Chapter 3 - Raga grammar, usage, and

approach to interpretation.

Brief summary:

There are no precedents or records available to indicate that the tradition of Carnatic
music or any part of Kalpita or Kalpana sangIta can be disassociated from the term Raga.
Hence, Carnatic music is also known as ‘Raga’ music. This chapter deals with this and other
related aspects in the following manner:

1. Definition and origin of the word Raga

2. Technical terms and classifications of sruthis, swaras and swara groups
(gamakas) and swara usages (graha, amsa, nyasa etc.)
3. Understanding the term ‘Raga’, ‘Raga Lakshana’ and a brief look at the texts
associated with them.
4. Ancient and Modern usages – how Raga and Raga alapana have been looked at
earlier, and how they are treated today.

Understanding Raga
A raga (Sanskrit rāga राग, literally "colour, hue" but also "beauty, melody"; also spelled

raag, raaga, ragam) is one of the melodic modes used in Indian classical music38. It can be
classified as an absolute mode, i.e., one form of music which can exist by itself. The
individual notes and the raga forms have been referred to as divine beings (Swara devatas and
Raga devatas).

“Ranj” or to be dyed in or to glow, or to colour is the root of the word Raga39.

“Ranjayathe iti Ragah” is a common expression. Raga can be taken to mean “feeling”, as
the ‘colour’ of the mind is emotion.

38
[Link]
39
A.H. Fox Strangways, The Music of Hindostan, page 107, Oxford at The Claredon Press, 1914
26
 Bharata Muni has used the word “Jati” in the Natyashastra to indicate a basic array of
sruthis or notes. Further, based on the use of murchanas and kramas, he has indicated the
emergence of specific melodic patterns, or Vikritha Jatis that have been renamed as Ragas.
That Indian music existed in a highly advanced form earlier to Bharata has been
acknowledged by non- Indian authors too40.

Brhaddesi of Sage Matanga is the first extant text (available in parts only as of today) to
describe Raga, to introduce swara notation, an approach towards concepts like Desi (subtle
sound) Nada (vibration) which is prevalent in all types of performing art. Shruthi, Swara,
Grama, Murchana etc. are also explained to establish the concept of Desi and its counterpart
Marga. Varna and Alankara (melodic repetitive patterns) are described as ways to beautify
the raga or the melody. Sthayi, Arohi, Avarohi and Sanchari are the concepts for the
elaboration and they are used to ‘colour’ the Varnas in a cyclic or repetitive fashion
(alankara) to get the impetus of creativity. Matanga also describes the progenitor Jatis to
some extent. Sage Matanga was the first to have used the word “Raga” and the definition
given by him is “That which pleases and enamours one through the swara varnas and their
intonation or expression through different rasas”. The association of Swaras with emotions
like heroism or valour, compassion, romantic appeal etc. has been described both by Bharata
Muni and by Matanga.

In another period, around 1200 AD, the Sangita Ratnakara of Sharangadeva continues in
the same approach of sruthis, swaras and rasas, but also gives a multi stage method of Raga
elaboration i.e., the stages Akshipthika, Vidari, Ragavardhani Sthayi, and Nyasa are allied
concepts to explain the method of elaboration of each stage.

In general, it can also be observed that any raga uses a series of five or more musical
notes upon which a melody is constructed. Four note ragas have also been conceived and
performed, but such ragas are beyond the scope of this thesis. However, it is important to
remember that the way the notes are approached and rendered in musical phrases and the
mood they convey are more important in defining a raga than the notes themselves. In the

40
E. Clements, Introduction to the study of Indian Music, Longmans, Green and Co., 1913
and E. Clements, Ragas of Tanjore, page 22, William Cloves & sons, London, 1920
27
Indian musical tradition, Ragas are associated with emotions, as well as different times of the
day, or with seasons. Indian classical music is always set in a Raga. Even non-classical
music such as popular Indian film songs and ghazals sometimes use Ragas in their
compositions, which show that Ragas convey emotions very well.

Joep Bor of the Rotterdam Conservatory of Music defined Raga as "tonal framework for
composition and improvisation." Nazir Jairazbhoy, chairman of UCLA's department of
ethnomusicology, characterises Ragas as separated by scale, line of ascent and descent,
transience, emphasized notes and register, and intonation and ornaments.

A look at some technical terms used in describing Raga

Swara, Shruthi, Swarasthana, Shuddha Swara and Anuswara.

The term Swara denotes the musical note or in scientific terms, the frequency. Shruthi is
the term used to generally indicate the position of the note (again frequency) which is heard
(or being considered). Thus Swara and Shruthi are often used as synonyms. Though Swara is
used to refer to larger values or semi – tonal level ones, whereas shruthi is used for values
that are closer to quarter tonal values.

Swarasthana refers to the placement of the note (meaning its precise value in terms of
frequency). Hz (Hertz) is a common unit used to measure the frequency.

Basically, the swaras are 7 – sapthaswaras, meaning that they are called by the seven
short names sa, ri, ga ma, pa, dha (henceforth referred to as da, for simplicity) and ni. Even in
Hindustani music, they are called by the same names, with the exception of ri being called as
‘re’. Their abbreviations are given hereafter as s, r g, m, p, d and n in the printed form.

The ‘shuddha’ swarasthana or suddhaswara refer to the situations where the note in
consideration can be rendered as dirgha or elongated, and also un-ornamented with gamakas.
Thus, 2 unchangeable or avikrutha notes sa & pa + the 10 vikrutha notes (2 varieties each of
ri, ga ma, da and ni) thus make for 12 swarasthanas, Dirgha (elongation) and Shuddha
(unadorned) are the 2 key attributes.

28
 Anuswaras are typically those swara that are basically dependent on a shuddha swara, and
occur in the course of a movement. For e.g., ri in Saveri raga is often rendered as the
combination s..r repeated many times in quick succession. (s..r s..r s..r s..r). Here it can be
noted that s is the dirgha shuddha swara and r is the hrsva (short) anuswara. In slow speed,
the anuswara shruthi values are rarely used like shuddha swaras in Carnatic music. Mostly,
they occur plain and unadorned only in fast passages. Another point of interest is that the
anuswaras as a rule, occur in between 2 shuddha swaras and in the slow raga usages they
almost always commence and end with shuddha swaras.

The frequency values of the shuddha swaras and the anuswaras vis a vis the frequency of
the adhara shadja are derived and discussed in Chapter 4.

Gamakas
The Sangita Sampradaya Pradarshini (SSP) of Subbarama Dikshithar is one of the later
authentic and widely followed repositories of the knowledge about Raga Lakshana that has
and is being used extensively to understand and describe Raga. It describes 15 gamakas in
detail as played on the veena.

Gamaka is the general term given to describe raga usages, or a grouping of swaras in the
course of the raga rendition. Different gamakas (even when based on the same swara) portray
different shades and this is one of the factors that helps one identify ragas uniquely and also
differentiate between similar ragas.

Yet again, the swaras can be classified in terms of their occurrence during Gamaka i.e.
oscillated as part of a phrase:

· Kampita swara – Swara that occurs as an oscillation, using the shuddha swaras
and any of their associated anuswaras.
· Hrasva swara – Swara that occurs for a very short interval of time.
· Dirgha swara – Swara that can be elongated (either as a long and single
unchanged note or as an oscillating swara.

Swaras can be further classified into many categories in the context of describing Raga,
when a sangathi – or a phrase in the raga is formed and sung.

29
 · Graha swara: the swara commencing the melody.
· Amsa swara: the predominant swara that either formed the tonic note Sa or one
that frequently occurred in the melody.
· Tara swara: the svara in the higher register up to which the melodic movement
could ascend.
· Mandra swara: the svara in the lower register up to which the melodic movement
could descend.
· Nyasa swara: the swara on which a song (or series of phrases) finally conclude.
· Apanyasa: the swara on which a section of the song can conclude.
· Alpatva swara: the swara, which should be sparingly used or rendered weak.
· Bahutva: swara, which is strong and frequently used.
· Şhaḍava swara: the swara, which could be omitted to render the Jati (or raga) in
six notes.
· Auḍuva swaras: those two swaras, which could be dropped to render the jati in
five swaras.

Raga Lakshana – a detailed over view

Raga has many meanings as a Sanskrit word. The definition of Raga in the musical
context can refer to both the analysis of melody as well as the feeling it evokes. Raga
Lakshana generally means describing the grammar of the Raga, as arohana and avarohana
swaras (ascent and descent) along with other rules like prayogas (typical usages) and
gamakas (permitted ornamentation or movements of the swaras). When Raga is sung, it is
the result of the Vidwans’ intellect (Lakshana) and his imagination (Lakshya). A brief look at
what important texts on music prescribe is necessary.

Which came first – Raga Lakshana or Raga Lakshya?

Swami Prajnanananda gives an interesting narrative:

In the primitive, prehistoric and Vedic periods, we do not come across the use of the
microtones. But their existence cannot be denied even in those times, and it can be said that
in those periods men did not feel it necessary to determine them in their musical systems. (So
the use of microtones may properly be assigned to the beginning of the classical period in the

30
period 600-500 B.C., when the Vedic music (sama gita) was falling out of practice and the
laukika Gandharva type of systematic-cum scientific music gaining ascendency over it. In
Greece, the microtones were devised in the beginning of the classical period by the Greek
philosopher, Pythagoras, and the system was developed by the Pythagorians. In India, it is
said that the microtones were devised by Brahma or Brahmabharata, the first promulgator of
the Gandharva type of music, and afterwards it was made perfect by Narada of the Shiksa
(1st century, A. D.) and Bharata of the Natyasastra in the 2nd century A. D. Narada has
mentioned about 5 basic minute tones dipta, dyata, karuna, mridu and madhya, and he has
called them 'shrutis'.41

Bharatha’s Natya Shastra give detailed explanation of each Jathi and the gramas. Raga
has been written, for example, in the SangIta Sampradaya Pradarshini (circa 1905). It is also a
known fact that written manuscripts were not freely available or accessible as they are in the
modern internet revolution42. Hence, can we conclude that process of describing Raga
Lakshana was elaborated at a later stage, over millenniums, and simultaneously musicians
performed ragas (for e.g., Anandabhairavi, ancient Raga ) based on their observation,
intuition and feeling.

This statement can be further derived from the way a musician begins to sing a raga. In
most cases, the traditional method of moulding a musician was Gurukula vasa ( meaning a
stay – or apprenticeship with the teacher) wherein, he observed the Guru perform many a
time ( either in the company of peers or in the concert). Reference to ancient manuscripts
elucidating detailed Raga Lakshana, or the method of analysing the raga – with the relevant
rules was quite a rarity. This should be borne in mind, before attempting to analyse Raga
Lakshana or Raga Lakshaya in detail.

Raga Lakshana can also be called as the technical boundary of the raga or as the Raga
grammar. There are various factors that determine the Lakshana of a raga — in many cases,
old treatises mention the Lakshanas of a Raga – the descriptors.

41
Swami Prajnananda, A History of Indian Music, Ramakrishna Vedanta Math, 1963, page 16
42
C R Day, The Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India, Novello, Ewer & Co.,
London, 1891, page 11
31
 Some of them are:

· Murchana ( the life breath – as it were, of the raga) based on its Arohana and the
Avarohana (the ascending the descending order of the scale),
· Sancharis - characteristic phrases of the raga,
· Visesha prayogas - the special distinguishing usages.
· Gamakas peculiar to a particular raga and so on.

In earlier times, study of music followed the “Guru-Shishya” tradition, and rarely did
exist any written text. First classical music began as abhyasa, and it was only later that
shastras were studied. It is probable that only during the period of Bharata (300 BC) were the
theories of Sangita documented for the first time, and this was termed as “Natya Shastra”. For
a considerable period of time it was one of the only authoritative treatise (Pramana Grantha)
for the whole of India. After that, independent growth of classical music occurred across
different parts of India, in different forms.

Sharngadeva’s Sangita Ratnakara is the first documented work on South Indian classical
music, written around the year 1200. He hailed from Devagiri, which was at the time a part of
Carnatica (but is now Daulatabad, province of Hyderabad). Later, in 1350BC, South Indian
classical music obtained a well-defined structure through the works of Madhava and
Vidhyaranya. Apart from strengthening the SangIta shastras (Sangita Shastra pravartane) by
writing “Sangita Saara”, they were also ministers of the Vijayanagara Empire, and Heads of
Shringeri Mutt.

Carnatic music saw renewed growth during the Vijayanagar Empire by the Kannada
Haridasa movement of Vyasaraja, Purandara Dasa, Kanakadasa and others. Among the
Haridasa movement, Purandara Dasa who is known as the Sangita Pitamaha (the father of
Carnatic music), is credited with the founding of the system of teaching Carnatic music.
Others of the Haridasa movement, helped shaped the music of their time and prepared for the
future by influencing some of the composers who came after them. Thyagaraja acknowledges
the influence of Purandara Dasa. Tulajaji, the Maharashtra ruler of Tanjore (1729-35 A.D.),
writes of the music of Haridasas in his book Sangita Saramrita, and venerates Vyasaraya and
Purandara Dasa as great composers.

32
 Around 1650 AD, Raghunatha Nayaka wrote “Sangita Sudha”, where he has quoted a
lot about “Sangita Sara” by Madhava- Vidhyaranya. There is another view that the work was
authored by Govinda Dikshithar, who was a minister in the court of King Achyuta Nayaka of
Thanjavur.43

Govinda Dikshitar’s son was the renowned Venkatamakhin, who is credited with the
classification of ragas in the Melakartha System, and he wrote his most important work;
Caturdandi Prakashika (c.1635 CE) in Sanskrit. Kshetrajna who wrote “Shrungara padas”
(which also deals with theory of Sangita Shastra) was also living at this time (1650). During
the time of Vidhyaranya, there were 15 Melakartha ragas, which became 72 during the time
of Venkatamakhin. Apart from above mentioned theorists, many other theorists like
Kallinatha, Ramamathya, Somanatha, etc. have contributed a lot to the development of
Carnatic music. Thus the development of Carnatic music from Sharangadeva to
Venkatamakhin (a duration of 650 years) resulted in its further expansion and establishment.

Treatises on music pertinent to the scope of this thesis

Bharatha’s Natya Shastra

The Natya Shastra (Sanskrit: नाय शा!") is an ancient Indian treatise on the performing

arts, encompassing theatre, dance and music. It was written during the period between 200
BC and 200 AD in India and is traditionally attributed to the Sage Bharata.

The Natya Shastra is very wide in its scope. While it primarily deals with drama, it has
come to influence music, classical Indian dance, and literature as well. It covers stage design,
music, dance, makeup, and virtually every other aspect of stage presentation. Thus, it implies
that Natya Shastra is the foundation of the fine arts in India and very important to the history
of Indian classical music, mainly because it is the only text which gives such detail about the
music and instruments of the period. Abhinavabharati by Abhinavagupta is the most
authoritative commentary on the Natya Shastra.

43
S. Subrahmanya Sastri, SangIta Ratnakara of Sharangadeva, with Kalanidhi of Kallinatha and Sudhakara
of Simhabhupala, Vol I, page xi, The Adyar Library, 1943
33
 After the Samaveda, which dealt with ritual utterances of the Vedas, the Natya
Shastra was the first major text that dealt with music at length. It was considered the defining
treatise of Indian classical music until the 13th century, when the stream bifurcated into
Hindustani classical music in North India and Pakistan, due to the influence of Persian and
Arab music, and Carnatic classical music in South India, the stronghold of the Hindu
kingdoms.

While much of the discussion of music in the Natyashastra focuses on musical

instruments, it also emphasizes several theoretical aspects that remained fundamental to
Indian music. Establishment of Shadja grama as the first, defining scale or grama. The word
Shadja (ष$ज) means born out of the sixth note “dha”, refers to the fact that once this note

(often referred to as "sa" and notated as s or S) is fixed, the placement of other notes in the
scale is determined. 22 is the number of clearly distinguishable microtones (sruthis) in an
octave.

Principle of Consonance: Consists of two principles:

· The first principle states that there exists a fundamental note in the musical scale
which is Avinashi (अ'वनाशी) and Avilopi (अ'वलोपी) i.e., the note is ever-present

and unchanging.
· The second principle often treated as law, states that there exists a natural
consonance between notes; the best between Shadjam and Tara Shadjam, the next
best between Shadjam and Panchamam.

The Natya Shastra also suggest the notion of musical modes or jatis which are the origin
of the notion of the modern melodic structures known as ragas. Their role in invoking
emotions is emphasized; thus compositions emphasizing the notes gandhara or panchamam
are said to be related to tragedy (karuna rasa) whereas Shadjam and rishabham is to be
emphasized for evoking heroism (vIra rasa).

In the chapter on “Flute” in Natya Shastra, Bharata Muni explains how the full open hole
of the flute produces a Shadja swara of 4 sruthis, and how partial opening produces a note of
2 sruthis, and alternate opening and closing a swara of 3 sruthis. Thus, he can said to have

34
looked at swaras as to be sung envelopes of sruthis, rather than just as a single shruthi being
held for a long time. The concept of sthana, or the important or resting place of the swara at
any shruthi, makes up the word swarasthana, often used even today.

Jatis are elaborated in greater detail in the text Dattilam, composed around the same
time as the Natyashastra. To prove the utility of shrutis in music, Bharata Muni, while
explaining Shadja grama and Madhyama grama in chapters 28 and 30 of Bharat Natya
Shastra, expounded the Sarana Chatushtai – the only experiment according to Bharata to
obtain the correct physical configuration of Sruti Swara arrangement to Shadja Grama notes
on any musical instrument (Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni Sa, corresponding to 4-3-2-4-4-3-2,
totalling 22 shrutis in a Saptak (an octave). In the other words, the three gramas are put
together with the Sruti intervals between the swaras for comparison: 44

Sa grama s r g m p d n
4 3 2 4 4 3 2
Ga grama g m p d n S R
4 3 3 3 4 3 2
Ma grama m p d n S R G
4 3 4 2 4 3 2
Figure 3.1 Sruthi intervals in the 3 gramas.
This is the conclusion arrived at by A.H. Fox Strangways.

Another perspective is provided by H.A. Popley, another author of note in the early
twentieth century.

The Sruti values of the intervals of the Sa-grama were as follows:

Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa

4 3 2 4 4 3 2

The Ma-grama is formed by interchanging the Sruti values of the intervals before Dha
and Ni and then starting on the Ma. Then it will be as follows:

44
A.H. Fox Strangways, The Music of Hindostan, page 110, Oxford at The Claredon Press, 1914
35
 Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Ri Ga Ma

45
4 3 4 2 4 3 2

The Natyashastra also suggests several aspects of musical performance, particularly

its application to vocal, instrumental and orchestral compositions. It also deals with the rasas
and bhavas that may be evoked by music.

SangIta Ratnakara of Sharangadeva

The Sangita-Ratnakara of Sharangadeva (thirteenth century) is one of the most
important musicological texts from India, which both Hindustani music and Carnatic music
regard as a definitive text.

The text is also known as Saptadhyayi as it is divided into seven chapters. The first six
chapters, Svaragatadhyaya, Ragavivekadhyaya, Prakirnakadhyaya, Prabandhadhyaya,
Taladhyaya and Vadyadhyaya deal with the various aspects of music like Swara, Raga,
Prakarnika, Prabandha, Tala and Vadya (musical instruments) while the last chapter
Nartanadhyaya deals with dance.

The SangIta Ratnakara is a very important work since it is very comprehensive and
maybe the longest work too. It takes into account the various works of that time and the
author describes himself as “nissanka” or free of doubts. Many commentaries on this work,
especially those by Kallinatha and Simhabhupala have been made. Also, the SR has been
quoted and referred to in many later musical works like SangIta Sudha etc.

Some special features are that this work talks about the concepts of Swara and shruthi
with reference to the Natya Shastra and also about jatis, murchanas and the various gramas
like Shadja, Madhyama and Gandhara grama. Tabulations have been made of the various
murchanas with the shruthi intervals mentioned too, in all the 3 gramas.

45
H.A. Popley, The Music of India, page 34, Association Press, Calcutta, 1921

36
 It is also very interesting to note the appending of the chapter on Swara prastharas or
swara elaboration. Starting from the single notes, and proceeding on to the two note
combinations within an octave, like sr, rs, rg, gr, gm, mg, mp, pm, pd, dp, dn, nd etc.,
Sharangadeva next exhaustively lists all combinations that are possible using 3 notes for e.g.,
6 combinations like srg, sgr, gsr, rsg, rgs and grs. Then it goes on to elaborate the same for 4
note, 5 note, 6 and finally the 5040 ways in which all 7 notes can be put together to make
combinations.

Figure 3.2 Sruthi names and their distribution among the 3 gramas in Sangita Ratnakara
This work was written by Sharangadeva in the end of thirteenth century. The author
mentions about his ancestry and that he was the son of Sodala, He was attached to the court

37
of Yadava King Singhana, whose capital was Devagiri (the present Daulatabad, in the South
Maharashtra).

Caturdandi Prakashika of Venkatamakhin

Venkatamakhin first received his formal training under his elder brother, Yagnanarayana
Dikshithar and later on under later under Danappachariar, alias Venkata Sarma.

Caturdandi Prakashika is an important landmark in Carnatic music. The name means

`Exposition of the four pillars or channels’ through which a raga manifests itself`. The word
Caturdandi has been probably chosen as it denotes either the four parts of a raga alapa - stayi,
sanchari, aroha and avaroha, or as four forms of singing, which have been referred to in the
text as Gita, Prabandha, Taya and Alapa.
Venkatamakhin claims to have devised the 72 melakarta scheme. The ten chapters are:
Veena Prakarana, Sruti, Swara, Mela, Raga, Alapa, Thaya, Geeta, Prabandha and Anubandha
Prakaranas. Venkatamakhin has mentioned about one more variety of veena: Eka Tantri.
These are themes that have been highly focussed upon by Venkatamakhin.

The first and comparatively most important part of the work is Vina Prakarana, which
deals with fretting of the veena – basically of the 3 types of arrangements, shuddha mela,
madhyama mela and Raghunathendra mela veenas. We can see that some arrangements
described like shuddha mela veena, where the mandra shadja is on the first string, and the
madhya shadja is on the third string are not being followed today.

The second, third, fourth and fifth prakaranas deal with shrutis, swaras, melas and ragas.
The seventh and eighth prakaranas speak about alapa, taya and gita. It is important to note
that the derivation of the sruthis is done after the swaras are established through lakshaya.46
In Sangita Saramruta 935 verses of Caturdandi Prakashika have been given. From here one
gets an idea as to how the seventeen svaras of Caturdandi could be played on a veena and
how they could be executed by the vocalist. In Ragaprakarana he elaborates the ragas which
originate from the melas. His suggestion marks a shift from Tamil tradition.

46
[Link], Caturdandi Prakashika of Venkatamakhi,
[Link]
38
 Venkatamakhin`s formula introduces a shift in the thinking. He made a very profound and
path breaking attempt to systematically codify the ragas under the melas. He first defined the
swaras as 16 varieties. But, later he grouped together certain sruthis under some swaras to
reduce the total swaras as 12, and by manipulating the swaras mechanically, it is possible to
derive 72 melas, or the Sampoorna (linear) mela paddhathi.

Caturdandi Prakashika is most relevant today in the context of the melakarta system of
classifying ragas. Besides the musicology, Venkatamakhin has also composed geethams and
prabandhas, 24 ashtapadis in praise of Lord Thyagaraja of Tiruvarur.

It is noteworthy that Muthuswami Dikshithar followed Venkatamakhi and the

Asampoorna Mela paddhathi of classification of Ragas. The most prolific composer
Thyagaraja is said to have studied an extant text “Swararnavam”. Legends attribute the text
being gifted to him by the Sage Narada.

A perspective on Shruthi-Swara-Jathi-Murchana-Krama-Varna-
Alankara
K. Vasudeva Sastri, a scholar at the famous Saraswathi Mahal Library in Tanjore,
provides an interesting perspective in his 2 books47 which are summarised below:

· All texts like Natya Shastra, Dattilam, SangIta Ratnakara before 1200 AD and a
few of them after 1700 AD like SangIta Sudha, and Caturdandi Prakashika
emphasise the 4 dandi (Caturdandi) method of getting to know Raga delineation,
viz., Alapa, Sthayi, Gita and Prabandha, and looks at the Jatis as a progenitor of
the various Ragas.
· Sastry categorises Sthayas as different categories of well-defined musical
phrasings in each Raga and Prabandhas as the early musical compositions, which
are extant now, and have been replaced by krithis, kirthanas and padas.
· The texts and the practical experiments in them, like Sarana Chatushtai or tuning a
22 stringed veena, elucidate concepts of a maximum of 22 sruthis possible in an

47
K. Vasudeva Sastri,, The Science of Music, Research Publications, Tanjore, 1954 and Raga Alapana and
Thayams, Tanjore Saraswathi Mahal Series No. 80, 1958
39
 octave. Swaras are movements or envelopes of sruthis, with a final resting sthana,
as opposed to just holding on a particular frequency, like a horn or like a note on
the piano.
· The shruthi intervals within and in- between the swaras which create the Samvadi-
Anuvadi-Vivadi for the Vadi, are very important in raga phrasing. He gives a very
illuminating example of rgmp phrasing being the Raga Chaya or the life force of
Huseni raga, while another phrasing rgmpdp with the Panchasruthi ri which has
the samvadi in the d1 is equally important.
· Murchanas need to be thoroughly understood. The shadja grama, for example has
7 murchanas, each starting from a different note.
· Each Murchana has a basic rasa, or main emotion of the situation, based on the
note of origin of the murchana.
· Within each murchana, exists the 12 krama patterns, each originating in a different
note, and that defines the Chaya or the subservient upa-rasa
· Within this particular krama, the Graha, Apanyasa, Nyasa, Amsa are identified.
· The performer has to look for the Samvadi-Anuvadi-Vivadi patterns after
determining the nyasa or the resting point in each krama.
· Sangita Ratnakara and other texts mention Lakshana or characteristic for every
Ragas. Raga is given the Varna or colour by the usage of patterns. The colouring,
as it were, can be done as Arohi (ascent), Avarohi(descent), Sthayi (in a single
swara) or as Sanchari (combination of ascent/descent/stationary)
· Alankara, which is also described in the Natya Shastra, as but a variety of Varna,
cab be usually associated with patterns of notes, like threes of fours or further
combinations. The early lessons of all music students include a chapter on
Alankaras, usually practised with the associated thalas too.
· Alankara can also be as sthayi, which means the use of the volume modulations
like ebb (Prasada) and flow (Tara) in the singing of a single swara. This is done in
seven different ways (combinations of ebb and flow) like Prasannadi (ragas like
Bhairavi, Yadukula Kambhoji and Sri Raga), Prasannanta (Manji and Khamas),
Prasannadynanta (Mukhari and Kambhoji), Prasanna Madhya (Huseni and
Nattaikurinji), Krama virechita (Sahana), Prastara and Prasada.

40
 Thyagaraja has not only been a very spiritually oriented composer, but a brilliant
musician too.48 An evidence of the validity of [Link] Sastri in his above observations
can be seen in his krithi “Vara Raga Layagnunu taamanucu”. Here, he decries the
‘pretenders’ as it were. “Even though people might not have experienced the differentiations
of swara, jati and murchana within themselves, they go about prattling that they are masters
of Raga and Laya.”49

The important points to note in the elucidation of the Shruthi-Swara-Jathi-Murchana-

Krama- Varna- Alankara system is that:

1. Formation of mela systems of Raga classification may have ignored certain

aspects like murchana and kramasancharas
2. Concepts like Rasa and upa rasa and Sthayi swara alankara may have been lost
due to the dark ages in the Indian musical history (Periods of invasions by the
Mughals in North and South India) and subsequently have not been understood or
have been ignored by theorists.
3. Hence, the new systems may have seen the introduction of the development of
Ragas note by note, as it were – a concept that was not accepted by the old school
practitioners like Thyagaraja and found expression in his songs like “Vara raga
Laya”

A look at Gamakas and their varieties

There are many different types of Gamaka systems. Sharangadeva lists 15 gamakas, while
Ahobala describes 17. SSP provides a detailed look at the 15 Gamakams. The various
gamakams have symbols designated to them and the method of playing them on the veena
has also been given.

48
His 8 – day delineation of Yadukula Kambhoji as given by Prof Sambamurthy, Great Composers,
Thyagaraja, The Indian Music Publishing House, 2002
49
The krithi ‘Vara Raga Laya” in Chenchu Kambhoji as explained in [Link]
[Link]/2007/12/[Link]
41
 Kampitam: again this can be subdivided into linam, andolitam and plavitam. Also seen
are the other gamakams Sphuritam, Pratyahatam, Nokku, Ravai, Khandippu, Vali, Jaru
(both Etra Jaru and Erakka Jaru), Orikkai, Odukkal

Given below is a snapshot (From an English translation) of how SSP uses a system of
symbols to describe the gamakas (based on the handling of the notes on the Veena.

Figure 3.3 Gamakas and their varieties as given in SSP

Some passages in the SSP explain the gamakams in detail, keeping the play of the veena
in mind. A snapshot is seen below.

Figure 3.4 Gamakas – detailed explanation as given in SSP

42
 An illustrious ancestor of Subbarama Dikshithar was Muthuswami Dikshithar, who refers
to Goddess Meenakshi as ‘dasa Gamakakriye’ in the krithi “Meenakshi me mudam dehi”.
There are two or more meanings in the phrase:

1. The name of the Raga is Gamakakriya

2. Goddess Meenakshi is the primordial creator of the gamakas
3. There are ten(dasa) important gamakas which occur (all together or in groups in
the course of a Raga phrase )

We can summarise the information about the gamakas by noting the classification of
gamakas in the SSP. Even though SSP details 15 types of gamakams based on their
rendering on the veena, we can abbreviate them to 10 main types in following way:

1. Aroha- notes in ascending order

2. Avaroha-notes in descending order
3. Murchana- completion of an octave length from each note (simply, aroha and avaroha
together).
4. Jaru-different notes reached keeping one note constant
5. Sphurita- repeating same note twice e.g. (ss or rr or rss, grr etc.)
6. Kampita- oscillation of a note from a shuddha swarasthana to an anuswaram (either
above it or below it) and the return back to the shuddha swarasthana. For e.g., the
phrase (d..dnd.) repeated often in Kambhoji raga. Here d is the shuddha swara and n
is the anuswara above it.
7. Ahata-pairs of notes. First note of subsequent pair will be the last note of predecessor
sung in the ascending order (e.g. SR-RG-GM)
8. Pratyahata- This is Aahata in descending order e.g.(RS – SN – ND)
9. Tripuchcha – one note occurring thrice (SSS or RRR etc.)
10. Andolita- mix of hrasva and dheerga swaras (P…….D…PG…R in Mohanam etc.)

In the absence of the concept of audio recording at the beginning of the 20th Century,
when SSP was written, this system of classification of Gamakas and the symbols was the
only way for the author Sri Subbarama Dikshithar to describe the Raga Lakshana of many
ragas taking them in order of the Melakartha system (both the individual melas and their

43
janyas) in detail. Attempts are being made now by others to re-interpret the notations in an
audio fashion, in order to study and compare them with the current day usages.

Raga Lakshana

A look at the Raga Lakshana of Todi

First, the Lakshana as explained in SSP is looked at:

Todi raga as explained in SSP.

Figure 3.5 Todi raga as given in SSP

This information can be classified in the following headings:

1. The “raganga” or Melakartha number of the raga

2. The chakra and the mela number in that chakra
3. Its mnemonic ( the concise description of the individual notes in the raga)
4. The full name according to the katapayadhi sankhya
5. The lakshana shloka of the raga – giving the characteristic information about the
raga in a verse or two, in Sanskrit.
6. The murchana ( the life breath of the raga ) – which is the description of the ascent
and descent of the raga
7. The lakshana details explained with reference to the swaras and gamakas.

44
 An attempt is made to explain and expand on the information given in the SSP.

The mela and the status of the raga

The Raga is 8th in the 72 mela scheme, and “netra sri” means that this is the second raga
in the second (netra) chakra.

The raga number 8 is derived from its name. In accordance with the katapayadhi sankhya,
the prefix “Jana” indicates the numbers 8 for Ja and 10 (or 0) for na. The calculator for the
syllables is given below:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ka kha ga gha gna cha Cha ja jha ~na
ta tha da d’ha Na tha Tha dha Dha na
pa p’ha ba bha ma
ya ra la va sha Sha sa ha LA
Figure 3.6 The Katapayadhi Sankhya
Todi is considered as a Raga that came to South India from the North – note the reference
in the SSP as “Auttara” (meaning north) ragam.

However, the raga has been evolved to a very advanced stage in the hands of the
composers – Thyagaraja (more than 25 krithis), Dikshithar and Shyama Sastri have
composed in varied ways, with different tempos, with different starting points (Graha swaras)
and with different thalas and with variety in sahithya bhava too.

Bhairavi thaat of Hindustani music corresponds to Todi. (Note that Todi has been referred
to as an Auttara (northern) raga. It has always maintained the status of a major parent raga,
giving rise to a number of janya ragas.

The swaras
The swaras are Shadja, shuddha rishabha, shuddha gandhara, shuddha madhyama,
panchama, shuddha dhaivata and kaisikhi nishada.

The well-distributed svara intervals of this scale, R1–G1, G1-M1, M1-P, D1-N1 & N1-S:
chatushruti interval;

S-R1 & P-D1: dvishruti interval.

45
 There are 5 chatushruti intervals and 2 dvishruti intervals and no tishruti intervals.

Also, it is one of those uttama melas having samvadi pairs for all the svaras, like S-M1, S-
P, R1-D1, G1-D1, G1-N1 and M1-N1. There is so much of samvaditva or consonance
inherent in its structure. Hence the raga is so appealing to the senses and it instantly ushers in
a mood of sublimity.

If we look at the purvanga and the uttaranga, the SRGM is identical to the PDNS, thus
creating an instant familiarity with the form of the raga (Raga swaroopa).

The lakshana details (With information incorporated from the playing of the sancharis,
lakshana geethams and the krithis as given in the SSP).
Todi is a Tristhayi raga, meaning that it can be rendered elaborately in 3 octaves. Thus it
offers to vocalists a medium to show off their voice capabilities provided they have the
needed range. There is also tremendous scope for alapana in a variety of colours, depending
upon the composition to follow.

Though all the svaras contribute equally to the raga’s rakthi or essence, sa is the main jiva
and nyasa swara. Ga, ma, pa, da and ni are the jiva or amsa swaras in Todi. Of these, ma, pa
and to some extent da are used as nyasa or ending svaras. All the swaras except sa and pa can
be used with Gamaka, and in the case of pa varja prayogas (usages without pa) the notes can
be sung with very little ornamentation, and in the case of sa and pa varja, the notes can be
rendered as plain notes. Thus, both in the highly ornamented compositions like ‘Rave
himagiri’ and in the ‘plain’ sangathis of compositions like ‘Jesinadella’, the swaras contribute
largely to the ranjakatva or the widespread appreciation of the raga.

Todi can be called as a sarva svara gamaka varika rakthi raga, and that too a major raga
giving endless scope for elaboration. But, there are certain restrictions when it comes to the
gamaka patterns.

Ga functions as an important jiva or amsa svara. No delineation of this raga would be

complete without highlighting the importance of g. It is common to hear shadja varja and
panchama varja prayogas (phrases eschewing s and p) both in the ascent and descent, as seen
in the beginning of the Muthuswami Dikshithar krithi “Sri Subrahmanyo”. Combinations like

46
rg~m, pmg~rs etc. are commonly employed to add beauty. Ga can also be used as a graha
swara, as in the case of the compositions like “Karthikeya gangeya” by Papanasam Sivan or
“Ananda Natesa” by Ramaswamy Sivan.

Ga is also one of the most characteristic notes in this raga, with phrases like g….grr..s…..
But there are so many variations for ga, and they should all be carefully understood through
the compositions. “rave Himagiri kumari” is one of the magnum opus compositions – a
swarajathi by Shyama Sastri and he shows the multiple uses of ga in the first swara –
sahithya “nata jana paripalini” as dnsrgrg…gmgrsr….rsnsd…. s…n (Rave Himagiri). The
different ga usages are:

1. dnsrgr.. Here the ga is the usual kampita swara, involving the sadharana gandhara
as the base note, and the downward oscillation to the anuswara value of shuddha
sadharana gandhara. Note also the Vadi – samvadi of d -g
2. rg…. Here the g starts of from the dvishruti rishabha and reaches ma and then
finally oscillates between shuddha madhyama – ma and the shruthi value of the
anuswaram of shuddha sadharana gandhara
3. gm ….. Here this phrase gm again is split into two parts - mg and mgm …..and
the sruthis are shuddha madhyama for ma and the shruthi value of shuddha
sadharana gandhara
4. grsr…. Here ga is further split up as mgm (same shruthi values as in the previous
instance gm, and ri is msr, with the r taking the eka shruthi rishabha value. Note
again the Vadi –samvadi of m-s in this phrase.

Thus, the very classical and proportionate melodic structure of the raga Todi has been
brought out by the brilliant composer. This sedateness is balanced by the gambhIratva that is
created by the strong shuddha notes of pa, ma and of course sa. The svasthana gamaka in
these two svaras (SR,,S and PD,,P) are beautiful, and they bring about the usages of the
anuswaras as movements and the contrast with the shuddha swaras.

The extent of oscillation in ga, da and ni are variable. It is either rendered plain (as in
mdmgmdndm and grmgdmndm) or with either ardha kampita or dirgha kampita together (as
in srgrgmg..r, pdnpd…, and pdndnSn…d), or with dirgha kampita alone when it is combined
with panchama pg…..m, and when combined with sa as in srsn..d etc.
47
Other general remarks and inferences
It is not uncommon to hear plain svaras in this raga, especially in the dhatu prayogas like
ni-r1-ni- da-ni-da., d-ri-ri –ni da ma or ni-ga-ri. In slow speed, phrases like ni – r1 – ni occur
with kampitham on all swaras. Hence it is to be noted that the same phrases can have
different prayogas (usages) depending on the speed of execution.

Similarly, phrases like ni – ga – ri – ni – da-ni-da, ga-ri-ni-da-ma-da-ni are highlighted in

the two well-known varna-s in Todi, namely Patnam Subramania Iyer’s ‘Era napai’ in Adi
thalam and Pallavi Gopala lyer’s ‘Kanakangi’ in Khanda Ata thalam.

Janta swara phrasings are also very apt for this raga, as in dd nn SS or mm dd nn or rr gg
mm or other combinations based on janta and dhatu like mdd dnn nrr or gdd, nmm, dgg and
mnn. It is to be noted that the shuddha swaras are used in such prayogas in Todi raga.

Besides ga, da is the next important nyasa swara, and it also can be used as a graha swara
– “Emi Jesithe” of Thyagaraja, “Rave himagiri” the swarajathi by Shyama Sastri and
“Tamadamen” by Papanasam Sivan are prominent examples of the amsa importance and the
usage as both graha swara as well as a nyasa swara as in the case of prayogas like g,, m,,, d,,,
or d d, n ndd..

Samvadi and sthayi combinations like sp, sm, sS, Sp, etc. as well those like gd, mn, dR
etc. are abundantly found in this raga.

Todi can also be called as a panchasvara murchana kaaraka mela. If the tonic note is
shifted to ri, ga, ma, pa or dha, the resulting ragas would be Kalyani, Harikambhoji,
Natabhairavi, Kharaharapriya and Shankarabharanam respectively.

This Tristhayi raga is a parent of numerous janyas such as Hindolam, Ahiri, Asaveri,
Bhoopalam, Dhanyasi, Desiya Todi, Ghanta, Punnagavarali, Revagupti and Shuddha
Seemantini etc.

Of these Janya ragas, very few like Hindolam are “popular” as in public perception or
ranjakatva, mainly because of the restrictions in using the shuddha swarasthanas, and also
because the notes of Todi itself are all minor, and represent feelings of pathos and
introspection and sadness mainly.
48
 It is to be noted that in light music or film music etc., Todi is mainly used in devotional or
semi – classical genres, as the modern classical conception of Todi has a reduced delineation
of the important Jiva swaras ga and da as shuddha swaras, except occasionally for s and p
varja phrases like rgmdn or mndmgr or mdnRGRnd. Since g and d occur in the middle of the
two main sections srgm and pdnS, the importance of ornamentation, and especially the
correct usages as exemplified in krithis by major composers cannot be over emphasised. It is
this very important ‘stumbling block’ that perhaps has not made Todi very popular in film or
light music.50

It can be said that Todi is now one of the most utilised ragas in Carnatic music. This raga
readily accommodates any kind of musical creation, be it elaborate and ornamented like
“Kaddanuvariki” or simple like “Re manasa Chinthaya”, both of Thyagaraja and semi-
classical or both in kalpita and manodharma sangIta, and would suit any emotion, any tempo
– viLamba, madhyama or durita. It is not surprising that there are innumerable compositions
in this raga by all composers, as well as usages in Ragam Tanam Pallavi suites too.

Having looked at the concept and importance of Raga Lakshana, the other aspect of Raga
– which is Raga Lakshaya is looked at next.

Raga Lakshaya
This can be refers to the ideals or aesthetics in music. Some views refer to the notational
aspect of music as Lakshya, but this thesis deals with notation and quantification in a
different chapter on Quantification of gamakas. While many books have been written
explaining the Raga Lakshanas, not many books have been written exclusively dealing with
Raga lakshaya, or aesthetics, because Raga aesthetic is something that can be felt or
experienced only and it cannot be explained.

Rakthi ragas are the ragas where not every combination of swaras as Janta or dhatu or
alankara will give ranjana or artistic appeal. For e.g., Ritigowla or Dhanyasi can be sung

50
[Link], Music appreciation notes, Sruthi magazine
[Link]
duced%20from%20sruti%2023-23S).pdf
49
extensively, but maybe the shine the best with a few choice and apt phrases that capture the
rakthi of the raga.

A perspective given by one author B. Subba Rao51 goes thus

Figure 3.7 Raga personality in the view of B. Subba Rao.

Raga bhava or the emotion of the raga is an elusive feature that needs to be assimilated
carefully. As in the case of Todi, SSP recommends that such rakthi ragas need to be carefully
looked at using the gitas, varnas and other compositions for the correct swara sancharas
(swara usages)

Another perspective given by K. Vasudeva Sastri52 is shown as follows in the following

page: He talks about the aspects like Anahata Nada – the unheard sound, meaning that which
is heard by the performer alone (in his heart). He considers that this is an essential aspect of
creativity which makes the ahata (heard by all) music of the performer resonate in all
creatures.

This Anahata nada, in the opinion of this researcher, is obtained after due initiation into
the process of ‘meditation’, as it were, on the form and beauty of the Raga. Every performer
intuitively makes an ‘appeal’ or prayer to the ‘Divinity’ or personality of the Raga to ‘shine
forth’ in his or her delineations.

51
B. .Subba Rao, Raganidhi, page ( iii), The Music Academy , Chennai, 1980
52
K Vasudeva Sastri, page 9, The Science of Music, Research Publications, Tanjore, 1954
50
Figure 3.8 Raga personality in the view of K. Vasudeva Sastry.
An example to prove the above is: we can have the knowhow to produce sugar (from
sugarcane) and many books can be written, many machines can be designed and built that can
further refine and enhance the process of making sugar. We can have machines that can
analyse the chemical composition and physical characteristics of the sugar made, but we
ourselves (like wine tasters) have to experience the sweetness and taste of the sugar, and
comment.

[Link] Pillai is considered as the master Nadaswaram artiste, whose Raga

delineations even today stand out brilliantly. His expertise and erudition has been such that
his name is synonymous with Todi Raga. He has these perspectives to offer (In an interview
to All India Radio circa 1951):

1. Existence of Bani or Style in Carnatic music cannot be confirmed in the music

texts. Lakshanas of music have been described in the ancient texts, but there is no
mention of Bani or style in any of them.
2. Carnatic music is divine. It has been there since time immemorial. Banis may
come and go…but the greatness of music remains always. He again reiterates later
in the interview that the term bani compartmentalizes or restricts the scope of
music.
51
3. Carnatic music is a Dharma (way of life) for many and can be considered as a
spiritual pursuit. It can thus be said that Bani is a creation or an additional feature
created by the listeners and analysts. According to the circumstances in time and
location or the artistes themselves, the styles change. He gives the examples of the
time unlimited opportunities to expound Raga alapana or Pallavis etc. (Temple
processions in the night etc.)
4. Rasikas or listeners can be of two types, one wedded to analysing using Raga
Lakshanas, and other as the layman type, where the appreciation of beauty is
created in the heart of the listener by constant exposure to good music. Whereas
good music finds instant appreciation amongst the paamaran (simpletons) and
pandithan (the erudite), intricate laya cannot be enjoyed by one and all.
5. The expectations of a rasika are by and large, sweetness, comfort, gamakam,
happiness etc. The manobhava or the mind-set of the listeners are also conditioned
by location (he goes on to extol the rich musical atmosphere in the erstwhile
Tanjore district – Kaveri delta regions., and the great composers and vidwans , the
Temples and festivals and rulers, the Nadaswara china melam and periya melam
styles etc.).
6. The general public was exposed to Carnatic music in various forms as
Nadaswaram recitals, Bhajana sessions and Bhagavatha melas, Street plays,
Drama halls or theatres
7. Carnatic music is inclusive in that traditions like Harikatha, Dindi, Abhangs,
Javalis(dance music), Hindustani music, even Western music and instruments
have been incorporated, as long as the methodology and the purity of notes was
maintained. The refined sum total of all this has been commonly accepted as
Carnatic Bani.
8. He enumerates many great Vidwans who have adorned the Tanjore tradition,
starting from his Gurus like Veena Dhanammal and Tirukodikaval Krishna Iyer,
who, contributed greatly to the development of the art, and by example, were all
discerning rasikas who could appreciate greatness and give credit where it was
due.

52
 9. He also emphasises the predominance of vocal music over instrumental music,
and takes pride in his music being compared to vocal music, or considered as akin
to vocal music.
10. He also does not consider as proper that vocal music should be considered or
compared to instrumental music. The introduction of ‘life’ in an inanimate
instrument is a goal that should be aimed for by all instrumentalists.
11. That the presence of different tempos in exposition of music has led to creation of
rasikas for each ‘bani’ or type.
12. He gives importance to the use of “Chowka kalam” or slow tempo in the
manifestation of good music, as this requires knowledge of a very high degree.
13. Proficiency in Chowka kalam gives the foundation for getting fluidity, gamakam
and brika (fast phrasing) and aesthetic and beautifully ornamented notes in the
medium and high tempos. He concludes with the example of his discipleship with
Tirukodikaval Krishna Iyer and the instruction to him to look for the life or
‘Jeevan’ in every swaram.
14. To get going in this direction, he exhorts the aspirant to develop his Gnanam
(wisdom), Gurukulavasam, (discipleship) and good association etc.

In the view of V.Subramaniam53, an insight into the thoughts of Semmangudi Srinivasa

Iyer, a contemporary of Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar is seen:

“Yo Asou Dhvani Viseshastu Swaravarna Vibhooshitaha

Ranjako Janachittanam Sacha Raga Udakritaha”

Thus, the raga should not only be a sound adorned by swaras but also be satisfying and
pleasing to the human mind. Any combination of swaras technically perfect and intellectually
conceived, but devoid of aesthetic appeal cannot be considered a raga. Many ragas have been
conceived by the Trinity and other composers, and have come to us through their kritis. “

“While describing ragas Sri Semmangudi would say that each raga is an entity with a
distinctive character and personality, the swara structure thereof, being only a skeletal
framework.” And he continues “Sri Srinivasa Iyer always emphasises the predominant role

53
[Link], Carnatica article, [Link]
53
of lakshya gnana in raga alapana, as he believes that only this would allow the uninhibited
flow of imagination. Over-dependence on lakshana would prove counterproductive in this
respect, as it inhibits the singer from attempting new raga phrasings. This does not play down
the importance of lakshana gnana and it is highly essential for the artiste to acquire it too. Sri
Semmangudi always advises a correct blend of both lakshya and lakshana.”

Importance of Rasikathva
Also, a look is necessitated at the epic reference in the Soundarya Lahari of Adi
Shankara, in the 66th shloka “Vipanchya gayanthi”.

vipanchya gAyantI vividham-apadAnaM pashupateH

tvayArabdhe vaktuM calita-shirasA sAdhu vacane /

tadIyair-mAdhuryair-apalapita-tantrI-kala-ravAM

nijAM vINAM vANI nichulayati cholena nibhRtaM // 66 //

The detailed explanation of the above shloka is given by the Paramacharya Sri
Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi of Kamakoti Peetam, Kanchipuram, in his lectures encoded
in the book “Deivathin Kural”54

In short, the shloka above describes, how Saraswathi was singing praises of Shiva
sweetly to her own accompaniment of her Veena (Vipanchi) and how Parvathi expressed her
appreciation by saying “sadhu” and how much sweeter this was. In sheer embarrassment,
humility and rasikathva, Saraswathi stopped and covered her Veena with the cloth.

The meaning of the shloka makes us realise that in factors like sweetness of tone and
aptness or timing of the raga phrase, there is always an ideal (the Supreme) existing above all
of us, and that we should be ever attentive to rasikathva (cognisance of much higher ideals
than ours), so as to obtain the Divine Grace and elevate ourselves and our music. In other

54
[Link]

54
words, negation of the ego and cognisance and surrender to the Supreme is a very important
component of one’s musical ‘development’, as it were.

This explanation is considered by many as the utterance of one who has attained the goal
of Self- realisation and combines the bhakthi marga (approach via devotion) with the
lakshaya marga (the concept of aesthetics)

However, this concept of aesthetics is not entirely unapproachable or unattainable even

for every musical aspirant. This is where the concept of Guru and Gurukulavasam comes in.
The close constant mentoring and observation of the student and the exposure to different
facets of music stimulates the student to think for himself and develop his own guidelines on
the concepts of beauty in music.

Rasikathva is another tern used to describe the ability to appreciate or enjoy any artistic
work. In terms of music, we can note that this relates to the unconscious urge to appreciate,
by nodding the head, or saying a ‘sabhaash’ – which is basically a term in Sanskrit for
appreciation by a peer or an equal, or ‘bhale’ – a ‘Bravo!’ with which a junior greets a senior,
or the applause which occurs at the end or in the course of an item.

Simply put, only when one is able to appreciate good in others, will one be able to enjoy
his or her own music too in a genuine fashion. This appreciation, in turn, spurs the artiste to
greater heights. Also to be noted is that excess rasikathva of one’s own music can lull an
artiste into self-aggrandisement and a careless attitude too, and good musicians / artistes
usually aim at reducing self rasikathva and take the appreciation from the others only to a
small extent. They usually have their own strict mechanisms of appreciation and learn not to
get ‘over- awed, as it were.

Also of importance is the ability to analyse the various melodic possibilities during a
phrase and explore the beauty in them, thereby leading to a process of discovery and to new
avenues of artistic creation.

It can be concluded that it is a happy blend of the technical knowledge of Raga Lakshana
and that of the Raga Lakshaya – the ego sublimation and the inner urges (rasikathva) that
contribute to the development of a good musical style.

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