POPULATIONS AND SAMPLING
Populations
Definition - a complete set of elements (persons or objects) that possess some
common characteristic defined by the sampling criteria established by the
researcher
Composed of two groups - target population & accessible population
Target population (universe)
The entire group of people or objects to which the researcher
wishes to generalize the study findings
Meet set of criteria of interest to researcher
Examples
All institutionalized elderly with Alzheimer's
All people with AIDS
All low birth weight infants
All school-age children with asthma
All pregnant teens
Accessible population
the portion of the population to which the researcher has
reasonable access; may be a subset of the target population
May be limited to region, state, city, county, or institution
Examples
All institutionalized elderly with Alzheimer's in St. Louis
county nursing homes
All people with AIDS in the metropolitan St. Louis area
All low birth weight infants admitted to the neonatal
ICUs in St. Louis city & county
All school-age children with asthma treated in pediatric
asthma clinics in university-affiliated medical centers in
the Midwest
All pregnant teens in the state of Missouri
Samples
Terminology used to describe samples and sampling methods
Sample = the selected elements (people or objects) chosen for
participation in a study; people are referred to as subjects or
participants
Sampling = the process of selecting a group of people, events, behaviors,
or other elements with which to conduct a study
Sampling frame = a list of all the elements in the population from which
the sample is drawn
Could be extremely large if population is national or
international in nature
Frame is needed so that everyone in the population is identified
so they will have an equal opportunity for selection as a subject
(element)
Examples
A list of all institutionalized elderly with Alzheimer's in
St. Louis county nursing homes affiliated with BJC
A list of all people with AIDS in the metropolitan St.
Louis area who are members of the St. Louis Effort for
AIDS
A list of all low birth weight infants admitted to the
neonatal ICUs in St. Louis city & county in 1998
A list of all school-age children with asthma treated in
pediatric asthma clinics in university-affiliated medical
centers in the Midwest
A list of all pregnant teens in the Henderson school
district
Randomization = each individual in the population has an equal
opportunity to be selected for the sample
Representativeness = sample must be as much like the population in as
many ways as possible
Sample reflects the characteristics of the population, so those
sample findings can be generalized to the population
Most effective way to achieve representativeness is through
randomization; random selection or random assignment
Parameter = a numerical value or measure of a characteristic of the
population; remember P for parameter & population
Statistic = numerical value or measure of a characteristic of the
sample; remember S for sample & statistic
Precision = the accuracy with which the population parameters have
been estimated; remember that population parameters often are based on
the sample statistics
Types of Sampling Methods - probability & non-probability
Probability Sampling Methods
Also called random sampling
Every element (member) of the population has a probability
greater than) of being selected for the sample
Everyone in the population has equal opportunity for selection
as a subject
Increases sample's representativeness of the population
Decreases sampling error and sampling bias
Types of probability sampling - see table in course materials for details
Simple random
Elements selected at random
Assign each element a number
Select elements for study by:
1. Using a table of random numbers in book
A table displaying hundreds of digits from 0 to 9
set up in such a way that each number is equally
likely to follow any other
See text for random sampling details & table of
random numbers
Computer generated random numbers table
Draw numbers for box (hat)
Bingo #=s
Stratified random
Population is divided into subgroups, called strata, according
to some variable or variables in importance to the study
Variables often used include: age, gender, ethnic origin, SES,
diagnosis, geographic region, institution, or type of care
Two approaches to stratification - proportional &
disproportional
Proportional
Subgroup sample sizes equal the proportions of
the subgroup in the population
Example: A high school population has
15% seniors
25% juniors
25% sophomores
35% freshmen
With proportional sample the sample has
the same proportions as the population
Disproportional
Subgroup sample sizes are not equal to the
proportion of the subgroup in the population
Example
Class Population Sample
Seniors 15% 25%
Juniors 25% 25%
Sophomores 25% 25%
Freshmen 35% 25%
With disproportional sample the
sampledoes not have the same proportions
as the population
Cluster random sampling
A random sampling process that involves stages of sampling
The population is first listed by clusters or categories
Procedure
Randomly select 1 or more clusters and take all of their
elements (single stage cluster sampling); e.g. Midwest
region of the US
Or, in a second stage randomly select clusters from the
first stage of clusters; eg 3 states within the Midwest
region
In a third stage, randomly select elements from the
second stage of clusters; e.g. 30 county health dept.
nursing administrators from each state
Systematic
A random sampling process in which every kth (e.g. every 5th
element) or member of the population is selected for the
sample after a random start is determined
Example
Population (N) = 2000, sample size (n) = 50, k=N/n, so k
= 2000 ) 50 = 40
Use a table of random numbers to determine the starting
point for selecting every 40th subject
With list of the 2000 subjects in the sampling frame, go
to the starting point, and select every 40th name on the
list until the sample size is reached. Probably will have to
return to the beginning of the list to complete the
selection of the sample.
Non-probability sampling methods
Characteristics
Not every element of the population has the opportunity for selection in
the sample
No sampling frame
Population parameters may be unknown
Non-random selection
More likely to produce a biased sample
Restricts generalization
Historically, used in most nursing studies
Types of non-probability sampling methods
Convenience - aka chunk, accidental & incidental sampling
Selection of the most readily available people or objects for a
study
No way to determine representativeness
Saves time and money
Quota
Selection of sample to reflect certain characteristics of the
population
Similar to stratified but does not involve random selection
Quotas for subgroups (proportions) are established
E.g. 50 males & 50 females; recruit the first 50 men and first 50
women that meet inclusion criteria
Purposive - aka judgmental or expert's choice sampling
Researcher uses personal judgement to select subjects that are
considered to be representative of the population
Handpicked subjects
Typical subjects experiencing problem being studied
Snowball
Also known as network sampling
Subjects refer the researcher to others who might be recruited
as subjects
Time Frame for Studying the Sample
See design notes on longitudinal & cross-sectional studies
Longitudinal
Cross-sectional
Sample Size
General rule - as large as possible to increase the representativeness of the sample
Increased size decreases sampling error
Relatively small samples in qualitative, exploratory, case studies, experimental
and quasi-experimental studies
Descriptive studies need large samples; e.g. 10 subjects for each item on the
questionnaire or interview guide
As the number of variables studied increases, the sample size also needs to
increase in order to detect significant relationships or differences
A minimum of 30 subjects is needed for use of the central limit theorem (statistics
based on the mean)
Large samples are needed if:
There are many uncontrolled variables
Small differences are expected in the sample/population on variables of
interest
The sample is divided into subgroups
Dropout rate (mortality) is expected to be high
Statistical tests used require minimum sample or subgroup size
Power Analysis
Power analysis = a procedure for estimating either the likelihood of committing a Type II
error or a procedure for estimating sample size requirements
Background Information for Understanding Power Analysis:
Type I and Type II errors
Type I error
Based on the statistical analysis of data, the researcher wrongly rejects a
true null hypothesis; and therefore, accepts a false alternative hypothesis
Probability of committing a type I error is controlled by the researcher
with the level of significance, alpha.
Alpha is the probability that a Type I error will occur
Alpha is established by researcher; usually = .05 or .01
lpha = .05 means there is a 5% chance of rejecting a true
null hypothesis; OR out of 100 samples, a true null hypothesis
would be rejected 5 times out of 100 and accepted 95 times out of
100.
Alpha = .01 means there is a 1% chance of rejecting a true null
hypothesis; OR out of 100 samples, a true null hypothesis would
be rejected 1 time out of 100 and accepted 99 times out of 100
Type II error
Based on the statistical analysis of data, the researcher wrongly accepts a
false null hypothesis; and therefore, rejects a true alternate hypothesis
Probability of committing a Type II error is reduced by a power analysis
Probability of a Type II error is called beta
Power, or 1- is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis
and obtaining a statistically significant result
Type I & Type II Errors In the real world, the In the real world, the
actual situations is actual situations is
that the null that the null
hypothesis is : hypothesis is :
True False
Based on statistical analysis,
the researcher concludes that:
Correct decision: the Type II error: the
Null true: Null hypothesis is actual true null is actual false null is
accepted accepted accepted
Based on statistical analysis,
the researcher concludes that:
Type I error: the Correct decision: the
Null false: Null hypothesis is actual true null actual false null is
rejected & alternate is accepted hypothesis is rejected rejected & alternate is
accepted
Background Information for Understanding Power Analysis:
Population Effect Size - Gamma
Gamma measures how wrong the null hypothesis is; it measures how strong the
effect of the IV is on the DV; and it is used in performing a power analysis
Gamma is calculated based on population data from prior research studies, or
determined several different ways depending on the nature of the data and the
statistical tests to be performed
The textbook discusses 4 ways to estimate gamma (population effect size) based
upon:
Testing the difference between 2 means (t-test)
Testing the difference between 3> means (ANOVA)
Testing bivariate correlation (relationship) between 2 variables
(Pearson's r)
Testing the difference in proportions between 2 groups (chi-square)
If there is no relevant research on topic to estimate the population effect size
(gamma), then use guidelines for gamma or its equivalent
Testing the difference between 2 means (t-test) - gamma for small
effects = .20; medium effects = .50; large effects = .80
Testing the difference between 3> means (ANOVA) - eta squared 2for
small effects 2 = .01; medium effects 2 = .06; large effects 2 = .14
Testing bivariate correlation (relationship) between 2 variables
(Pearson's r) gamma for small effects = .10; medium effects = .30;
large effects = .50
Testing the difference in proportions between 2 groups (chi-square - no
conventions for unknown populations
Determining Sample Size through Power Analysis
Need to have the following data:
Level of significance criterion = alpha , use .05 for most nursing studies and your
calculations
Power = 1 - (beta); if beta is not known standard power is .80, so use this when
you are determining sample size
Population size effect = gamma or its equivalent, e.g. eta squared 2; use
recommended values for small, medium, or large effect for the statistical test you
plan to use to answer research questions or test hypothesis
Use tables on pages 455-459 of Polit & Hungler or other reference
Mathematical formulas and computer programs can also be used for calculation of sample
size
Sampling Error and Sampling Bias
Sampling error = The difference between the sample statistic (e.g. sample mean)
and the population parameter (e.g. population mean) that is due to the random
fluctuations in data that occur when the sample is selected
Sampling bias
Also called systematic bias or systematic variance
The difference between sample data and population data that can be
attributed to faulty sampling of the population
Consequence of selecting subjects whose characteristics (scores) are
different in some way from the population they are suppose to represent
This usually occurs when randomization is not used
Randomization Procedures in Research
Randomization = each individual in the population has an equal opportunity to
be selected for the sample
Random selection = from all people who meet the inclusion criteria, a sample is
randomly chosen
Random assignment
The assignment of subjects to treatment conditions in a random
manner.
It has no bearing on how the subjects participating in an experiment are
initially selected.
See Polit & Hungler, pg. 160-162 for random assignment to groups and
group random assignment to tx. using a random numbers table
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