[Link] Signal.

Signal is a physical quantity that varies with respect to time, space or any other independent
variable.
2. Define system.

A set of components that are connected together to perform the particular task.
[Link] are the major classifications of the signal?

(i)
Discrete time signal
(ii)
Continuous time signal
[Link] discrete time signals and classify them.
Discrete time signals are defined only at discrete times, and for these signals, the independent
variable takes on only a discrete set of values.
Classification of discrete time signal:
[Link] and Aperiodic signal
[Link] and Odd signal
[Link] continuous time signals and classify them.
Continuous time signals are defined for a continuous of values of the independent variable. In
the case of continuous time signals the independent variable is continuous.
For example:
(i) A speech signal as a function of time
(ii) Atmospheric pressure as a function of altitude Classification of
continuous time signal:
(i)
Periodic and Aperiodic signal
(ii)
Even and Odd signal
6. Define time shifting property

A signal x(t) may be sifted in time by replacing the independent variable t by t t0, where t0 is
known as the shifting factor. If t0 > 0, the signal is shifted to the right and it result in a delay of
the signal. If t0 <0, the signal is shifted to the left and it result in an advance of the signal.
7. Define time scaling

A second modification of the independent variable involves replacing t by at, where a is called
scaling factor. If a>1, it results in compression (speeded up), and if 0<a<1, it results in
expansion (slowed down).
[Link] continuous time unit step and unit impulse.

Continuous time unit impulse is defined as

(t)= , t=0
0, t 0
Area of unit impulse function is unity.
Continuous time Unit step signal is defined as
U(t)= {0, t<0
{1, t>0
{ t=0

[Link] discrete time unit step &unit impulse.

Discrete time Unit impulse is defined as
[n]= {0, n 0
{1, n=0
Unit impulse is also known as unit sample.
Discrete time unit step signal is defined by
U[n]= {0, n=0
{1, n>= 0
[Link] Energy and power signal.
A signal is said to be energy signal if it has finite energy and zero power.
A signal is said to be power signal if it has infinite energy and finite power.
If the above two conditions are not satisfied, then the signal is said to be neither energy nor
power signal.
[Link] a causal system.
The causal system generates the output depending upon present &past inputs only. A causal
system is non anticipatory.
[Link] is meant by linear system?
A linear system should satisfy superposition principle. A linear system should satisfy
F[ax1(t)+bx2(t)] a y1(t)+by2(t), y1(t)=F[x1(t)] y2(t)=F[x2(t)]
[Link] time invariant system.
A system is time invariant if the behaviour and characteristics of the system are fixed over
time.
A system is time invariant if a time shift in the input signal results in an identical time shift in
the output signal.
For example, a time invariant system should produce y(t-t0) as the output when x(t-to) is the
input.
[Link] stable system?
When the system produces bounded output for bounded input, then the system is called
bounded input& bounded output stable.
If the signal is bounded, then its magnitude will always be finite.
[Link] memory and memoryless system.
The output of a memory system at any specified time depends on the inputs at that specified
time and at other times. Such systems have memory or energy storage elements.
The system is said to be static or memoryless if its output depends upon the present input only.
[Link] invertible system.
A system is said to be invertible if the input is get from the output input. Otherwise the system
is noninvertible system.

[Link] is superposition property?

If an input consists of the weighted sum of several signals, then the output is the superposition
that is, the weighted sum of the responses of the system to each of those signals
[Link] LTI systems.
A system which satisfies both linearity and time invariant property is called LTI systems.
LTI systems characterized by their impulse response h(t).
[Link] is the condition for stable system.
A LTI system is stable if h(n)<.
Here the summation is absolutely summable

[Link] are the blocks used for block diagram representation.

The block diagrams are implemented with the help of scalar multipliers, adders and
multipliers

[Link] the significance of block diagram representation.

The LTI systems are represented with the help of block diagrams. The block diagrams are
more effective way of system description. Block Diagrams indicate how individual
calculations are performed. Various blocks are used for block diagram representation.
[Link] are the properties of convolution?
I. Commutative
ii. Associative.

[Link] theCommutative properties of convolution?

Commutative property of Convolution is
x(t)*h(t)=h(t)*x(t)
[Link] the Associative properties of convolution
Associative Property of convolution is
[x(t)*h1(t)] *h2(t)=x(t)*[h1(t)*h2(t)]

25. State Distributive properties of convolution

The Distributive Property of convolution is
{x(t)*[h1(t)+ h2(t)]} = x(t)*h1(t) + x(t)*h2(t)]
[Link] causal system.
LTI system to be causal if h(n)=0,for n<0.
[Link] are the types of Fourier series?
Exponential Fourier series
Trigonometric Fourier series

iii. Distributive

[Link] down the exponential form of the Fourier series representation of a periodic
signal?
x(t)=ak ejkot
Here the summation is taken from - to .

ak=1/T x(t) e-jkot

Here the integration is taken from 0 to T.

[Link] down the trigonometric form of the fourier series representation of a periodic
signal?
x(t)= ao+ [an cos not + bn sin not ]
where

ao=1/T x(t) dt

an =1/T x(t)cos not dt

bn=1/T x(t)cos not dt

[Link] Time Shifting property in relation to fourier series.

x(t-t0) FS ak e-jkot

Time shifting property states that; when a periodic signal is shifted in time, the magnitudes of
its Fourier series coefficients, remain unaltered.
[Link] short notes on dirichlets conditions for Fourier series.
a. x(t) must be absolutely integral
b. The function x(t) should be single valued within the interval T.
c. The function x(t) should have finite number of discontinuities in any finite
interval of time T.
d. The function x(t) should have finite number of maxima &minima in the
interval T.
[Link] parsevals theorem for continuous time periodic signals.
1/T x(t)2 dt = ak2
Parsevals relation states that the total average power in a periodic signal equals the sum of
the average power in all of its harmonic components.
[Link] continuous time system.
A continuous time system is a system in which continuous time input signals are applied and
result in continuous time output signals.
[Link] Fourier transform pair.
Consider the aperiodic signal x(t) &Fourier transform of x(t) is defined as
X(j) = x(t) e-jt dt -------------(1)
Inverse Fourier transform of x(t) is given by
x(t) =1/2 X(j) ejt d ------(2)
Equations (1) & (2) are referred to as the Fourier transform pair.

[Link] short notes on dirichlets conditions for Fourier transform.

a. x(t) be absolutely integral
b. x(t) have a finite number of maxima and minima within any finite interval.
x(t) have a finite number of discontinuities within any finite interval. Furthermore, each of
these discontinuities must be finite
[Link] convolution property in relation to fourier transform.
Y(t)= x(t)*h(t)
Y(j)= H(j)X(j)

Convolution property states that convolution in time domain corresponds to

multiplication in the frequency domain.

[Link] Z transform.
The Z transform of a discrete time signal x[n] is denoted by X(z) and it is given as
X(z)=x[n] [Link] the value n ranges from - to +. Here z is the complex variable. This
Z transform is also called as bilateral or two sided Z transform.
[Link] are the two types of Z transform?
(i) Unilateral Z transform
(ii) Bilateral Z transform

[Link] unilateral Z transform.

The unilateral Z transform of signal x[n] is given as X(z)=x[n] z-n .The value n ranges from
0 to +. The unilateral and bilateral Z transforms are same for causal signals.
[Link] is region of Convergence.
The region of convergence or ROC is specified for Z transform, where it converges.

[Link] are the Properties of ROC.

i.
The ROC of a finite duration sequence includes the entire zplane, except z= 0 and |z|= .
ii.
ROC does not contain any poles.
iii.
ROC is the ring in the z-plane centred about origin.
iv. ROC of causal sequence (right handed sequence) is of the form |z| > r.
v. ROC of left handed sequence is of the form |z| < r.

vi. ROC of two sided sequence is the concentric ring in the z plane.

[Link] convolution property of Z transform.

The convolution property states that convolution of two sequences in time domain is
equivalent to multiplication of their Z transforms.
[Link] the methods to find inverse Z transform.
a. Partial fraction expansion
b. Contour integration
c. Power series expansion
d. Convolution method.

[Link] is the condition for causality if H(z) is given.

A discrete LTI system with rational system function H(z) is causal if and only if
[Link] ROC is the exterior of the circle outside the outermost pole.
[Link] H(z) is expressed as a ratio of polynomials in z, the order of the
numerator cannot be greater than the order of the denominator.
[Link] is the condition for stability if H(z) is given.
A discrete LTI system with rational system function H(z) is stable if and only if all of the
poles H(z) lies inside the unit circle. That is they must all have magnitude smaller than 1.
[Link] is the use of Laplace transform?
Laplace transform is an another mathematical tool used for analysis of signals and systems.
Laplace transform is used for analysis of unstable systems.
[Link] are the types of Laplace transform?
[Link] or two-sided Laplace transform.

[Link] or single sided Laplace transform.

[Link] Bilateral and unilateral Laplace transform.

The bilateral Laplace transform is defined as
X(s)=x(t)e-stdt
Here the integration is taken from - to . Hence it is called bilateral Laplace transform
The unilateral Laplace transform is defined as
X(s)= x(t)e-stdt
Here the integration is taken from 0 to . Hence it is called unilateral Laplace transform.
[Link] inverse Laplace transform.
The inverse Laplace transform is given as
x(t)=1/2j X(s) estds .

Here the integration is taken from -j to +j.

[Link] is meant by sampling.

A sampling is a process by which a CT signal is converted into a sequence of discrete
samples with each sample representing the amplitude of the signal at the particular instant of
time.
[Link] Sampling theorem.
A band limited signal of finite energy, which has no frequency components higher than the
W hertz, is completely described by specifying the values of the signal at the instant of time
separated by 1/2W seconds and A band limited signal of finite energy, which has no
frequency components higher than the W hertz, is completely recovered from the knowledge
of its samples taken at the rate of 2W samples per second.
[Link] is meant by aliasing.
When the high frequency interferes with low frequency and appears as low then the
phenomenon is called aliasing.

[Link] are the effects aliasing?

Since the high frequency interferes with low frequency then the distortion is generated. The
data is lost and it cannot be recovered.
[Link] the aliasing process is eliminated.
i). Sampling rate Ws 2Wm

ii). Strictly band limit the signal to W m.

This can be obtained by using the Low pass filer before the sampling process. It is also
called as antialiasing filter.

[Link] Nyquist rate and Nyquist interval.

When the sampling rate becomes exactly equal to 2W m samples/sec, for a given bandwidth
of Wm hertz, then it is called Nyquist rate.
Nyquist interval is the time interval between any two adjacent samples.
Nyquist rate = 2Wm Hz
Nyquist interval = 1/2W seconds.

[Link] reconstruction process.

The process of converting discrete time sample data in to a continuous time signal is called
signal reconstruction.

[Link] reconstruction of signal performs?

Reconstruction performs by the use of low pass filter.

[Link] is zero order hold sampling?

The zero order hold systems samples a continuous time signal x(t) at a given instant and hold
this value until the next instant at which another sample is taken.
[Link] is interpolating function?

The function sinc(ws/2) is called interpolating function or sampling function or sinc

[Link] is Fourier transform of a rectangular pulse.