cements, did concrete masonry begin
to evolve. It began in the United States, where large
heavy solid blocks were made of a moulded mixture of
quicklime and moist sand cured by steam.
The next developments were seen in England, where
solid blocks were made using powdered lime, fine
aggregates and boiling water to give rapid set. Some
of these blocks were used in London, in houses in Pall
Mall and in the Royal College of Surgeons building.
Solid blocks, however, proved unpopular and impractical
because of their weight. About 1866, the development
of techniques of moulding hollow blocks began. During
the following ten years, a number of patents on hollow
blocks were granted in England and the United States.
These did not cover manufacturing methods, as blocks
were usually moulded in wooden moulds.
Figure 2.1
By about 1900, a number of machines for making
blocks began to appear in the United States. These
were nothing more than moulds with removable sides,
cores and bases, in some cases with arrangements for
turning the freshly moulded block to permit its removal.
Mould filling and concrete tamping were by hand. In
the early moulds, the face of the block was formed on
the removable mould bottom, which could, if desired, be
provided with a patterned or rock-face finish. The cores
were supported horizontally. To remove the block, the
mould sides had to be demounted, core extracted and
the block taken away on the mould base to be cured.
For the next block, a fresh mould base, referred to as a
pallet, was inserted and the process repeated.
Later machines, about 1904, had vertical cores, folddown moulds sides, and a pallet with cut-outs so it
would fit over the cores. The pallet was placed on the
bottom of the mould and was used to lift the freshly
moulded block out of the mould after hand tamping.
Figure 2.2
Although the early blocks were much the same height
and thickness as the largest sizes now made, they
were up to twice as long and therefore correspondingly
heavier and difficult to handle. The early machines
could make only about two hundred blocks per ten-hour
day with three men (Figure 2.1).
Between 1914 and 1924, power tamping replaced hand
tamping, improving density, strength and uniformity.
One manufacturer developed and sold a semi-automatic
machine capable of making 1800 blocks per day with
the same number of men as had made only 200
blocks on the older machines. During this period, the
dimensions of units were standardised gradually, leading
to the full modular coordination we have today.
Figure 2.2 illustrates a blockmaking machine of
this era.
2.2
During the following fifteen years, productivity and
automation developed. A 1929 machine is illustrated in
Figure 2.3. In 1939, tamping was superseded by mould
vibration while the green concrete in the mould was
under pressure. This greatly improved face texture and
sharpness of arrises and gave higher block strength.
These machines could make 5000 blocks per day
(Figure 2.4).
Figure 2.3
Since 1939, there have been progressive improvements
in productivity and product quality, resulting initially
from the introduction of automatic controls to regulate
block height and density and later from the automation
of ancillary equipment such as raw materials handling,
weigh batching and mixing.
Further productivity improvements have been gained
by developing automatic equipment to remove green
blocks from the blockmaking machine and place them
either on racks or directly in the curing chambers. This
is achieved by the introduction of rack transfer systems
to move racks to the curing chambers, and by other
equipment which will withdraw cured blocks from the
curing chambers and package them ready for despatch.
Figure 2.5 shows a modern plant incorporating a
transfer system.
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5
2.3
Manufacture
Perhaps the greatest single advance in blockmaking
machinery was made in 1924 with the introduction of
the first successful stripper machine using plain pallets
that did not have to be profiled around the cores. In this
machine, the block was extruded downwards through
the mould, exactly the same as in modern machines.
Apart from feeding empty pallets and removal of the
freshly made blocks, the machine was fully mechanised
and automatic in operation. It used power tamping
and could produce 3000 blocks per day. Todays fully
automatic blockmaking machines are descended from
the 1924 machine.
Manufacture
From air curing with occasional water sprays used
early in this century, curing techniques have also been
developed and refined. Low- and high-pressure steam
curing systems and burner curing systems are used
now. In some cases, these are supplemented by the
introduction of carbon dioxide into the curing chambers
after curing is completed, to reduce block shrinkage.
In Australia, concrete masonry followed American
developments, although the introduction of modern
high-production extrusion machines occurred much
later. Blocks were originally made in primitive moulds.
This practice continued until the 1950s when the first
modern blockmaking plant was established in Adelaide.
The introduction of similar machinery to other Australian
cities and towns followed.
Several types of block-, brick- and paver-making
machines are used in Australia. Typical modern
blockmaking machines are shown in
Figures 2.6a, 2.6b and 2.6c.
Figure 2.6a
With the introduction of segmental paving into the
Australian market in 1974, a new type of concrete unit
machine began to make its appearance. Originating in
Europe, these dedicated paving machines featured larger
pallet areas (0.5 to 1.0 m2) but slower cycle times
(20 to 30 seconds). The long cycle times mean that the
surface can be more effectively compacted, resulting
in better wear characteristics. The dedicated paving
machines are particularly suited to producing units with
complex plan shapes (such as dentated interlocking
pavers) and thicknesses in the range of 60 to 80 mm.
The paving machines were generally used to augment
the older hollow-block machines, which concentrated on
the production of hollow blocks and rectangular pavers.
Figure 2.6b
Figure 2.6c
2.4
2.2
MANUFACTURING METHODS
and
QUALITY CONTROL
MIX DESIGN
Re-design when
necessary
Manufacture
Most concrete masonry units used in Australia are
manufactured by automatic machinery of advanced
design and capable of a very high output with a high
degree of uniformity. A typical flow diagram, Figure 2.7,
illustrates the sequence of manufacturing operations
and the points of regular quality control checks
employed by well-managed factories. These checks cover
raw materials, manufacturing operations, methods and
processes as well as the finished product. Figures 2.8
to Figure 2.20 illustrate some of these features in
more detail.
2
RAW MATERIALS
Cement and
pozzolan
Water
Additives
Colouring
agents
Fine and coarse
aggregates
Regular sieve analysis
and comparison with
mix design assumptions
Regular checks of
manufacturer's
quality-control reports
BATCHING
Regular checks:
Scale and dispenser settings
Aggregate moisture content
compensating batch weights
Automatic water dispensing
JOB SITE
HANDLING
MIXING
Regular checks:
Correct mix consistency
Correct mixing time
STORAGE
and
DISPATCH
BLOCK MAKING
Regular checks:
Mould setting and wear
Density control
Height control
Cycle time
PALLETISING
CURING
Continuous inspection for culls
Sampling and testing for
physical properties
Regular checks:
Curing sequence
Curing times
Curing temperatures
Figure 2.7 Concrete Masonry Manufacture Typical Flow Diagram
2.5
Manufacture
CONCRETE MANUFACTURE
Raw materials are delivered to silos and bins, with
the various aggregates separated, see Figure 2.8.
Cement and aggregates are weighed automatically to
predetermined quantities. Figure 2.9 shows a typical
control panel for automatic weigh batching and mixing.
The concrete ingredients are proportioned to produce
the desired properties in the finished units. If incoming
raw materials change in grading or moisture content,
the mix proportions are adjusted to compensate.
Very dry cohesive concrete is used in masonry
manufacture, in conjunction with powerful mould
vibration at the same time as pressure is applied to the
concrete in the mould. As freshly moulded units are
extruded down from the machine mould approximately
every ten seconds, they must have sufficient green
strength to permit them to be handled without damage
or distortion.
The mixing of concrete is controlled automatically in
most plants and is linked with the batching plant to
provide a concrete output suited to the consumption
of the block machine. A typical mixer for masonry
concrete is shown in Figure 2.10. A moisture sensor
controls the addition of water. It maintains the correct
moisture content and consistency in the concrete as
it is delivered from the mixer to the blockmaking
machine. In some plants, automatic compensation of
fine aggregate weight for moisture content is provided
by feedback from the moisture sensor to the batch
weigher, but in others the operator will note changes
and compensate manually.
Figure 2.8 Aggregate Silos
Figure 2.9 Auto Weigh Batching and Mixing Controls
BLOCKMAKING MACHINERY
From the mixer, concrete of the correct proportions
and workability is transported either by gravity or
mechanically to the blockmaking machine.
Machine pallets are heavy steel plates designed to
act as a mould bottom. Before each new cycle of the
machine, a fresh machine pallet is placed under the
mould. The mould is filled and the blocks vibrated. The
blocks are then extruded downwards from the mould,
remaining on the pallet which travels with them to
form a tray on which they are transported until they are
cured and about to be assembled into cubes at the
packaging station.
Figure 2.11 shows a concrete block mould, with cores,
stripper shoes and head. The latter are laid back at
an angle in this photograph to show the details. They
normally occupy a vertical position. During mould filling,
the head and shoes are raised clear of the mould to
allow concrete to enter. When the mould is filled and
while it is being vibrated, the head and shoes press on
the top of the green blocks. At the end of the vibration
period, they are moved down to extrude the blocks from
the mould. This particular mould is fitted to make four
1501 blocks, ie four 400 x 150 x 200 mm hollow blocks
and is quite small by modern standards. At the lower
left and right of the mould, the drive pulleys for the two
vibrator units may be seen. The latter are attached to
the mould body and are driven by two powerful electric
motors by means of belts.
Figure 2.10 Typical Mixer for Concrete Masonry Manufacture
Figure 2.11 Concrete Block Mould
2.6
Most concrete segmental pavers are manufactured
using specialised paving machines of European origin,
as described previously. Hollow-block machines are
also widely used for the production of some types of
concrete segmental pavers. Rectangular units can be
manufactured on edge in the block machine, ensuring
that the whole of the machine cavity is effectively used.
Thus, for each machine cycle a larger number of units
may be manufactured in this way than would otherwise
result from units manufactured on the flat.
Manufacture
Most high production block machines used in Australia
employ similar mould, core, stripper shoe and machine
pallet arrangements. They differ only in size, the number
of units that can be made per machine cycle (ie on
each machine pallet), the system of actuation (electromechanical or electro-hydraulic) and the method by
which vibration is applied to the mould and the green
blocks. Mould vibration systems are either vibrator
units directly attached to the mould or remote units
connected to the mould by rods.
2
Figure 2.12a Blockmaking Machine with Automatic Rack
Loading and Unloading Equipment
Checks are made frequently on both moulds and cores
for correct setting and wear. Machine controls are
provided to set the height of the blocks. These checks
ensure dimensional accuracy. Frequent checks are made
for density, vibration and machine cycle time to ensure
that the finished units will have satisfactory physical
properties.
Moulded green blocks are transported mechanically
from the block machine on the machine pallets to
the curing chambers. Several alternative systems for
handling green blocks are employed. These are shown
in Figures 2.12a, 2.12b, 2.12c and 2.13. As well as
loading green blocks into the curing chambers, these
systems also unload the cured blocks coming from the
curing chambers, see Figure 2.14.
The process flow may be briefly described as follows.
Freshly moulded or green concrete units are deposited
on a steel pallet. These may be:
loaded into steel racks for transport by forklift or kiln
car to and from the kilns or curing areas;
loaded directly onto an automatic transfer car; or
transported to and from the kiln or curing area by a
conveyor system.
Figure 2.12b Forklift Truck Handling Racks of Blocks from
Automatic Loading and Unloading Equipment, to and from
Curing Chambers
When the hardened concrete units have been returned
from the kiln or curing area, they are automatically
removed from the steel pallets, realigned and pushed
into a cubic shape using an automatic cubing machine.
In some factories, cubes of finished product are shrinkwrapped. When required, units may be split, rumbled or
polished using equipment installed at the factory.
Figure 2.12c Blockmaking Machine with Manually-operated
Offbearer, Loading and Unloading Racks
2.7
Manufacture
2
Figure 2.13 Automatic Rack-transfer Car System,
Handling Loaded Racks to and from Curing Chambers
Figure 2.14 Cured Blocks on Machine Pallets being Transported
to the Cubing Machine after Unloading from the Kilns
CURING
In the early days of concrete masonry, units were
usually cured by being left in the storage yard for at
least four weeks and sprinkled occasionally with water.
Curing was doubtful and variable and depended on
weather conditions. Extreme colour variations, caused
by differential surface drying, resulted from this
method of curing. With the arrival of high production
manufacturing and handling equipment, accelerated
curing techniques became necessary to avoid enormous
accumulation of stock.
Low-pressure steam curing was one of the earliest
accelerated curing methods used. In this system,
saturated steam, at atmospheric pressure and at
temperatures above about 70C, is introduced into
insulated chambers containing racks of green blocks.
Hydration, the chemical reaction between cement and
water which causes hardening, is accelerated at high
temperature in a vapour-saturated atmosphere. About
70 to 80% of the 28-day atmospheric-temperature cured
strength of the concrete is developed in 18 to 24
hours by this process. Units may thus be handled and
packaged the day after moulding
Figure 2.15a Typical Low-pressure Installation using Burners
to Heat the Chamber and Produce the Steam
Other low-pressure curing systems use gas or oil
burners to heat the curing chamber. Steam is generated
by spraying water on a hot plate that is heated by
the burner. These systems offer economies in capital
expenditure, as a steam boiler is not needed. They
can be programmed for automatic operation without
the need for an attendant, resulting in economy in
operation. The results achieved are generally similar to
those available with medium temperature low-pressure
steam curing. Burner systems have the advantage that
a drying period may be added at the end of the curing
cycle. A typical installation of this type is shown in
Figures 2.15a and 2.15b.
Figure 16 shows a modern installation employing
automatic handling of 20-high racks.
Figure 2.15b Rear View of above Installation
2.8
After being cured, blocks are unloaded from the racks
or curing chambers. They are removed mechanically
from the machine pallets and transported by conveyor
to the palletising station, where they are assembled
into cubes of standard sizes, usually measuring
approximately 1.2 x 1.2 x 1.2 m. Figures 2.17a and
2.17b show typical cubing equipment.
Between the machine pallet stripping station and the
cuber, inspection is often made for units of sub-standard
appearance. If any are found, they are rejected and
removed. Sampling for testing for compliance with
Australian Standards AS/NZS 4455(Ref 1) and
AS/NZS 4456(Ref 2), as appropriate, is carried out also at
this stage.
Figure 2.17a Cuber with Magazine of Pallets on Right
Figure 2.17b Cuber with two Finished Cubes of Blocks on
wood pallets
Figure 2.16 Low-pressure Installation with automatic
Handling of 20-High Racks
2.9
Manufacture
PALLETISING AND PACKAGING
Manufacture
STORAGE AND HANDLING
After palletising, the cubes are usually moved by
forklift truck (Figure 2.18) and stacked in a storage area
for future transport to job sites (Figure 2.19). Normally,
loading is carried out in the storage yard by forklift
truck.
Road delivery vehicles fitted with mechanical handling
equipment are common to avoid laborious and timeconsuming unloading of units by hand at job sites.
Figure 2.20 shows typical truck-mounted handling
equipment. Alternatively, forklift trucks are often carried
on the road delivery trucks to facilitate unloading on
site.
Figure 2.18
Figure 2.19
Figure 2.20
2.10
2.3
REFERENCES
1 AS/NZS 44551997 Masonry units and segmental
pavers, Standards Australia
Manufacture
2 AS/NZS 44561997 Masonry units and segmental
pavers Methods of test, Standards Australia
2.11
