6 Circulation and boundary conditions
Since curl-free static electric fields have path-independent line integrals, it
follows that over closed paths C (when points p and o coincide)
!
E dl = 0,
z
y
dS
C
lj
Ej
"
where the C E dl is called the circulation of field E over closed path C
bounding a surface S (see margin).
Example 1: Consider the static electric field variation
E(x, y, z) = x
Solution: Integration path C is shown in "the figure in the margin. With the help of
the figure we expand the circulation C E dl as
# 3
# 4
# 3
# 0
x
3
x
(3)
E =
x xdx +
x ydy +
x xdx +
x
ydy
"o
x=3 "o
y=0 "o
x=3 "o
y=4
# 3
# 3
x
x
=
dx + 0 +
dx + 0 = 0.
x=3 "o
x=3 "o
x
Closed loop integral over path
C enclosing surface S.
Note that the area increment
dS of surface S is taken by
convention to point in the
right-hand-rule direction
with respect to "circulation"
direction C.
x
"o
that will be encountered within a uniformly charged slab of an infinite extent in
y and z directions and a finite width in x" direction centered about x = 0. Show
that this field E satisfies the condition C E dl = 0 for a rectangular closed
path C with vertices at (x, y, z) = (3, 0, 0), (3, 0, 0), (3, 4, 0), and (3, 4, 0)
traversed in the order of the vertices given.
o=p
(-3,4,0)
(-3,0,0)
(3,4,0)
(3,0,0)
Note that in expanding
"
E dl above for the given path C, we took dl as xdx
and ydy in turns (along horizontal and vertical edges of C, respectively) and
ordered the integration limits in x and y to traverse C in a counter-clockwise
direction as indicated in the diagram.
z
y
Vector fields E having zero circulations over all closed paths C are
known as conservative fields (for obvious reasons having to do with
their use in modeling static fields compatible with conservation theorems).
The concepts of curl-free and conservative fields overlap, that is
!
E dl = 0 E = 0
C
over all closed paths C and at each r.
dS
C
dl
E
x
STOKES THM:
Circulation of E around close
path C equals the flux over
enclosed surface S of the curl
of E taken in direction of dS.
dS points in right-hand-rule
direction with respect to
"circulation" direction C.
The above relationship between circulation and curl is also a consequence of Stokes theorem (discussed in MATH 241) which asserts
that
Stokes thm.
!
#
E dl = E dS,
where
the integration surface S on the right is bounded by the closed
integration contour C of the left side, and
2
the incremental area element dS on the right points across area S z
in the direction indicated by a right-hand rule as follows:
Point your right thumb in chosen circulation direction C; then your
right fingers point through surface S in the direction that should be
adopted for dS.
"
Given Stokes theorem, C E dl = 0 follows immediately for all
C, if E = 0 is true over all r.
Verification of Stokes thm: Stokes theorem applies to all contours
C of all sizes and orientations and their enclosed surfaces S of any
shape. For a small rectangular contour on a constant x plane with
sufficiently small y and z dimensions parallel to y and z axes (see
figure in the margin), we have
!
E dl (Ez|2 Ez|1 )z (Ey|4 Ey|3)y,
C
an approximation that can also be re-arranged as
!
Ez|2 Ez|1 Ey|4 Ey|3
E dl (
)
x yz x.
y
z
C
Right hand side above is clearly an approximation also for
( E) dS = ( E) dydz x = (
3
Ez Ey
)
x dydz x.
y
z
y
dS
C
dl
E
x
STOKES THM:
Circulation of E around close
path C equals the flux over
enclosed surface S of the curl
of E taken in direction of dS.
dS points in right-hand-rule
direction with respect to
"circulation" direction C.
(x, y, z + z)
y
dS = yz x
(x, y + y, z)
1
3
(x, y, z)
Matching the approximations and taking the limit of vanishing y and
z, we realize that for any infinitesimal area element dS of an arbitrary
direction,
!
E dS =
dC
C
S
E dl
where dC denotes the bounding infinitesimal contour of dS traversed
in the right-hand rule direction. Stokes theorem for an arbitrary C over
a finite enclosed area S is obtained
by superposing these infinitesimals
"
$
the left side then becomes S E dS and the right side C E dl
after cancellations of opposing line integral contributions coming from
overlapping adjacent segments (see figure in the margin).
dl
E
Sum of circulations over small
squares cancel in the interior
edges and only survive around the
exterior path C. This way,
circulation around C matches
the sum of the fluxes of curl E
calculated over the small squares.
Laws of
Stokes theorem clearly implies that curl is circulation per unit electrostatics:
area, just as the divergence theorem showed that divergence is
flux per unit volume. The only difference is, curl also has a
direction, which is the normal unit of the plane that contains the
E = 0
maximal value of circulation per unit area found at that location
"o E =
over all possible orientations of dS.
We can now summarize the general constraints governing static electric fields
as
E(r) = 0, D(r) = (r), where D(r) = "oE(r).
Vector fields E(r) and D(r) governed by these equations will in general
be continuous functions of position coordinates r = (x, y, z) except at
4
They also apply quasi-statically
over a region of dimension L
when a time-varying field source
(r, t) has a time-constant much
longer than the propagation time
delay L/c of E(r, t) field variations across the region (c is the
speed of light).
In electro-quasistatics (EQS)
E(r, t) will be accompanied by
a slowly varying magnetic field
B(r, t) (to be studied starting in
Lecture 12).
boundary surfaces where charge density function (r) requires a representation in terms of a surface charge density s (r).
For instance, according to our earlier results, static electric field
of a charge density (see sketch at the margin)
(r) = s (z)
s
s
E(r) = z sgn(z) D(r) = z sgn(z).
2"o
2
Consider a superposition of these fields with fields Eo(r) and
Do(r) = "oEo(r) produced by arbitrary continuous sources,
namely (macroscopic) fields
s
s
E(r) = z sgn(z)+Eo(r) and D(r) = z sgn(z)+"oEo(r).
2"o
2
would be
0
!1
!2
!2
!1
0
x
Since fields Eo(r) and Do(r) vary continuously, these field expressions
must satisfy
where
z (D+ D ) = s and z (E+ E ) = 0
E+ E(x, y, 0+) and E E(x, y, 0 )
refer to limiting values of E at z = 0 plane from above and below,
z=0
respectively, and likewise for
D+ D(x, y, 0+) and D D(x, y, 0 ).
5
D+
z
The above boundary condition equations can be written in a more
general form (see margin for justification) as
n
(D+ D ) = s and n
(E+ E ) = 0
where n
denotes a unit vector normal to any surface of an arbitrary
orientation carrying a surface charge density s, while field vectors with
superscripts + and indicate limiting values of fields measured on
either side of the charged surface (with n
pointing from to +).
The equations can be further simplified as
Dn+ Dn = s and Et+ = Et
where Dn and Et refer to normal component of D and tangential
component of E, respectively. Clearly, these boundary conditions say that at any surface S,
tangential component of electric field E needs to be continuous, but
normal component of D can change by an amount equal to
the charge density s carried by the surface.
Constraint
E dl = 0
around the dotted path yields
Et+ = Et
in w 0 limit.
Gausss law
D dS = QV
applied over the dotted volume (seen in
profile) yields
Dn+ Dn = s
in w 0 limit.
D+
D
D = 0 for x < 0.
s = 2C/m2
so = ?
Example 2:
Measurements indicate that D = 0 in the region x < 0.
Also, x = 0 and x = 5 m planes contain surface charge densities of s = 2 C/m2 and
so , respectively.
Determine so and D for < x < if there are no other charge distributions.
Solution:
Since the normal component of D must increase by s = 2 C/m2 when we cross the
charged surface x = 0, we must have D = x2 C/m2 in the region 0 < x < 5 m.
Having D = 0 in the region x < 0 requires that the field due to surface charge so
on x = 5 m plane must cancel the field due s = 2 C/m2 on x = 0 plane this
requires that so be 2 C/m2 .
In that case D = 0 in the region x > 5 m, because D must increase by so = 2
C/m2 when we cross the charged surface at x = 5 m.
y
x
x=5m
D = 3
y for x < 0.
s = 2C/m2
Example 3: In the region x < 0 measurements indicate a constant displacement field
D = 3
y C/m2. Also, x = 0 and x = 5 m planes contain surface charge densities
of s = 2 C/m2 and s = 6 C/m2 respectively. Determine D for x > 0 if D is
known to be uniform in the intervals 0 < x < 5 m and x > 5 m.
Solution: First we note that E = D
= y !3o V/m is tangential to x = 0 and x = 5 m
!o
surfaces. Since the tangential component of E cannot change at any boundary,
we will have a uniform Ey = !3o in all regions, < x < , implying that
Dy = 3 C/m2 throughout (caused by charges at |y| ).
Second, we note that normal component of D with respect to x = 0 and x = 5 m
surfaces, namely Dx , is zero in z < 0. Since the normal component of D must
increase by an amount s when we cross a charged surface, we must have Dx = 2
C/m2 in the region 0 < x < 5 m, and Dx = 2 + (6) = 4 C/m2 in x > 5 m.
In summary,
for x < 0,
y3,
C.
D = x2 + y3,
for 0 < x < 5 m m
2
x4 + y3, for x > 5 m
s = 6C/m2
y
x
x=5m
