A.

PHONETIC AND PHONOLOGY

Phonetics and phonology are related, dependent fields for studying aspects of
language. Phonetics is the study of sound in speech; phonology is the study (and use)
of sound patterns to create meaning. Phonetics focuses on how speech is physically
created and received, including study of the human vocal and auditory tracts,
acoustics, and neurology. Phonology relies on phonetic information for its practice,
but focuses on how patterns in both speech and non-verbal communication create
meaning, and how such patterns are interpreted. Phonology includes comparative
linguistic studies of how cognates, sounds, and meaning are transmitted among and
between human communities and languages.

B. THE PRODUCTION OF SPEECH SOUND

Articulators above the larynx

All the sounds we make when we speak are the result of muscles contracting.
The muscles in the chest that we use for breathing produce the flow of air that is
needed for almost all speech sounds; muscles in the larynx produce many different
modifications in the flow of air from the chest to the mouth. After passing through the
larynx, the air goes through what we call the vocal tract, which ends at the mouth and
nostrils. Here the air from the lungs escapes into the atmosphere. We have a large and
complex set of muscles that can produce changes in the shape of the vocal tract, and
in order to learn how the sounds of speech are produced it is necessary to become
familiar with the different parts of the vocal tract. These different parts are called
articulators, and the study of them is called articulatory phonetics.

1. The articulators
i) The pharynx is a tube which begins just above the larynx. It is about 7 cm
long in women and about 8 cm in men, and at its top end it is divided into two, one
part being the back of the mouth and the other being the beginning of the way through
the nasal cavity.

ii) The velum or soft palate is seen in the diagram in a position that allows air to pass
through the nose and through the mouth. Yours is probably in that position now, but
often in speech it is raised so that air cannot escape through the nose. The other
important thing about the velum is that it is one of the articulators that can be touched
by the tongue. When we make the sounds k and g the tongue is in contact with the
lower side of the velum, and we call these velar consonants.

iii) The hard palate is often called the "roof of the mouth". You can feel its smooth
curved surface with your tongue.

iv) The alveolar ridge is between the top front teeth and the hard palate. You can feel
its shape with your tongue. Its surface is really much rougher than it feels, and is
covered with little ridges. You can only see these if you have a mirror small enough to
go inside your mouth (such as those used by dentists). Sounds made with the tongue
touching here (such as t and d ) are called alveolar.

v) The tongue is, of course, a very important articulator and it can be moved into
many different places and different shapes. It is usual to divide the tongue into
different parts, though there are no clear dividing lines within the tongue. Fig. 2
shows the tongue on a larger scale with these parts shown: tip, blade, front, back and
root. (This use of the word "front" often seems rather strange at first.)

2. Sub-divisions of the tongue

vi) The teeth (upper and lower) are usually shown in diagrams only at the front of the
mouth, immediately behind the lips. This is for the sake of a simple diagram, and you
should remember that most speakers have teeth to the sides of their mouths, back
almost to the soft palate. The tongue is in contact with the upper side teeth for many
speech sounds. Sounds made with the tongue touching the front teeth are called
dental.

vii) The lips are important in speech. They can be pressed together (when we produce
the sounds p , b ), brought into contact with the teeth (as in f , v), or rounded to
produce the lip-shape for vowels like u. Sounds in which the lips are in contact with
each other are called bilabial, while those with lip-to-teeth contact are called
labiodental.
 C. PLACE AND MANNER OF ARTICULATION
1. Place of articulation

The International Phonetic Alphabet recognises the following places of

articulation (among others):
Bilabial The point of maximum constriction is made by the coming together of
the two lips.
Labiodental The lower lip articulates with the upper teeth.

Dental The tip of the tongue articulates with the back or bottom of the top
teeth.

Alveolar The tip or the blade of the tongue articulates with the forward part of
the alveolar ridge. A sound made with the tip of the tongue here is an
apico-alveolar sound; one made with the blade, a lamino-alveolar.
Postalveolar The tip or the blade of the tongue articulates with the back area of the
alveolar ridge.
Palatal The front of the tongue articulates with the domed part of the hard
palate.
Velar The back of the tongue articulates with the soft palate.

Uvular The back of the tongue articulates with the very back of the soft palate,
including the uvula.

Pharyngeal The pharynx is constricted by the faucal pillars moving together

(lateral compression) and, possibly, by the larynx being raised. "It is
largely a sphincteric semi-closure of the oro-pharynx, and it can be
learned by tickling the back of the throat, provoking retching" (Catford
1978:163).
Glottal The vocal folds are brought together; in some cases, the function of the
vocal folds can be part of articulation as well as phonation, as in the
case of [] and [h] in many languages.

2. Manner of Articulation

We stated that in consonant sounds the airflow is interrupted, diverted or

restricted as it passes the oral cavity. The respective modifications that are made to a
 sound are referred to as their manner of articulation. The manner of articulation,
therefore, describes how the different speech organs are involved in producing a
consonant sound, basically how the airflow is obstructed. Thus, the manner of
articulation is a distinctive feature in the English language.

These are the different manners of articulation:

Plosives/stops: In plosives, the speech organs are closed and the oral and nasal cavity
completely closed blocking off the airstream. The upbuilding pressure in the oral
cavity is then suddenly released. The audible puff of air that is released is called
aspiration. Plosives of the English language are /p/, /t/, /k/ (voiceless) and //b/, /d/, /g/
(voiced).
Affricates: Like with plosives there is a complete blockage of the airstream in the
oral cavity. But in contrast to said plosives, the blocked-off airstream is not released
suddenly, but rather slowly causing audible friction. Affricates can, therefore, be
divided into two parts: a plosive followed by a fricative (as there is closure and
friction in the same place). But note that affricates are always analyzed as only one
phoneme. English affricates are /t/ (voiceless) as in cheese and /d/ (voiced) as in
jungle.
Nasals: In nasal sounds the velum (soft palate) is lowered blocking off the oral cavity.
Air can only escape through the nose. English nasals are /m/, /n/ and // as in sing,
which are all voiced.
Fricatives: Fricatives are created when air forces its way through a narrow gap
between two articulators at a steady pace. They can be divided into two categories:
slit fricatives and groove fricatives. In slit fricatives the tongue is rather flat (as in /f/,
// as in thing (voiceless), /v/, // as in this (voiced) ) while in groove fricatives the
front of the tongue forms the eponymous groove (/s/ as in seal, // as in shock
(voiceless), /z/ as in zero, // as in measure (voiced)).
Laterals: The tip of the tongue is pressed onto the alveolar ridge. The rims of the
tongue are lowered so that the air escapes over the lowered tongue rims. The only
English lateral sound is /l/ (voiced).
Approximants: The name approximants refers to the fact that the articulators
involved approach each another without actually touching. There are three
 approximants in the English language: /j/ as in you, /w/ as in we and /r/ as in rise (all
voiced).

D. PHONETIC SYMBOL

VOWELS :
Lax : Short (pendek)
e /i /u
Cara Baca Contoh Kata
Seperti bilang = sule, sate kit, bid, hymn, minute
e Seperti bilang = bebek,ember dress, bed, head, many
A sedikit o lot, odd, wash
+ strut, mud, love, blood
+u foot, good, put
+r nurse, stir, learn, refer
Seperti bilang= kepada, about, common,
jembatan standard

Tense : Long (panjang)

i u
Cara Baca Contoh kata
i I fleece, sea, machine
u U goose, two, blue, group
A start, father
O thought, law, north, war
e Ea square. fair, various

Glide / Diphthong : (suara lemas )

e a a e

Cara baca Contoh kata

e Ei face, day, break
a Ai price, high, try
 Eu goat, show, no
a Au mouth, now
Oi choice, boy
Iye near, here, weary
e Eye square. fair, various
Ue poor, jury, cure

CONSONANTS :
Voiceless : (letupan berat / cepat)
p k f s t h t

Cara Baca Contoh Kata

p p pen, copy, happen
t t tea, tight, button
k k key, clock, school
t Che (tebal) church, match, nature
f f fat, coffee, rough, photo
tsa thing, author, path
s s soon, cease, sister
Seperti syin ship, sure, national
h h hot, whole, ahead

Voiced : (letupan kalem / santai)

b d g d l n m r v w
jz

Cara Baca Contoh Kata

b b back, baby, job
d d day, ladder, odd
g g get, giggle, ghost
d Je (tebal) judge, age, soldier
v v view, heavy, move
dja this, other, smooth
 z z zero, music, roses, buzz
Z+h pleasure, vision
m m more, hammer, sum
n n nice, know, funny, sun
ng ring, anger, thanks, sung
l l light, valley, feel
r r right, wrong, sorry,
arrange
j y yet, use, beauty, few
w w wet, one, when, queen

Pop sound :
p k t t (voicless)
d b g d (voice)

E. RULE OF PHONOLOGY

a.Assimilation rules
The vowel nasalization rule is an assimilation rule;it assimilates one segment to
another by ''copying'' or ''spreading'' a feature of a sequential phoneme on to its
neighboring segment,thus making the two phones more similar.
V---[+nasal] / ___ [+nasal] (C)$

The nasalization rule stated formally above can be read in words:

''A vowel becomes or is nasalized in the enviroment before a nasal segment.''

b.Feature changing rules:

The English vowel nasalization and devoicing rules and the Japanese
devoicing rule change feature specifications.That is, in English the [-nasal]value of
phonemic vowels is changed to [+nasal] phonetically through a spreading process
when the vowels occur before nasals.
c.Dissimilation rules

Dissimilation rules that change feature values to make two phonemes in a

string more dissimilar like the Latin liquid rule.A classic example of dissimilation
occured in Latin,and the results of this process show up in modern--day English.These
words came into English as adjectives ending in -al or in its dissimilated from -ar,as
shown in the following examples:

--al --ar
anecdot-al angul-ar
annu-al annul-ar
ment-al column-ar
d.Segment deletion and addition rules
In addition to assimilation and dissimilation and feature-addition
rules,phonological rules can delete or add entire phonemic segments.In French,for
example,as demonstrated by Sanford Schane,word-final consonants are deleted when
the following word begins with a consonant(oral or nasal) or a liquid,but are retained
when the following word begins with a vowel or a glide.We can state the French rule
simple as:

[+consonantal]---&/_____##[+consonantal]
This rule can be''translated'' into words as: ''Delete a consonant before a
word beginning with all consonant except glide''

e.Movement(Metathesis)rules
Phonological rules may also move phonemes from one place in string to
another.Such rules are called metathesis rules.In some dialects of English,for example
the word ask is pronouunced [aks],but the word asking is pronounced [askin] or
[aski&].In these dialects,metathesis rule''switches'' the /s/ and /k/ in certain contexts.In
Old English the verb was aksian,with the /k/ preceding the /s/.A historical metahtesis-
rule switched these two consonants,producing ask in most dialects of English.