Introduction
[Link]
Forging is the working of metal into a useful
shape by hammering or pressing.
The oldest of the metalworking arts (primitive
blacksmith).
Replacement of machinery occurred during
early the Industrial revolution.
Forging machines are now capable of making
parts ranging in size of a bolt to a turbine
rotor.
Most forging operations are carried out hot,
although certain metals may be cold-forged.
[Link]
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Forging operations
Edging is used to shape
the ends of the bars and to
gather metal. The metal
flow is confined in the
horizontal direction but it is
free to flow laterally to fill
the die.
[Link]
Drawing is used to reduce the cross-sectional area of
the workpiece with concurrent increase in length.
Piercing and punching are used to produce holes in
metals.
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Forging operations
Fullering is used to reduce the cross-sectional area
of a portion of the stock. The metal flow is outward
and away from the centre of the fuller.
i.e., forging of connecting rod for an internalcombustion engine.
Fuller move fast and moves metal
perpendicular to the face
Fullers come
in different
shapes
[Link]
Fullers
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Forging operations
Swaging is used to produce a bar with a smaller
diameter (using concave dies).
Swaging is a special type of forging
in which metal is formed by a
succession of rapid hammer blows
Swaging at the ends, ready
for next forming process.
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Swaging provides a reduced round
cross section suitable for tapping,
threading, upsetting or other
subsequent forming and machining
operations.
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Classification of forging processes
By equipment
1) Forging hammer or drop hammer
2) Press forging
By process
1) Open - die forging
2) Closed - die forging
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Forming machines
There are four basic types of forging machines
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Hammer and press forging processes
Forging hammers
There are two basic types of forging
hammers used;
Board hammer
Power hammer
Forging presses
There are two basic types of forging
presses available;
Mechanical presses
Hydraulic presses
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Board hammer forging hammer
The upper die and ram are raised by
friction rolls gripping the board.
After releasing the board, the ram falls
under gravity to produce the blow energy.
The hammer can strike between 60-150
blows per minute depending on size and
capacity.
The board hammer is an energyrestricted machine. The blow energy
supplied equal the potential energy due
to the weight and the height of the fall.
Potential energy = mgh
Board hammer
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Eq 1
This energy will be delivered to the metal
workpiece to produce plastic
deformation.
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Forging hammer or drop hammer
Provide rapid impact blows to the surface of the metal.
Dies are in two halves
- Lower : fixed to anvil
Belt
- Upper : moves up and down with the TUP.
Energy (from a gravity drop) is adsorbed onto the metal,
in which the maximum impact is on the metal surface.
TUP
Metal
Anvil
Dies are expensive being accurately machined from
special alloys (susceptible to thermal shock).
Drop forging is good for mass production of complex
shapes.
Drop hammer
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Example: Forging hammer or drop hammer
The energy supplied by
the blow is equal to the
potential energy due to
the weight of the ram and
the height of the fall.
Potential energy = mgh
Eq 1
Forging machine
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Power hammer
Power hammer provides greater
capacity, in which the ram is accelerated
on the downstroke by steam or air pressure
in addition to gravity.
Steam or air pressure is also used to raise
the ram on the upstroke.
The total energy supplied to the blow
in a power drop hammer is given by
W=
1 2
mv + pAH = (mg + pA) H
2
Where
Power hammer
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Eq 2
m = mass
v = velocity of ram at start of
deformation
g = acceleration of gravity
p = air or steam pressure
acting on ram cylinder on
downstroke
A = area of ram cylinder
H = height of the ram drop
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Hydraulic press forging
High
pressure
fluid
Using a hydraulic press or a mechanical
press to forge the metal, therefore, gives
continuous forming at a slower rate.
Ram
Provide deeper penetration.
Better properties (more homogeneous).
Die
Metal
Equipment is expensive.
Die
Hydraulic press
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Example: Hydraulic Press forging
Hydraulic presses are loadrestricted machines in which
hydraulic pressure moves a piston
in a cylinder.
The full press load is available at
any point during the full stroke of
the ram. Therefore, hydraulic
presses are ideally suited for
extrusion-type forging operation.
Due to slow speed, contact time
is longer at the die-metal interface,
which causes problems such as
heat lost from workpiece and die
deterioration.
Also provide close-tolerance forging.
Hydraulic presses are more
expensive than mechanical presses
and hammers.
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Mechanical press forging
Crank press translates rotary motion into
reciprocating linear motion of the press slide.
The ram stroke is shorter than in a hammer or
hydraulic press.
Presses are rated on the basis of the force
developed at the end of the stroke.
The blow press is more like squeeze than
like the impact of the hammer, therefore, dies
can be less massive and die life is longer than
with a hammer.
The total energy supplied during the stroke of
a press is given by
W =
Mechanical press
1
I o2 2f
2
Eq 3
Where I is moment of inertia of the flywheel
is angular velocity, o-original, f-after deformation, rad.s-1
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Typical values of velocity for different
forging equipment
Forging machine
Velocity range, ms-1
Gravity drop hammer
Power drop hammer
HERF machine
Mechanical press
Hydraulic press
3.6-4.8
3.0-9.0
6.0-24.0
0.06-1.5
0.06-0.30
Remark: HERF High Energy Rate Forging
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Closed and open die forging processes
Open-die forging
Closed-die forging
Impression-die
forging
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Open-die forging
Open-die forging is carried
out between flat dies or dies of
very simple shape.
The process is used for
mostly large objects or when
the number of parts produced
is small.
Open-die forging is often used
to preform the workpiece for
closed-die forging.
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Closed-die forging (or impression-die forging)
The workpiece is deformed between two
die halves which carry the impressions
of the desired final shape.
The workpiece is deformed under high
pressure in a closed cavity.
Normally used for smaller components.
The process provide precision forging
with close dimensional tolerance.
Closed dies are expensive.
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Closed-die forging operation
Rough-forge
Die cavity
completely
filled
Flash begins
to form
Dies contact
workpiece
Forging stroke
Typical curve of forging load vs. stroke for
closed-die forging.
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Finishing die
Trimming die
Final
product
Forging complete
Preshaped
Forging load
billet
Flash is the excess metal, which
squirts out of the cavity as a thick
ribbon of metal.
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Functions of flash
The flash serves two purposes:
Acts as a safety value for excess metal.
Builds up high pressure to ensure that
the metal fills all recesses of the die cavity.
Remark: It is necessary to achieve complete filling of the forging cavity
without generating excessive pressures against the die that may
cause it to fracture.
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Example: Die set and forging steps for the
manufacturing of an automobile engine connecting rod
Preforming of a round piece in an open die
arrangement.
Rough shape is formed using a block die.
The finishing die is used to bring the part to
final tolerances and surface finish.
Removal of flash (excess metal).
Steering knuckle
Rail
Flange
[Link]
onsverfahren/[Link]
See simulation
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[Link]
Die materials
Required properties
Thermal shock resistance
Forging die
Thermal fatigue resistance
Die materials: alloyed steels (with Cr,
High temperature strength
Mo, W, V), tool steels, cast steels or cast
High wear resistance
iron. (Heat treatments such are nitriding
or chromium plating are required to
Hgh toughness and ductility
improve die life)
High hardenability
High dimensional stability during hardening
High machinability
Note:
1) Carbon steels with 0.7-0.85% C are appropriate for small tools and
flat impressions.
2) Medium-alloyed tool steels for hammer dies.
3) Highly alloyed steels for high temperature resistant dies used in
presses and horizontal forging machines.
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Die materials
Common steels used for forging dies
Forging
materials
Forging dies
Die inserts
Steels
Copper and copper alloys
DIN
AISI
DIN
AISI
Light alloys
DIN
AISI
C70 W2
C85 W2
60MnSi4
X30WCrV53
H21
X30WCrV53
40CrMnMo7
X38CrMoV51
H11
X38CrMoV51
H11
X32CrMoV33
H10
55NiCrMoV6
6F2
55NiCrMoV6
56NiCrMoV7
6F3
56NiCrMoV7
6F2
57NiCrMoV77
35NiCrMo16
X38CrMoV51
57NiCrMoV77
57NiCrMoV77
6F3
H11
X30WCrV93
H21
X38CrMoV51
H11
X32CrMoV33
H10
X32CrMoV33
H10
X32CrMoV33
H10
X30WCrV53
X30WCrV52
X30WCrV53
X37CrMoW51
H12
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Die materials
Die life can be increased by
1) Improving die materials such as using composite die or
2) Using surface coating or self-lubricating coatings
Ultra hard surface coatings
Current forging
Future forging
Ultra hard surface coating
on die surface is used to
In
m no
at va
er ti
ia ve
ls d
Improve die life.
ie
rfa
su
e
tiv tion
a
v a
no ific
n
I od
m
ce
Reduce energy input.
Reduce die-related uptime
and downtime.
Reduce particulate emission
from lubricants.
[Link]
/pdfs/innovative_die_materials.pdf
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Die failures
Different types of die failure
Wear (abrasion)
Thermal fatigue
Mechanical fatigue
Permanent deformation
Different parts of dies are liable to permanent deformation and wear
resulting from mechanical and thermal fatigue.
Important factors: shape of the forging, die materials, how the
workpiece is heated, coating of die surface, the operating temperature
(should not exceed the annealing temperature).
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Calculation of forging loads
The total energy required for deformation process;
Utotal = Uideal + Ufriction + Uredundant
Note: redundant work = work that does not contribute to
shape change of the workpiece
Efficiency of a given deformation process is
U ideal
=
U total
Note:
= 0.3-0.6 for extrusion
= 0.75-0.95 for rolling
= 0.10-0.20 for closed die forging
The calculation for forging load can be divided into three cases according to friction:
In the absence of friction
Low friction condition (lower bound analysis or sliding condition)
High friction condition (sticky friction condition)
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1) In the absence of friction
By assuming that there is no friction at die-workpiece interface, the forging
load is therefore the compressive force (P) acting on a round metal bar.
Then
P =oA
Where
.Eq. 4
is the compressive force
is the yield stress of the metal
is the cross sectional area of the metal.
o
A
And the compressive stress (p) produced by this force P can be
obtained from
Do
4 o Ah
4 Ph
4 Ph
p=
=
2
2
D
Do ho Do2 ho
ho
Do2 h = D 2 h
Where
h
ho
Do
.Eq. 5
Note: from volume constant
is the instantaneous height of the metal bar during forging
is the original height of the metal bar
is the original diameter of the metal bar.
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Do
ho
D
h
We have engineering strain in compression,
h h ho
e=
=
ho
ho
.Eq. 6
And true strain in compression,
h
dh
h
ho
= = ln = ln
h
ho
h
ho
.Eq. 7
The relationship between e and is
= ln(e + 1)
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.Eq. 8
Jan-Mar 2007
2) Low friction condition (Lower bound analysis)
By considering the equilibrium of forces acting on the workpiece at any
instant of deformation.
For example, if we consider the effect of friction
on an upset forging operation in plane strain
condition (rigid-plastic behaviour, see Fig).
To calculate the total forming load, we have
to determine the local stresses needed to
deform each element of a workpiece of height h
and width 2a.
In plane strain condition, as the workpiece is
reduced in height, it expands laterally and all
deformation is confined in the x-y plane. This
lateral expansion causes frictional forces to act
in opposition to the movement.
Assuming that there is no redundant work
and the material exhibits rigid-plastic
behaviour, and all stress on the body are
compressive.
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Consider the force acting on a vertical element of
unit length and width dx. The element is at some
distance x from the central no-slip point, in this
case to the right.
The vertical force acting on the element is
stress area = y dx
.Eq. 9
If the coefficient of friction for the die-workpiece
interface is , the magnitude of the friction force
will be ydx. The frictional force acts at both
ends of the element so the total horizontal force
from the right is 2ydx.
Acting on the left will be the force xh and from the right the force (x+dx)h.
The horizontal compressive stress x varies from a maximum at the centre of
the workpiece to zero at the edge and changes by dx across the element
width dx.
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Balancing the horizontal forces acting on
the element:
h( x + d x ) + 2 y dx = h x
.Eq. 10
Rearranging, we have
2 y dx = hd x
.Eq. 11
and therefore
d x
y
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2
dx
h
.Eq. 12
Jan-Mar 2007
As the frictional force y is usually much smaller than
both x and y , which are principal stresses. Thus
we can use them in the yield criterion when the slab
will yield
y x =
Where
o = o'
.Eq. 13
is the yield stress in plane strain.
Differentiation of the yield condition gives dy = dx ,
and substituting for dx in Eq. 12 gives
d y
2
dx
h
.Eq. 14
Integrating both sides of this differential equation gives
2 x
ln y =
+ Co .Eq. 15
h
2 x
or y = C exp
.Eq. 16
where Co is a constant of integration.
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We can evaluate C by looking at the boundary conditions. At the edge of the
workpiece where x = a, x = 0 and from the yield criterion y - x = o, so
y = o and therefore:
2 a
'
C exp
= o .Eq. 17
h
2a y
exp
h
'
o
Friction hill
so
2a
C = exp
h
'
o
2
(a x )
h
o' exp
.Eq. 18
-a
o
X
Using this in Eq.16, we find
y = exp (a x )
h
'
o
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.Eq. 19
x = -a
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x=0
x=a
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The total forging load, P, is given by
Where
p
w
P = 2 p aw
.Eq. 20
is the average forming pressure across the workpiece
is the width of the workpiece (in the plane of the paper).
This equals y and can be estimated by integrating Eq.19:
p=
dx =
o
o'
exp (a x )dx
a
h
.Eq. 21
The integration in Eq. 18 can be simplified if we make the following
approximation to Eq. 16. The general series expansion for exp x is
x 2 x3
exp x = 1 + x +
+
+ ...
2! 3!
.Eq. 22
Since is usually small (<1) we can approximate exp x as (1+x) for small x.
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Thus we can approximate Eq.19 as
y = o' 1 +
2 (a x )
.Eq. 23
and Eq.21 becomes
_
p=
2 (a x )
1+
dx
a
h
o'
.Eq. 24
Integrating this gives:
_
p=
'
o
x +
a
2ax x
h
h 0
2
.Eq. 25
So that the average axial tooling pressure, p, is
a
p = o' 1 +
.Eq. 26
We can see that as the ratio a/h increases, the forming pressure p and
hence the forming load rises rapidly.
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Example:
The flash has high deformation resistance than in the die (due to
much higher a/h ratio), therefore the material completely fills the
cavity rather than being extruded sideward out of the die.
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3) High friction condition (sticky friction)
In the situation where the friction force is high, the stress acting on the
metal is
ax
1
h
y = o'
.Eq. 27
and the mean forging pressure is
p = o'
+ 1
2h
_
.Eq. 28
Under these conditions, the forming load is dependent on the flow stress
of the material and the geometry of the workpiece.
For example: if the a/h ratio is high, say a/h = 8, then p = 5o. The local
stress on the tooling can therefore be very high indeed and 5o is probably
high enough to deform the tooling in most cold forming operation.
Solutions:
reducing to ensure that sticking friction conditions do not apply.
changing the workpiece geometry.
reducing o by increasing the temperature.
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In the case of sticky friction, if we replace the force y with k (the average
shear stress of the material) in Eq.14
d y
y
then we have
2
=
dx
h
.Eq. 14
2 o dx
2k
dx
d y =
dx =
= o'
h
h
3 h
Integrating
y= o'
Since y = o at x = a,
then
.Eq. 29
x
+C
h
.Eq. 30
a
h
.Eq. 31
C = o' + o'
Replacing C in Eq. 30 we then have
y = o'
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x
a
ax
+ o' + o' = o'
+ 1
h
h
h
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Or Eq. 27
Jan-Mar 2007
Example:
Dieter, page 574-575
A block of lead 25x25x150 mm3 is pressed between flat dies to a size
6.25x100x150 mm3. If the uniaxial flow stress o = 6.9 MPa and = 0.25,
determine the pressure distribution over the 100 mm dimension (at x = 0, 25
and 50 mm and the total forging load in the sticky friction condition.
Since 150 mm dimension does not change, the deformation is plane strain.
From Eq.19.
2
2
where o' = 2 o
ax
y =
o exp
3
At the centreline of the slab (x = 0)
max =
2(0.25)
(50 0) = 435MPa
exp
3
6.25
2(6.9)
Likewise, at 25 and 50 mm, the stress distribution will be 58.9 and 8.0 MPa
respectively.
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The mean forging load (in the sticky friction condition) from Eq.28 is
_
p=
_
p=
2
3
+ 1
2h
2(6.9) 50
+ 1 = 39.8MPa
3 12.5
We calculate the forging load on the assumption that the stress distribution
is based on 100 percent sticky friction. Then
The forging load is P
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= stress x area
= (39.8x106)(100x10-3)(150x10-3)
= 597 kN
= 61 tonnes.
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Effect of forging on microstructure
grain structure resulting from (a) forging, (b) machining and (c) casting.
The formation of a grain structure in forged parts is elongated in the
direction of the deformation.
The metal flow during forging provides fibrous microstructure (revealed by
etching). This structure gives better mechanical properties in the plane of
maximum strain but (perhaps) lower across the thickness.
The workpiece often undergo recrystallisation, therefore, provide finer
grains compared to the cast dendritic structure resulting in improved
mechanical properties.
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Forming textures
Redistribution of metal structures occurring during forming
process involves two principle components; 1) redistribution of
inclusions and 2) crystallographic orientation of the grains
1) The redistribution of inclusions
Redistribution
during forming of
(a) soft inclusions
(b) hard inclusions
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Forming textures
2) Crystallographic orientation of the grains
Castings
Forgings
Cast iron structure
Fibre structure in forged steels
Mainly epitaxial,
dendritic or
equiaxed grains
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Redistribution of grains
in the working directions
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Residual stresses in forging
The residual stress produced in forgings as a results of
inhomogeneous deformation are generally small because the
deformation is normally carried out well into the hot-working region.
However, appreciable residual stresses and warping can occur on
the quenching of steel forgings in heat treatment.
Large forgings are subjected to the formation of small cracks, or
flakes at the centre of the cross section. This is associated with the high
hydrogen content usually present in steel ingots of large size, coupled
with the presence of residual stresses.
Large forgings therefore have to be slowly cooled from the working
temperature. Examples: burying the forging in ashes for a period of time or
using a controlled cooling furnace.
Finite element analysis is used to predict residual stresses in forgings.
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Typical forging defects
Incomplete die filling.
[Link]
Fluorescence penetrant
reveals Forging laps
Die misalignment.
Forging laps.
Incomplete forging penetration- should
forge on the press.
Microstructural differences resulting in
pronounced property variation.
Hot shortness, due to high sulphur
concentration in steel and nickel.
[Link]
See simulation
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Typical forging defects
[Link]
Pitted surface, due to oxide scales occurring
at high temperature stick
on the dies.
Buckling, in upsetting forging. Subject to
high compressive stress.
Surface cracking, due to temperature
differential between surface and
centre, or excessive working of the surface
at too low temperature.
Microcracking, due to residual stress.
[Link]
Buckling
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Typical forging defects
Cracking at the flash
Cold shut or fold
Internal cracking
Flash line crack, after trimming-occurs more often in thin
workpieces. Therefore should increase the thickness of the flash.
Cold shut or fold , due to flash or fin from prior forging steps is
forced into the workpiece.
Internal cracking, due to secondary tensile stress.
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Summary
Mainly hot forging Blacksmith, now using water power, steam,
electricity, hydraulic machines.
Heavy forging
- Hydraulic press = slow, high force squeeze.
- Pieces up to 200 tonnes with forces up to 25,000 tonnes.
- Simple tools squeeze metal into shape (open-die forging).
- Sufficient deformation must be given to break up the as cast
structure.
- Reheating is often needed to maintain sufficient temperature
for hot working.
- Forging is costly but eliminates some as-cast defects
- Continuous grain flow in the direction of metal flow is
revealed by etching.
- Impurities (inclusions and segregation) have become
elongated and (unlike casting) gives superior properties in the
direction of elongation.
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References
Dieter, G.E., Mechanical metallurgy, 1988, SI metric edition,
McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-100406-8.
Edwards, L. and Endean, M., Manufacturing with materials,
1990, Butterworth Heinemann, ISBN 0-7506-2754-9.
Beddoes, J. and Bibbly M.J., Principles of metal manufacturing
process, 1999, Arnold, ISBN 0-470-35241-8.
Lange, K., Handbook of metal forming, 1919, McGraw-Hill Book
company, ISBN 0-07-036285-8.
Lecture note, Sheffield University, 2003.
Metal forming processes, Prof Manus.
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