What Is Public Relations?

Public relations is a conduit, a facilitator, and a manager of

communication, conducting research, defining problems,
and creating meaning by fostering communication among
many groups in society. The United Parcel Service (UPS)
case illustrated the importance of this communication,
both in financial termsthe strike cost UPS about $750
millionand in terms of reputation with strategic publics.
Public relations is a strategic conversation. As you might
imagine, it is an ephemeral and wide-ranging field, often
misperceived, and because of the lack of message control
inherent in public relations, it is difficult to master. Public
relations is even difficult to define. Is it spin or truth
telling? Either way, the public relations function is
prevalent and growing; the fragmentation of media and
growth of multiple message sources means that public
relations is on the ascent while traditional forms of mass
communication (such as newspapers) are on the decline.
You can find public relations in virtually every industry,
government, and nonprofit organization. Its broad scope
makes it impossible to understand without some attention
to the taxonomy of this diverse and dynamic profession.
Learning the lexicon of public relations in this chapter will
help you master the discipline and help your study move
quicker in subsequent reading.
Corporate and agency public relations differ. These
concepts are discussed in detail in a later chapter, along
with nonprofit public relations and government relations or
public affairs. For the purposes of an overview, we can

define corporate public relations as being an in-house

public relations department within a for-profit organization
of any size. On the other hand, public relations agencies
are hired consultants that normally work on an hourly
basis for specific campaigns or goals of the organization
that hires them. It is not uncommon for a large corporation
to have both an in-house corporate public relations
department and an external public relations agency that
consults on specific issues. As their names imply, nonprofit
public relations refers to

not-for-profit

organizations,

foundations, and other issue- or cause-related groups.

Government relations or public affairs is the branch of
public relations that specializes in managing relationships
with governmental officials and regulatory agencies.

2.1 Defining Public Relations

Among the many competing definitions of public relations,
J. Grunig and Hunts is the most widely cited definition of
public relations: Public relations is the management of
communication
publics.

between

an

organization

and

its

One reason this definition is so successful is its

[1]

parsimony,

or

using

few

words

to

convey

much

information. It also lays down the foundation of the

profession squarely within management, as opposed to
the competing approaches of journalism or the promotionbased approach of marketing and advertising that focuses
primarily on consumers. The component parts of Grunig
and Hunts famous definition of public relations are as
follows:
Management. The body of knowledge on how best to
coordinate the activities of an enterprise to achieve
effectiveness.
Communication. Not only sending a message to a
receiver but also understanding the messages of others
through listening and dialogue.
Organization. Any group organized with a common
purpose; in most cases, it is a business, a corporation, a
governmental agency, or a nonprofit group.
Publics. Any group(s) of people held together by a
common interest. They differ from audiences in that
they often self-organize and do not have to attune to
messages; publics differ from stakeholders in that they
do not necessarily have a financial stake tying them to
specific goals or consequences of the organization.
Targeted audiences, on the other hand, are publics who

receive a specifically targeted message that is tailored

to their interests.
As the management of communication between an
organization and its publics, public relations has radically
departed

from

its

historical

roots

in

publicity

and

journalism to become a management disciplinethat is,

one based on research and strategy.
[1] Grunig and Hunt (1984), p. 4. Emphasis in original.

2.2 The Function of Public Relations

In 1982, the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA)
adopted the following definition of public relations that
helps identify its purpose: Public relations helps an
organization and its publics adapt mutually to each
other.

[1]

In its Official Statement on Public Relations,

PRSA goes on to clarify the function of public relations:

Public relations helps our complex, pluralistic society to
reach decisions and function more effectively by
contributing to mutual understanding among groups
and institutions. It serves to bring private and public
policies into harmony.
Public relations serves a wide variety of institutions in
society such as businesses, trade unions, government
agencies, voluntary associations, foundations, hospitals,
schools, colleges and religious institutions. To achieve
their goals, these institutions must develop effective
relationships with many different audiences or publics
such

as

employees,

members,

customers,

local

communities, shareholders and other institutions, and

with society at large.
The managements of institutions need to understand
the attitudes and values of their publics in order to
achieve institutional goals. The goals themselves are
shaped

by

relations

the

external

practitioner

environment.

acts

as

The

public

counselor

to

management and as a mediator, helping to translate

private aims into reasonable, publicly acceptable policy
and action.

[2]

As such, the public relations field has grown to encompass

the

building

of

important

relationships

between

an

organization and its key publics through its actions and its
communication. This perspective defines the field as a
management function and offers insight into the roles and
responsibilities of public relations professionals. The PRSA
definition, however, is not perfect: A main weakness of
that definition is that it requires public relations to bring
private and public policies into harmony.

[3]

In reality, we

know that the relationships an organization has with all of

its publics cannot always be harmonious. Further, that
definition obligates us to act in the best interest of both
the organization and its publics, which could be logically
impossible if those interests are diametrically opposed. A
few examples would be class action litigation, boycotts,
and oppositional research and lobbying; despite the
negative nature of those relationships, they still require
public relations management and communication.
The unique management function of public relations is
critical to the success of any organization that engages
people in its operation, whether they are shareholders,
employees, or customers. Although many people think of
publicity as the sole purpose of public relations, this text
will help you understand that publicity is a subfunction of
the overall purpose of public relations and should not be
confused with the broader function.
[1] Public Relations Society of America (2009b).
[2] Public Relations Society of America (2009a).
[3] Public Relations Society of America (2009b).

2.3 Naming the Public Relations Function

A plethora of terms has come to be associated with
modern-day public relations practice. Because of the
disreputable beginnings of public relations that we will
briefly discuss next, it is often the case that organizations
will choose to name their public relations function by
another moniker. These various terms create much
confusion about the responsibilities of public relations
versus overlapping or competing organizational functions.
The term corporate communication is the most common
synonym for public relations in practice today,

[1]

followed

by marketing communication and public affairs. We view

the term corporate communication as a synonym for
public relations, although some scholars argue that
corporate

communication

organizations.

only

applies

to

for-profit

However,

view corporate communication as

we
a goal-oriented

communication process that can be applied not only in the

business world but also in the world of nonprofits and
nongovernmental

organizations,

foundations, activist

educational

groups, faith-based

organizations, and so on. The term public relations often

leads to confusion between the media relations function,
public affairs, corporate communication, and marketing
promotions, leading many organizations to prefer the term
corporate communication.
We believe that the key component of effective public
relations or corporate communication is an element
of strategy.

Many

scholars

prefer

to

use

the

phrase strategic public relations to differentiate it from the

often misunderstood general term public relations, or

PR, which can be linked to manipulation or spin in the
minds

of

lay

Strategic communication management,

publics.
strategic

public

relations, and corporate communication are synonyms for

the concept displayed in the preceding definitions. To
scholars in the area, public relations is seen as the larger
profession and an umbrella term, comprising many smaller
subfunctions, such as media relations or public affairs or
investor relations. The subfunctions of public relations will
be delineated later in this chapter. Academics tend to use
the term public relations, whereas professionals tend to
prefer the term corporate communication. Do not be
distracted by the name debate and the myriad of
synonyms

possible.

Whatever

name

you

prefer

or

encounter, a strong body of knowledge in the field, based

on academic study and professional practice, has solidified
the importance of the concepts supporting the strategic
communication function that we will discuss in this text.
[1] Bowen et al. (2006).

2.4 Chapter Summary

This chapter has provided an introduction to the purpose
of public relations. Although the public relations function
goes

by

many

different

names,

it

is

essential

to

understand that it is a unique management function that

contributes to an organizations success through its focus
on developing and maintaining relationships with key
publics. Those publics are generally employees, financial
stakeholders or shareholders, communities, governments
at many levels, and the media. It is also important not to
confuse the overall purpose of public relations with its
subfunctions, such as publicity and media relations. These
subfunctions will be defined in the next chapter and
covered in more detail in Chapter 10 "The Practice of
Public Relations".

Models and Approaches to Public Relations

Although there were ancient public relationsas far in the
past as ancient Greecemodern-day public relations in
the United States began with a group of revolutionaries
mounting a public relations campaign to turn public
opinion in favor of independence from England and King
George. The revolutionaries effectively used words and
actions to mount a successful activist campaign leading to
the Revolutionary War. Thomas Paines Common Sense,
published in 1776, gave rise to the sentiment that
Englands governance under King George III was unjust.
The subsequent Declaration of Independence and outward
acts of protest were largely influenced by the rhetorical
arguments found in Paines pamphlet, which has been
called

the

most

influential

tract

of

the

American

Revolution. Slogans, such as Dont Tread on Me, and use

of printed materials, such as Colonial newspapers, were
key message tactics used to sway opinion in favor of a
revolution and a war for independence. Following the
independence, The Federalist Papers were used to ratify
the United States Constitution. These 85 essays were,
according

to

the

assessment

of

Grunig

exemplary forms of effective public relations.

and

Hunt,

[1]

These founding fathers of the United States used public

relations to build the public consensus necessary for a
budding nation to form a new kind of government and
establish the human rights necessary for the nation to
survive.

3.1 The Historical Development of Modern Public

Relations
Modern public relations in the United States can also be
traced back to less illustrious beginnings than the creation
of a new democratic republic.

[1]

P. T. Barnum, of circus

fame, made his mark by originating and employing many

publicity or press agentry tactics to generate attention for
his shows and attractions. Barnum was famous for coining
the phrase, Theres no such thing as bad publicity.

[2]

He

was even known to pen letters to the editor under an

assumed name outing some of his attractions as hoaxes
just to generate publicity and keep a story alive.
Unfortunately, Barnums ethics left much to be desired.
One-Way

Communication

Models:

Publicity

and

Dissemination of Information
Barnum thought that honesty was not the domain of a
press agent, and infamously stated, The public be
fooled.

[3]

Droves of press agents followed in Barnums

tracks, in efforts to get free space in the news for their

clients,

ranging

from

Hollywood

figures

to

private

interests, such as railroads, and also politicians. This

approach to public relations was termed press agentry by
Grunig and Hunt because of its reliance on generating
publicity with little regard for truth. For modern-day
examples, we have to look only to the entertainment
publicity surrounding a new film release, or the product
publicity

around

new

energy

drink

or

new

technological gadget. Publicity and press agentry are

synonymous terms meaning simply to generate attention
through the use of media.

The next historical phase resulted in a new model of public

relations that Grunig and Hunt termed public information.
In this approach to public relations, a former journalist
works as a writer representing clients, issuing news
releases to media outlets in the same style as journalistic
writing. The idea of the public relations specialist acting as
a counselor to management, as opposed to a simple
practitioner of press agentry tactics, was born. The
pioneering public information counselor was a man named
Ivy Ledbetter Lee, who revolutionized public relations
practice at the time with the idea of telling the truth. Lee
studied at Harvard Law School, but went on to find a job
as a journalist. After working as a successful journalist for
a number of years, Ivy Lee realized that he had a real
ability for explaining complicated topics to people, and
had the idea of being a new kind of press agent. Rather
than tricking the public, Lee saw his role as one of
educating the public about truthful facts and supplying all
possible information to the media. Ivy Lee opened the
third public relations agency in the United States in 1904,
representing clients such as the Pennsylvania Railroad, the
Rockefeller family, and the Anthracite Coal Roads and
Mine Company.

[4]

Lee became the first public relations

practitioner to issue a code of ethics in 1906, based on his

declaration that the public be informedto replace
railroad

tycoon

Commodore

Cornelius

Vanderbilts

infamous statement, The public be damned.

[5]

Ivy Lee

ushered in a more respectable form of public relations that

is objective and factual. His public information approach is
still in use today, especially in government reporting,

quarterly

earnings

statements,

and

similar

reports

intended simply to inform.

Both the press agentry and public information models of
public relations are based on writing and technical skill
with images, words, Web sites, and media relations. These
concepts are based on a one-way dissemination of
information. They are not management-based models
because strategic management is based on research.
Research is what makes management a strategic pursuit
based on knowledge and data that comprise two-way
communication,

as

opposed

to

simple

one-way

dissemination of information based on assumptions.

Two-Way

Communication

Models:

Strategic

Management of Public Relations

The next two models of public relations are based on
research. Using research to gather public opinion data led
scholars to label these models two-way rather than oneway because they more resemble a conversation than a
simple dissemination of information. Grunig and Hunt
termed

the

two

management

models asymmetrical and symmetrical.

The asymmetrical model was

pioneered

between

1920

and 1950 by Edward Bernays, nephew of psychoanalyst

Sigmund Freud, and is based on the principles of
behavioral psychology. Public relations research seeks to
determine what publics know and understand or believe
about the client organization, issues of importance, and so
on. Then, in the asymmetrical model, once these beliefs
are learned through polling and other means, they are

incorporated into the public relations messages distributed

by the organization. It is called asymmetrical because it is
imbalanced

in

favor

of

the

communicator;

the

communicator undergoes no real change, but simply uses

the ideas she knows will resonate in communicating with
publics with the purpose of persuading them on some
issue or topic. For example, if I am a politician running for
reelection and my research identifies tax cuts as an
important topic with publics, then I include the importance
of tax cuts in my next campaign speech. Research is a key
component of this model, as it seeks to persuade publics
to adopt the attitudes and beliefs that are favorable to the
organization based on the collection of data about their
existent beliefs.
The symmetrical model was also pioneered by Edward
Bernays

and

several

prominent

public

relations

practitioners and educators between about 1960 to 1980.

It seeks also to use research on public opinion just as the
asymmetrical model does. However, it does not use
research with the intent to persuade, but to build mutual
understanding between both publics and organizations.
Organizations are open to changing their internal policies
and practices in this model based on what they learn from
their publics. It is a collaborative approach to building
understanding, and, although not perfectly balanced, it is
a moving

equilibrium in

which

both

sides

in

the

communication process have an opportunity to have input

and change an issue. To revise this example, after
research identifying tax cuts as an issue, a symmetrical
politician would actually incorporate tax cuts into her

belief system and offer ideas supporting those beliefs on

the campaign trail.
In modern public relations, we often see a mixing of the
public

relations

models

among

multiple

tactics

or

communication tools within one public relations campaign.

It is best to think of the models as theoretical constructs
that, in implementation, become combined through the
mixed motives of public relations. In most cases, public
relations professionals not only want to aid their employer
or client but also to assist the publics outside the
organization to access and understand the inner workings
of the firm. This mixed-motive approach is based on the
real-world contingencies that impact public relations
decisions, and the desire to facilitate communication on
both sides of an issue, both for organizations and for
publics.
Summary of the Models of Public Relations
In summary, the historical development of the field
showed four distinct models of public relations, as
identified by Grunig and Hunt. With this brief background
in the history of public relations, you likely know enough
about the models now to begin employing each in your
public relations management. All are still in use in public
relations practice today, and these terms are used in the
academic literature and in public relations management.
The one-way models are not based on social scientific
research but on a simple dissemination of information. The
two-way models are based on research, which is what
makes them the two-way management model. In order of
their development, the models are as follows:

Press agentry. One-way (information) dissemination

focusing on publicity for persuasion/attention.

Public

information.

One-way

(information)

dissemination providing information.

Two-way asymmetrical. Two-way (research), which

is imbalanced in favor of persuading publics to support
the organizations interests.

Two-way symmetrical. Two-way (research), which

is

more

balanced

in

terms

of

creating

mutual

understanding; moving equilibrium.

Due to the mixed-motives inherent in the public relations
process, public relations professionals will most likely use
a

combination

of

these

models

in

public

relations

management. These models suggest an overall philosophy

of public relations, while situations require different
approaches. Therefore, it is also useful to have public
relations strategies that reflect a contingency of varying
approaches, as discussed later in this volume.
3.2 The Subfunctions of Public Relations
Before we delve deeper into the profession, we would like
to introduce you to the subfunctions or specialties within
public relations. Think of the public relations function as a
large

umbrella

profession

encompassing

many

subfunctions. Those subfunctions are often independent

units within an organization, sometimes reporting to public
relations and sometimes reporting to other organizational
units such as legal, marketing, or human resources.
Learning the subfunctions and the lexicon of terminology
associated with this function is crucial to understanding
how to manage an integrated and effective public

relations function. The following subfunctions will be

discussed in more detail later in this volume.
Although there are many subfunctions that make up public
relations, most people would identify two major types,
corporate and agency. Corporate, or in-house, is a part
of the organization or business. It functions to create
relationships between an organization and its various
publics. The second type of subfunction is associated with
the public relations agency;

its

purpose

is

to

assist

organizations in a specific area of expertise.

Typical Corporate Public Relations Subfunctions
It is important to note that each subfunction may differ
according to organizational structure and size, as we
discuss in Chapter 5 "Organizational Factors for Excellent
Public Relations", Organizational Factors Contributing to
Excellent Public Relations. Sometimes the public relations
subfunctions overlap and one department (or even one
person) is responsible for many or all of these activities.
Large

organizations,

particularly

those

with

multiple

locations doing business internationally, will sometimes

have

multiple

units

covering

just

one

of

these

subspecialties in public relations. Oftentimes the public

relations

function

is

structured

with

separate

department handling each of the responsibilities.

Issues Management
Issues management is

arguably

the

most

important

subfunction of public relations. Issues management is the

forward-thinking,

problem-solving,

management-level

function responsible for identifying problems, trends,

industry changes, and other potential issues that could

impact the organization. Issues management requires a
formidable

knowledge

of

research,

environmental

monitoring, the organizations industry and business

model, and management strategy.
Media Relations
The media relations subfunction is likely the most visible
portion of public relations that an organization conducts
because it deals directly with external media. The media
relations subfunction is a largely technical function,
meaning it is based on the technical skill of producing
public relations materials, or outputs. Outputs are often
related to tactics, and examples of tactics include news
releases, podcasts, brochures, video news releases for the
broadcast media, direct mail pieces, photographs, Web
sites, press kits, and social media (digital media).
Community Relations
As the name implies, the community relations subfunction
is

responsible

relationships

for

with

establishing
an

and

organizations

maintaining
communities.

Normally this territory implies a physical community, as in

the

borders

of

manufacturing

facilities

with

their

residential neighbors.
Philanthropy and Corporate Social Responsibility
(CSR)
Oftentimes the functions of strategically donating funds or
services and a corporate social responsibility endeavor are
part of the public relations departments efforts. The

Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 requires corporations to hold

to a code of ethics and to report on their socially
responsible conduct. The public relations subfunction
responsible for this reporting usually is called the CSR unit
or department and often is combined with or managed by
community relations.
Financial and Investor Relations
Many managers do not realize that public relations is the
function responsible for writing an organizations annual
report, quarterly earnings statements, and communicating
with investors and market analysts. This type of public
relations normally requires experience with accounting
and financial reporting.
Marketing Communications
Marketing communications is also known as integrated
marketing communications or integrated communications.
Publicity and product promotion targeting the specific
public consumers is the focus of this subfunction. Public
relations strategies and tactics are used primarily through
a press agentry model meant to increase awareness and
persuade consumers to try or buy a certain product.
Government Relations and Public Affairs, Including
Lobbying
The public affairs of an organization are the issues of
interest to a citizenry or community about which an
organization must communicate. Government relations
handles maintaining relationships with both regulatory
agencies and appointed and elected officials.

Internal Relations
Maintaining an effective and satisfied workforce is the job
of internal relations. Public relations professionals who
specialize

in

internal

relations

have

the

primary

responsibilities of communicating with intraorganizational

publics, executives, management, administrative staff,
and labor.
Typical Public Relations Agency Subfunctions
In addition to the general media relations activities offered
by many public relations agencies, seven specializations
or subfunctions commonly exist.
Crisis Management
Crisis management involves

both

planning

for

and

reacting to emergency situations. Organizations have a

need for quick response plans and fast and accurate
information provided to the news media that public
relations

agencies

specializing

in

crisis

or

risk

management often provide and implement in the case of a

crisis.
Lobbying
As an adjunct to the government relations or public affairs
unit of the corporation, an external lobbying firm may also
be hired. Lobbyists normally have expertise with the
industry for which they are hired to communicate, and
maintain relationships with legislators, press secretaries,
and other governmental officials. They often provide

educational documents, policy analysis, and research to

those in government on behalf of clients.
Member Relations
The

public

relations

subfunction

known

as member relations, as the name implies, is responsible

for maintaining good relationships with members of an
organization. These members may be alumni, donors,
members of activist or support groups, or virtually any
group distinguished by a commonality and requiring
membership.
Development and Fund-Raising
The public relations subfunction of development fundraising often overlaps with member relations in that it
seeks to build support, particularly in the form of financial
donations or government grants.
Polling and Research
Polling and research are carried out to such an extent
within public relations that specialized firms exist to
conduct these activities full time, usually on a contract or
retainer basis. It should be noted, however, that very large
organizations

often

departments

within

have
one

their
or

more

own

research

public

relations

subfunctions.
Sports, Entertainment, and Travel Public Relations
Specialized forms of public relations exist as public
relations subfunctions for each of these very large
industries.

Advertising
Although advertising is a separate profession from public
relations, it is usually employed as part of a public
relations campaign.

4.2 Public Relations Roles

In

general,

public

relations

professionals

can

be

communication managers who organize and integrate

communication activities, or they can be communication
technicians who primarily write and construct messages.
Research in this area led to the identification of four
specific roles: the technician role and three types of
communication managers.
Most

practitioners

begin

as communication technicians.

their
This

role

careers
requires

executing strategies with the communication tactics of

news releases, employee newsletters, position papers,
media placements, Web site content, speeches, blogs, and
social media messaging. Practitioners in this role are
usually not involved in defining problems and developing
solutions, but base their tactics on the technical skill of
writing. The expert prescriber is similar to the role a doctor
performs with a patient: He or she is an authority on a
particular industry, problem, or type of public relations
and is given the primary responsibility to handle this
function as a consultant or with little input or participation
by

other

senior

management.

Thecommunication facilitator is a boundary spanner who

listens

to

and

brokers

information

between

the

organization and its key publics. According to Cutlip,

Center, and Broom, the goal of this role is to provide both
management and publics the information they need for
making

decisions

of

mutual

interest. [1] The problem-

solving facilitator collaborates with other managers to

define and solve problems. This role requires that the

professional is a part of the dominant coalition of the

organization and has access to other senior managers.
The problem-solving facilitator helps other managers think
through organizational problems using a public relations
perspective.
Research

on

these

four

roles

found

that

the

communication technician role was distinct from the other

three roles and that the latter three roles were highly
correlated.

[2]

In other words, an expert prescriber was also

likely to fulfill the role of the communication facilitator and

the problem-solving facilitator. To resolve the lack of
mutual exclusiveness in the latter three roles, they were
combined into one role: communication manager. The
dichotomy between the communication technician and the
communication manager more accurately explained the
responsibilities of public relations practitioners within
organizations.
Research indicates that practitioners in a predominantly
technician role spend the majority of their time writing,
producing,
messages.

and
[3]

placing

communication

Typically, those in this role are creative and

talented with language and images. Their capacity to

create and produce messages with powerful imagery and
evocative language is very important to the execution of
public relations tactics. However, technicians rarely have a
seat at the management table and do not have a voice in
the strategy of the organization. Once the strategy is
decided, the technician is brought in to execute the
deliverables (or tactics) in the strategy.

The communication manager is involved in the strategic

thinking of an organization and must be able to conduct
research and measurement and share data that informs
better decisions for managing relationships with key
publics. The communications manager thinks strategically,
which means he or she will be focused on the efforts of
the organization that contribute to the mutually beneficial
relationships that help an organization achieve its bottomline goals. These efforts are not limited to communication
strategies,

but

include

monitoring

an

organizations

external environment, scanning for issues that might

impact the organization, and helping an organization
adapt to the needs of its stakeholders.
A study on excellence in the practice of public relations
found that one of the major predictors of excellence was
whether the role of the top public relations executive was
a manager role or a technician role.

[4]

Those in the

management role were much more likely to have a

positive impact on the organizations public relations
practice. In order for corporate communication to function
strategically, the executive in charge of the function must
have a place at the decision-making table.

Organizational Factors for Excellent Public Relations

The International Association of Business Communicators
(IABC) study on Excellence in Public Relations and
Communication Management (Excellence Study) found
three

primary

variables

for

predicting

excellence:

communicator knowledge, shared expectations about

communication, and the character of organizations.

mentioned

in Chapter

"Public

Relations

[1]

as

As
a

Management Function", public relations professionals who

demonstrate greater management skills are more likely to
participate in the C-suite. However, there are also
organizational factors that influence the role that public
relations plays in an organization. First, management must
value the contributions that public relations can make to
an organization; second, there must be a participative
culture; and third, the organization must support diversity
of people and ideas.
The Excellence Study found that communicator expertise
was not enough to predict the best practices of public
relations.

[2]

There had to be shared expectations between

the communications function and senior management or

dominant coalition. If the chief executive officer (CEO) and
other top managers expect the public relations function to
be strategic and contribute to the organizations bottomline goals, they often require and support practices that
included

research

and

strategic

planning

and

management rather than simply press releases and media

placement.

Such

demand

for

advanced,

two-way

communication influences the actual practice in these

organizations. It requires hiring and retaining professionals
who can conduct research and analyze data that allows for
more strategic practices.
5.1 Value of Public Relations
In order to gain a strategic management role in the
organization, the public relations function must show its
value to management. Hambrick said that coping with

uncertainty
value.

[1]

is

the

basis

for

demonstrating

Technology, workflow, and external environments

all contribute to creating uncertainties and, therefore,

strategic contingencies. Excellent public relations should
help an organization cope with the uncertainties. This can
be achieved only with data and useful information.
Information theory posits that data are only useful
inasmuch as they reduce uncertainty.
When the public relations function provides information
and feedback about stakeholder needs and expectations,
it performs a critical task for the organization that is
unique to its function. Saunders suggested that reducing
uncertainty,

performing

critical

task,

and

being

nonsubstitutable and pervasive all contribute to the

influence of any function in an organization.

[2]

Influence is

increased when public relations can show that it is unique

and cannot be substituted by another function within the
organization (it is nonsubstitutable) and when it is
connected throughout the organization in such a way that
it can help manage relationships with all the key
stakeholders (it is pervasive). This unique task is much
more critical to the organization when it is focused on
establishing, maintaining, and repairing relationships with
key stakeholders who are needed to help the organization
be successful. When the function is simply publicity and
media relations, these outcomes may be considered less
critical and somewhat disposable when budgets become
limited.

The Public Relations ProcessRACE

Public

relations

works

best

when

it

is

strategic

management function. Strategic public relations is focused

on achieving goals and objectives that contribute to the
overall purpose and mission of an organization. To be
strategic, public relations practitioners need accurate
information about the situations they face, the audiences
they

communicate

communication

efforts,

with,
and

effectiveness
the

overall

of
impact

their
the

program has on building and maintaining relationships

with critical stakeholders, without whom the organization
could not fulfill its purpose. Public relations practitioners
may be tempted to start with tacticssuch as press
releases, a blog, an event, and so onbut these first
should be determined by research, to help inform the
overall goals and strategies of the function, otherwise they
may be wasted efforts.

9.1 Constructing the Strategic Plan for a Public

Relations Campaign
This process is primarily composed of four steps: using
research to define the problem or situation, developing
objectives and strategies that address the situation,
implementing the strategies, and then measuring the
results

of

the

public

relations

efforts.

Sometimes

acronyms, such as John Marstons RACE (research, action

planning, communication, evaluation) or Jerry Hendrixs
ROPE (research, objectives, programming, evaluation) are
used to describe the process.

[1]

Youll notice that that the

process always starts with research and ends with

evaluation.
Although it is easier to remember such acronyms, the four
steps are essentially the following:
1 Use research to

analyze

the

situation

facing

the

organization and to accurately define the problem or

opportunity in such a way that the public relations
efforts can successfully address the cause of the issue
and not just its symptoms.
2 Develop a strategic action plan that addresses the issue
that was analyzed in the first step. This includes having
an overall goal, measurable objectives, clearly identified
publics, targeted strategies, and effective tactics.
3 Execute the plan with communication tools and tasks
that contribute to reaching the objectives.
4 Measure whether you were successful in meeting the
goals using evaluation tools.

Step 1: Formative Research to Analyze the Situation

The first step in the process is analyzing the problem or
opportunity. This involves research, either formal or
informal, to gather information that best describes what is
going on. Research used to understand the situation and
help formulate strategies is called formative research.
For example, a natural gas company may be considering
the route for a new pipeline. It must conduct research to
understand what possible obstacles it might face. Are
there any environmentally protected or sensitive regions
in the area? Are there strongly organized neighborhood
groups that might oppose the project? What is the overall
public

support

for

natural

gas

and

transportation

pipelines? Community relations professionals are very

familiar with the NIMBY (Not In My Back Yard) sentiment.
Additionally, are there acceptable alternatives to the
pipeline

construction?

Alternative

routes?

Alternative

drilling procedures? Alternative construction times? All of

these questions should be considered before the first
shovel breaks ground.
According to Cutlip, Center, and Broom, research is the
systematic gathering of information to describe and
understand situations and check out assumptions about
publics and public relations consequences.

[2]

Much of this

information may already exist and may have been

collected by other agencies. Research that has previously
been

conducted

example,

the

is

called secondary

Interstate

Natural

Gas

research.
Association

For
of

America has conducted surveys on public opinion and

communication practices of pipeline companies. Research

on NIMBY and other social behaviors is also available

through a review of academic and professional literature.
Secondary sources are the least expensive way to gain
background knowledge.
However, you may need to conduct primary research or
data you collect yourself for your purposes. You may need
to conduct interviews or focus groups with neighborhood
associations or environmental groups. You might consider
surveys with homeowners and business that might be
located near the pipeline (see Chapter 8 "Public Relations
Research: The Key to Strategy"). There are many different
methods to collect the data that is needed to fully
understand the situation. Analysis of previous news stories
about pipelines in this region would give you a good idea
about the way this story might be framed by media.
Another analysis of blogs and other social media about
pipelines also would be a good idea. Again the purpose for
gathering the information is to help with understanding
the situation.
Using a SWOT Analysis
A

very

popular

tool

for

analyzing

situations

is

the SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats)

analysis. This breaks down a situation by looking at the
internal and external factors that might be contributing to
the situation before developing strategies. The internal
factors

are

organization.

the Strengths
The

and Weaknesses of

external

factors

are

the
the

Opportunities and Threats existing in the organizations

environment (see Figure 9.1 "SWOT Analysis").

Figure 9.1 SWOT Analysis

The first step is to look internally at the strengths and

weakness of the organization. For example, the energy
company may find that it has very strong relationships
with members of the media, has good employee morale, is
financially sound, and has a culture that values innovation.
It may also find that it has weak relationships with
environmental groups and neighborhood associations, has
a culture that promotes confidence in its decisions
(perhaps even bordering on arrogance), and has dedicated
few resources in the past toward community relations.
This information helps inform the possible strategies it
needs to take regarding the construction of a new
pipeline.
The external factors, opportunities and threats, are usually
the reasons the organization finds itself in the situation. In
the case of the energy company, it sees an opportunity to
drill into a new methane gas deposit and provide that
energy to its clients. To the energy company, this appears
to be a win-win situation because it can continue to
provide energy to meet the demand of its consumers.

However, it also needs to assess the possible threats,

which include probable legal actions from opposition
groups that could lead to court injunctions. Other threats
might include negative coverage of the project by the
media, leading to a damaged reputation and lower public
support for the project.
After conducting the SWOT analysis, you can couple the
internal factors with the external factors to suggest
possible strategies.
SO strategies focus on using organizational strengths to
capitalize on the external opportunities.
ST strategies

also

use

organizational

strengths

to

counter external threats.

WO strategies

address

and

improve

organizational

weaknesses to be better prepared to take advantage of

external opportunities.
WT strategies

attempt

to

correct

organizational

weaknesses to defend against external threats.

Constructing a Situation Analysis
Once enough data and information has been collected so
that you really do understand the core contributing factors
and not just the surface conditions, then it is time to write
a two-paragraph statement that summarizes the situation.
The first paragraph should redefine the situation using the
data collected by your research. Highlight the insights
gained through formal and informal research. The second
paragraph should identify the problems, difficulties, and
potential barriers to resolving the issue. These also should
have been identified in the research, and the research also

should help you recommend solutions to these barriers.

For example, the energy company would address the
opportunity to provide a new energy source to its
customers using innovation and technology for efficient
and effective delivery of the natural gas, asking its
employees to be ambassadors to the community, and
working with the media to tell the positive story of the
project. It would also need to identify that previous
pipeline projects have been delayed, and in some cases
halted,

because

of

the

effective

opposition

of

environmental groups and neighborhood associations, and

that it needs to improve its efforts with community
relations before starting the project.
From the description paragraphs, a succinct one-sentence
problem/opportunity statement is written that cuts to the
core of the situation and identifies the consequences of
not dealing with the problem or opportunity. For example,
for the hypothetical utility pipeline situation, because
environmental

and

neighborhood

groups

have

been

influential in stopping pipeline projects in the past and this

pipeline route is planned to go through sensitive regions,
the company needs to build better relationships with the
community through communication and action that will
eliminate or reduce obstacles to building the pipeline.
Step 2: Strategic Action Planning
The strategic plan should be focused on resolving or
capitalizing

on

the

situation

identified

in

the

problem/opportunity statement. It begins by flipping the

problem/opportunity statement into a goal. In the case of
the energy company, the goal might be the following: To

use communication and actions that improve relationships

with

key

members

of

the

community

in

order

to

successfully complete a pipeline that delivers newly found

methane gas to customers. Notice that there is room for
change with the pipeline plans in this goal statement. The
end goal is to build a pipeline, and in order to achieve this
the company may need to make adjustments to the routes
or construction of the pipeline. Care should be taken not to
write goals that suggest that the public will do something
you want them to do. Because publics cannot actually be
controlled, it might set up the organization for failure.
Instead, focus should be on what can be done to achieve
the goal, such as communicate and act in such a way that
earns the consent or endorsement of these publics.
The goal provides the direction for the strategic plan
and objectives provide the direction

of specific and

measurable outcomes necessary to meet the goal. A good

objective meets the following criteria: it should be an end
and not a means to the end; it should be measurable; it
should have a time frame; and it should identify the public
for the intended outcome.

[3]

End and not means to an end. An objective should

be an outcome that contributes to the goal. There are
three possible outcomes for these objectives: cognitive
(awareness, understanding, remembering), attitudinal
(create attitudes, reinforce positive attitudes, change
negative attitudes), and behavior (create behaviors,
reinforce

positive

behaviors,

change

negative

behaviors). The opposite of these outcome objectives

are

what

Lindenmann

called

Output

Objectives,
include

[4]

the

which are the means to an end. They

communication

efforts

to

reach

the

objectives such as placement of messages in influential

media. These are actually strategies and not objectives
(more on this later).

Measureable. Objectives

also

help

hold

public

relations professionals accountable for their efforts.

Public relations should engage only in strategies and
tactics that actually contribute to larger organizational
goals.

Measurable

objectives

often

require

comparative number, such as 65% awareness of a

product or program. An objective cannot be set to
increase awareness by 20% if the current level of
awareness is unknown. This is why formative research is
needed to establish benchmarks. If no such benchmark
exists, then it is customary to establish a desired level,
such as increase awareness to 85%. The problem with
this is that you do not know how close you are to that
figure before the campaign. This might be an easy
objective to achieve (if your level of awareness is
already at or above 85%) or a very difficult one (if your
awareness level is around 20%).

Time frame. When will the objective be met? If

there is no time frame specified, then it cannot be
accountable.

Identify the public. It is a good idea to identify

overall objectives before tying them to a public. This
helps to think about which publics are connected to the
objective.

However,

to

make

an

objective

truly

measurable it must identify a public, because different

publics

will

be

at

different

levels

of

awareness,

attitudes, and behaviors. For example, the objective

may be to increase attendance at employee benefits
meetings. Research may find that the messages are
getting clogged at middle management, which has
many people who have a negative attitude about the
meetings and are not encouraging employees. One
objective might focus on increasing the level of
awareness

of

employees

while

creating

another

objective focused on increasing positive attitudes of

middle management. Of course, this also means that
you should look into your meetings and find out how to
improve them.
The objectives should advance overall business goals
such as increase sales, increase share values, retain
employees, improve social responsibility, or reduce
litigation. They should also be written within the
parameters of possible public relations outcomes. For
example, this might look like a good objective:

Increase sales of product X by 20% over the next 6

months among younger consumers (ages 1824).

However, there are many variables that contribute to

increased sales of the product that are not under the
control of public relations such as price, product quality,
and availability. Unless the public relations effort can be
isolated to show that it was the variable that moved the
needle on sales (such as positive publicity in one market
that showed increases to sales while all other elements in
the marketing mix remained the same), you may be
setting yourself up for failure. And, if sales do increase,

you will not be able to take credit for the increase because
of the other important variables. You would have to share
credit

with

marketing,

quality

control,

and

sales

representatives. Public relations can contribute to this

larger

goal

through

increased

awareness,

improved

attitudes, and possible consumer trials of the product.

Provided that the product is of high quality, reasonably
priced, and available to consumers, these activities should
contribute to increased sales. So the following might be
the reworked objective:
Increase

awareness

of

product

among

young

consumers (1824) by 20% within the next 6 months.

Generally there is a hierarchy to the different levels of
objectives.

Lindenmann

identified

three

objectives: outputs, outtakes, and outcomes.

levels

of

[5]

As mentioned previously, output objectives are focused

on the effectiveness of meeting strategies such as the
number of placed messages in the media, the size of the
audience that received the message, the percentage of
positive messages that were contained in the stories, and
so forth. It is helpful to measure output objectives because
they provide a good indicator of how well the strategy has
been implemented. However, they are not considered
objectives as defined in this section because they are not
ends but means to an end. For example, an output
objective might read, Place 30 stories in prominent
newspapers about the product in the next 3 months. This
is a means to the end of increasing awareness and could
be measured by the output of the message but not the

impact of the message. Therefore, output objectives

should be relegated to the strategies section.
Outtake objectives are focused on increasing awareness,
understanding, and retention of the key message points. It
is far more important to know that the audience received
the message than whether it was sent out. For example,
you may send out a message in an employee newsletter
that reaches 10,000 employees. You need to be more
concerned on the impact that message had than the
number of people it reached.
Outcome objectives are perhaps the most important, but
also the most difficult to achieve. For example, lets say
the public relations program is for the state highway patrol
to increase awareness of the importance of seatbelt usage
and the objective is to decrease the number of fatalities
caused by not using a seatbelt. There is a diffusion
process that occurs with adoption of this behavior. First,
drivers need to be aware and understand the safety
advantages of seatbelts. Next, they need to have a
positive attitude about wearing seatbelts. Finally, this
positive attitude will hopefully translate to increased use
of seatbelts. However, because people are not always the
rational beings we would like them to be, there is a
declining measure of success at each level. People who
know what is good for them do not always like it. But
seatbelts are uncomfortable. What if the seatbelt traps
me in the car after an accident? Seatbelts wrinkle my
clothes. Even if someone has a positive attitude toward
an issue, they may still not behave congruently with the
attitude. It could be out of habit, laziness, or dysfunction.

So to increase behaviors by 30%, attitude needs to

increase by a higher level (50%) and awareness by an
even higher level (80%).
Once the goal of the public relations program and
measurable objectives have been established, it is time to
turn

attention

to strategies.

Strategies

provide

the

means by which objectives are reached. There are certain

elements

that

should

be

included

in

this

step.

First, identify what is trying to be accomplished with each

public (tie the strategy to an objective). Second, segment
audiences

based

on

common

characteristics.

Third, create communication strategies that are focused

on the self-interests of the publics. And, fourth, identify
how publics will be reached with messages or actions.
Tie Strategy to Objective
Too often public relations programs have been primarily
tactical and have skipped the strategic step of creating
objectives. Public relations professionals are doers and
often want to get to the action first. However, too many
tactics have been executed because of tradition (We
always send out press releases) than because of strategy.
What makes public relations strategic is having the action
tied to the real needs of the organization. If you come up
with a really clever tactic but it does not help meet any
objectives it should be seriously reconsidered. Far too
many resources often are wasted on creative tactics and
fall short of addressing the needs of the issue. At the same
time, brainstorming on strategies may lead to a legitimate
idea that was not considered during the objectives phase,
and it may require reevaluating the objectives. But if a

strategy cannot be tied to an essential outcome, then it

should not be executed.
Segment Audiences
All groups within publics should be differentiated based on
common

characteristics

such

as

demographics,

geographics, or psychographics. Demographics include

variables such as gender, income, level of education, and
ethnicity. Females may be connected to the issue very
differently than males. College graduates may have
different

attitudes

than

graduates. Geographics describe

high
your

public

school
by

their

location. People living within a thousand feet of a pipeline

may have different attitudes toward energy companies
than those who live a mile or farther from those lines.
Psychographics segment your audience based on their
values and lifestyles. People who are single, adventurous,
drive fast cars, and spend a lot of their income on
entertainment may have very different opinions about
seatbelts than people who have small children, drive
minivans, and invest most of their money on securities. It
is important to segment your key publics because it will
help you identify their self-interests. (See Chapter 7
"Identifying and Prioritizing Stakeholders and Publics" for
more information on identifying and prioritizing publics.)
Create Communication Based on Self-Interests
People pay more attention to communications that are
tied to their values, needs, and goals. You should ask
yourself what your publics value and care about (based on
research). Knowing the demographic, geographic, and/or

psychographic differences of key publics, you can create a

message that connects them to your program. For
example, for young adventurous drivers you may want to
show how seatbelts allow them to have more fun by
showing how someone on a curvy road stays snug in the
seat, whereas someone without a seatbelt is sliding
around and has less control. Meanwhile, a soccer mom
would be more interested in seatbelt safety messages
geared toward children. Once the self-interests have been
identified, a primary message can be created that will give
direction to the communication efforts. These can become
slogans if they are clever and effective enough. The Click
it or Ticket campaign uses the threat of police monitoring
to encourage compliance. For the young adventurous
drivers it might be more effective to have a message from
sports adventurists such as race car drivers or stunt
drivers explain how they rely on seatbelts.
Choose Communication Channels
The last element in the strategy is identifying the channel
or medium through which you can reach target publics.
The channels can be mass media, such as newspapers or
television or radio programming. They can be transmitted
by other mediated channels such as e-mail, blogs, or
Twitter. They can also be town hall meetings, mediated
slide

shows,

and

face-to-face

(interpersonal)

communication. Sometimes the channel is a group of

people,

usually

opinion

leaders,

such

as

teachers,

scientists, doctors, or other experts. For example, if we

wanted to reach parents in our seatbelt campaign,
information kits could be sent to teachers to use in

classrooms with students. These materials could be

designed to take home and complete with parents. The
messages found in these kits could be supported with
billboards

and

radio

public

service

announcements,

reaching parents while they are driving. Usually the target

audience is reached through multiple points of contact to
reinforce the message.
So the following could be one strategy for the seatbelt
campaign: Appeal to young parents concern for family
safety

through

educational

materials

that

require

interaction between parents and their children enrolled in

elementary schools. Often, there are several strategies
for each public and for each objective.
The most creative element in the strategic planning stage
is

the tactic.

Tactics

are

the

specific

communication tools and tasks that are used to execute

the strategy. In the case of the seatbelt campaign, the
tactics would be the elements found in the educational kit,
such as crossword puzzles, coloring books, or interactive
games. They would also be the billboards, public service
announcements,

Internet

Web

sites,

social

media

applications, and other materials. The challenge is to

create tactics that cut through the clutter of all the
messages competing for the audiences attention. A great
deal of brainstorming takes place during this stage to
develop the most creative and clever messages, designs,
and activities. However, there is also the temptation to get
carried away with the creativity and lose sight of the
tactics purposes. A cardinal rule is to always evaluate
your tactics within established strategies and objectives.

Step 3: Communication Implementation

The

best

public

relations

programs

include

both

communication and action. The old adage actions speak

louder than words is as true for public relations as it is for
other business disciplines. Sometimes an organization
needs to act, or react, before it can communicate. For
example, if employees are not attending training seminars
it might not be enough to try more creative and
persuasive messages. The seminars might need to be
more relevant and interesting for the employees providing
something to communicate that might change behaviors.
Organizations should not only expect stakeholders to
behave in ways that benefit the organization; sometimes
the

organization

needs

to

change

its

actions

and

behaviors to improve these critical relationships.

Two additional components to the public relations process
usually are developed during the communication and
action stage: the planning calendar and the budget.
Once the tactics have been determined it is best to plan
the development and execution of the tactics using a
calendaring tool such as a Gantt chart (see Figure 9.2
"Sample Gantt Chart (Numbers Within Bars Are Days to
Accomplish Task)"). A Gantt chart is a horizontal flow chart
that provides a graphic illustration of when tasks should
begin and end in comparison to all other tasks.
Figure 9.2 Sample Gantt Chart (Numbers Within Bars Are
Days to Accomplish Task)

The costs for developing, distributing, and executing the

tactics should also be determined. You might want to start
with the wish list of all tactics and pare them down to
those that will provide the greatest return on investment.
Some tactics may fall by the wayside when you project
their costs against their potential of meeting your
objectives.
Step 4: Evaluation
According to Paine, four concerns should be addressed
when evaluating the effectiveness of a public relations
campaign:
Define your benchmark.
Select a measurement tool.
Analyze data, draw actionable conclusions, and make
recommendations.
Make changes and measure again.

[6]

If you have followed the steps in the public relations

process then you have already identified your audiences
and established objectives for each. If your objectives are
measurable then you already have the criteria by which to
evaluate the success of your program. If you set the
objective

of

a benchmark

increasing
has

awareness

been

set

by

against

40%

then

which to

measure. The benchmark compares your current situation

to your past. Paine also recommends comparing the data
gathered

to

other

organizations,

competitors. Comparative

such

analysis makes

as

key

the

data

much more relevant. Instead of knowing how much press

coverage has been achieved; it can be compared to how
much the competition is getting to determine what is
called share of voice.
Based on this evaluation, the tools that will best help
measure against stated criteria are selected. Generally,
the same tools that helped establish the benchmark data
are used. If primary research was used to establish
benchmarks then the same methods are repeated to
evaluate success. If you surveyed employees to establish
awareness and attitude benchmarks, then a followup survey is the obvious measurement tool. If you used
attendance at employee meetings to establish behavior
benchmarks, then counting attendance after the public
relations program is the appropriate measurement tool. As
noted previously, primary research is the most expensive
and requires the most expertise, but it is the best measure
of the real impact of a public relations effort on stated
outcome objectives, such as changes in awareness,
attitudes, and behavior.

Probably the most popular evaluation tools used in public

relations measure the output objectives. There are several
ways to measure the effectiveness of communication
output, but some are better than others. One of the
earliest methods was clip counting. A clip is an article,
broadcast story, or online message that mentions the
company or product. You can either hire a clipping service
or collect your own clips. At the end of a predetermined
period, the number of clips obtained is examined. This
measure is the most simple and convenient way to
measure output and is one way to monitor media
coverage. It is also the least informative because you do
not know what the clips mean(they are only counted, not
evaluated) except that, perhaps, it has stroked the egos of
some senior management by getting their names in the
media.
Many public relations measurement services will analyze
media

coverage

articles that

to

evaluate

contain

the percentage

of

program key messages,

the prominence of the message (for a press release,

whether it was printed on page 1 versus page 16; in a
broadcast, how much time was allocated to the story and
where it appears in the program), the tone of the
message(positive, neutral, negative), and how the media
efforts compare with key competitors (share of voice).
These organizations provide metrics that help establish
benchmarks pertaining to program output objectives and
strategies. However, to know if these communications
actually

affected

peoples

awareness,

understanding,

attitudes, or behaviors, primary research such as surveys

needs to be conducted.

Evaluation and measurement should not take place only at

the end of your efforts. You should be monitoring the
media constantly to determine whether your message is
available for people to see (what advertisers call reach,
public relations professionals call opportunities-to-see,
or OTS). If the media strategy is not working, course
corrections in the middle of the program are required, not
after the program has been completed.
Although sophisticated measures of communication output
have been developed over the years, it is still more critical
to consider the outtake and outcomes of those messages.
Getting the communication into various channels, be they
traditional or new media, is only the means to the end of
affecting attitudes, opinions, and behaviors. The outcomes
need to be measured in order to tie back to organizational
goals and purposes.
Cost comparisons between public relations and advertising
messages are not generally used or encouraged as an
evaluation tool because of the difficulty in measuring the
actual impact of these messages. However, we do know
that although public relations and advertising generate
the same amount of product awareness, brand recall, and
purchase intention, public relations content produces
higher levels of product knowledge and positive product
evaluation than advertising.

[7]

To measure attitudes and opinions, the most popular tool

remains the survey. Public opinion polls and attitude
surveys can be conducted and compared to benchmarks
to determine whether the messages and behaviors of an
organization have had the intended effect. Intentions to

behave and preferences for purchasing can also be

measured through surveys, providing some figures on
peoples inclinations.
Behaviors can also be measured against benchmarks.
Increases in employee retention, increased donations, and
improved sales and investments could all be used to
measure

behaviors.

Often

the

connection

between

communication strategy and behavioral changes could be

due to other variables, so it is important to isolate and
track the impact of the public relations efforts in order to
evaluate whether they are the driving force in the change.