Lecture 1: Introduction

Chapter 1
Introduction to Wireless
Communication Systems
Introduction

 “It is dangerous to put limits on wireless.” -

Guglielmo Marconi, 1932
 There has been tremendous growth in wireless
in the past 10 years. Even more in Europe and
Asia than North America AND Asia

 Driven by technological advances – digital and

RF circuit fabrication improvements, large scale
circuit integration, miniaturization technologies,
digital switching

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 Driven by consumer demand – Regardless of
current business profitability, the growth rate in
terms of numbers of customers is substantial. The
ability to communicate wirelessly is of obvious
benefit to many. What are some of the benefits?

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What is Wireless Communication?
Transmitting/receiving voice and data using
electromagnetic waves in open space
 The information from sender to receiver is carrier
over a well-defined frequency band (channel)
 Each channel has a fixed frequency bandwidth
and Capacity (bit-rate)
 Different channels can be used to transmit
information in parallel and independently.

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I. History

 Wired Communications
 1834 - Gauss and Weber build telegraph system in
Germany
 1844 - Morse connects Baltimore and Washington by
telegraph
 1858 - First transatlantic telegraph cable laid
 1876 - Alexander Bell demonstrates telephone

 Wireless Communications --Not so “new”

 Had slow growth at first compared to other inventions.
 But now is growing very rapidly.

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 1899 - Marconi sends first radio message across Atlantic
 1905 - Hulsmeyer detects ships with radar
 1927 - US & Europe telephones linked by HF radio
 1934 - AM mobile police radios for public safety widely
used
 1935 - Edwin Armstrong demonstrates FM radio system,
became the primary modulation technique.
 1940 - First microwave radar
 1965 - First commercial communication satellite
 1968 - AT&T proposes cellular phone system to Federal
Communications Commission (FCC)

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 1983 - FCC allocates spectrum for analog cellular service
(AMPS)
 1990 - GSM digital cellular service introduced in Europe
 1995 - FCC auctions new Personal Communication Service
(PCS) licenses in U.S. for digital services
 1998 - 40 million cellular phone users in U.S.
 2000 - In some countries, mobile users outnumber
conventional wireline customers.

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1.1 Evolution of Mobile Radio
Communications
 Major Mobile Radio Systems
 1934 - Police Radio uses conventional AM mobile communication system.
 1935 - Edwin Armstrong demonstrate FM
 1946 - First public mobile telephone service - push-to-talk
 1960 - Improved Mobile Telephone Service, IMTS - full duplex
 1960 - Bell Lab introduce the concept of Cellular mobile system
 1968 - AT&T propose the concept of Cellular mobile system to FCC.
 1976 - Bell Mobile Phone service, poor service due to call blocking
 1983 - Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS), FDMA, FM
 1991 - Global System for Mobile (GSM), TDMA, GMSK
 1991 - U.S. Digital Cellular (USDC) IS-54, TDMA, DQPSK
 1993 - IS-95, CDMA, QPSK, BPSK

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 History & Development – Theoretical Foundations

 Electro Magnetic (EM) waves

 1678 Huygens work on the phenomena of light
reflection and refraction
 1819 Fresnel demonstrates the wavelike nature of light
 1831 Faraday demonstrates electromagnetic induction
 1864 J. Maxwell introduces the theory of
electromagnetic fields, wave equations
 1886 H. Hertz demonstrates experimentally the
transmission and detection of an EM wave between two
points a few meters apart
 1896 Marconi recognized that longer waves propagate
over larger distances and demonstrates a communication
set-up over 3km
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 History & Development – Theoretical Foundations
 1898 - 1901 - Guglielmo Marconi
 first demonstration of wireless
telegraphy (Morse code - digital!)
 long wave transmission over longer distances (transatlantic) at an operating
frequency of 1MHz
 1906 - 1st World Admin. Radio Conf. (WARC -> WRC)
 increasing popularity of radio systems and their extended use
 ability to define BW using filters led to spectrum control
 recommendations for the assignment of RF bands
 1907 - Commercial transatlantic connections
 huge base stations
(30 100m high antennas)
 1915 - Wireless voice transmission N.Y. - San Francisco
 1920 - Discovery of short waves by Marconi
 reflection at the ionosphere
 smaller sender and receiver -> due to the invention of the vacuum tube (1906 - Lee
DeForest and Robert von Lieben)

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 History & Development – Theoretical Foundations
 1933 - Frequency modulation (E. H. Armstrong)
 1946 - Mobile Telephone Service (MTS) in US
 introduced in 1946, it allowed telephone calls between fixed
stations and mobile sers
 one single powerful transmitter/receiver (base station) provided
coverage of up to 50km
 based on FM technology, each voice channel of 3kHz used
120KHz of spectrum, and only half duplex service was available
 blocking probabilities were as high as 65% (only 12 simultaneous
calls could be handled!)
 1958 - A-Netz in Germany at 160MHz
 analog cellular, connection setup only from the mobile station, no
handover, 80% coverage, 1971 only 11000 customers
 1972 - B-Netz in Germany at 160MHz
 connection setup from the fixed network (location of the mobile
station had to be known)

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 2001 - 630 million subscribers worldwide (as compared
to 1 billion wired phone lines.
 2001 - Over 1% of worldwide wireless subscribers have
abandoned wired telephone service for home use.
 2005 − Over 130 million cellular phone users in U.S.
(out of population of 300 million including children).
 Number of mobile phone users in India from 2013 to
2019 (in millions)
 The statistic shows the number of mobile phone users in
India from 2013 to 2019. For 2017 the number of mobile
phone users in India is expected to rise to 730.7 million.

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II. Frequencies

 RF - Radio Frequency
 1 MHz to 1 GHz - general classification, not absolute
 100 MHz to 1 GHz - more widely used definition
 Microwave
 1 GHz to 300 GHz - general
 1 GHz to 100 GHz - more widely used
 Trends towards use of higher frequencies
 greater signal bandwidth (BW) per channel
 more users and/or higher data rates
 but more difficult to design - more $$, more
engineering required

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III. Wireless Applications

 Mature
 Home Appliances - What devices are used that are
wireless?

 Communications
 fixed microwave (point-to-point or Line Of Sight) -
nearly 20,000 in U.S
 satellite to fixed ground stations (TV, phone, defense,
etc.)
 analog cellular : AMPS (FM) since 1980's
 paging

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 Emerging
 WLAN: Wireless Local Area Networks
 Mobile computers/email
 Wireless Local Loop (WLL)
 local phone service via wireless connection
 prominent in non-industrialized nations
 cheaper to install than wired lines
 new IEEE 802.16 standard has been developed for WLL.
 Wireless-enabled Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)

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 Wireless Device Connectivity between computer
peripherals (printers, monitors, keyboards, etc.) -
Bluetooth
 Satellite to mobile ground units - Land Mobile
Satellite (LMS)
 Motorola/Iridium
 Digital Cellular/PCS
 PCS = Personal Communication Services
 Several types of services and capabilities are
offered

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 Radio Frequency Identification Tags (RFID’s) on
merchandize in warehouses and stores.
 Sensor networks – small devices wirelessly
communicating among themselves to monitor
environments using a variety of sensors.

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 FCC controls all usable Radio Spectrum -
allocates specific frequency bands for specific
uses
 Military
 Public safety and public service - Police, fire,
utilities, medical
 Commercial - To customers, between commercial
mobiles
 Unlicensed
 Amateur
 Etc.

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Electromagnetic radiation spectrum

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 SMR Bands - Specialized Mobile Radio
 Three 20 MHz bands from 800-900 MHz
 Large number of radio system licenses nationwide
 paging/messaging
 voice dispatch - taxi, Police/Fire/Ambulance
 data (UPS/Fedex)
 Extended SMR
 Nextel/Motorola partnership
 Nationwide coverage providing digital cellular/data
service
 Created by buying SMR licenses from a large
number of private radio service providers

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 ISM Bands - Industrial/Scientific/Medical
 902-928 MHz, 2400-2484 MHz, & 5725-5850 MHz
 “Garbage” bands
 spread spectrum modulation
 Transmit (Tx) power level < 1 W
 Remote meter reading
 Wireless medical monitors
 Digital cordless telephones
 Big new application: Wireless Local Area Networks
(WLAN’s)

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 Cellular Phone
 AMPS: Advanced Mobile Phone System
 824-849 MHz
 Reverse Channel: Transmit from mobile to fixed
base station
 869-894 MHz
 Forward Channel: Transmit from base station to
mobile

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V. Mobile Radiotelephony

 The focus of this course: mobile wireless

communications.
 Our predominant focus will be on mobile cellular
communications
 Historically voice communications, but also
incorporating data into newer generation systems.

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 But we will also take a substantial look at Wireless LAN’s
 Have grown quickly over the past couple of years.
 Are an important replacement opportunity for traditional
wiring in buildings.
 Some are trying to make them a competitor to cellular for
data communications.
 Cellular can or will provide 10’s to 100’s of kilobits
per second.
 But if one can connect to a Wireless LAN (either at
home/office or in public “hot spot” areas), 10’s of
Megabits per second are readily available

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 And below all of these technologies are important
radio transmission issues we need to study
 Radio signal propagation – signal strengths varies with
distance from the transmitter, but may also vary by large
amounts over a few centimeters
 Digital modulation – putting data on analog wireless signals.
 Compensation for fading – making channels more reliable
 Frequency reuse and sharing (multiple access techniques) –
making best use of spectrum to support multiple users.
 Sharing in the time, frequency, and code domains.

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 Early mobile phone systems used a high power
Tx to cover a large spatial area (R = 50 km)
 Half-duplex (HDX) operation
 two-way communication using same radio channel
 transmit or receive only at a given time
 “push-to-talk” system - CB radio

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 Allocated spectrum determines maximum # of
simultaneous users
 e.g., 10 MHz allocated BW with 100 kHz channels
= 100 simultaneous users/market
 Demand was great in large cities and this led to
poor service (many blocked calls)
 Spectrally inefficient system
 allocated spectrum supports small # of users

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 In 1976, Bell Mobile Phone Service only had
12 channels for all of New York City (10
million people), which could acceptably only
support 543 customers.
 Acceptable service - Certain probability of not
being able to make a call (i.e., be "blocked")
 Given the # of customers, average calling load per
customer, # of channels → can compute blocking

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 Cellular Concept - break coverage area (market) into
many small cell (many transmitters) where each non-
adjacent cell will reuse different portions (not all) of
allocated spectrum
 Increase spectrum efficiency
 many users share same channels
 Increase in required system infrastructure (base stations)
 more capital costs to provide adequate coverage

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 BASE
STATION

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 Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) spectrum
allocated by FCC in 1983
 Full duplex (FDX) operation : simultaneous two-way
communication
 two 30 kHz channels (forward & reverse)
 Two providers for each market - duopoly
 limited competition
 Analog frequency modulation (FM) used exclusively
 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
 one channel per pair of users

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 USDC: U.S. Digital Cellular proposed in 1991
(D-AMPS or IS-54)
 Replace single user analog channel with digital
channels that support 3 users/30 kHz channel BW
 User capacity is 3 times greater than AMPS - more
provider revenue ($$)
 Digital modulation & speech coding allow Time
Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
 3 users share one channel by using different time slots
 This service is provided under the title "Digital
Cellular"

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VI. Mobile Radio Terminology

 Table 1.4, pg. 10 - everyone is responsible for these

definitions

 Mobile: high speed motion (e.g. cell phone in car)

 Portable: low speed motion (cordless phone in home,
walking)
 Mobile Unit = subscriber unit = user communication device
 Transmitter (Tx) and Receiver (Rx)
 Base Station: Tx/Rx on tower at center of cell that provides
service to group of mobile users

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 Forward/Reverse Channels (a.k.a. downlink/uplink)
 Forward: From base station to mobile
 Reverse: From mobile to base station
 Simplex (SX), Half Duplex (HDX), & Full Duplex
(FDX)
 Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) - Using two
separate frequency bands to provide both sides of the
duplex operation
 Example: AMPS uses 824-849 MHz for reverse channel
and 869-894MHz for forward channel
 PSTN: Public Switched Telephone Network

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36
VII. Paging Systems

 One-way communication (SX)

 Send short message to mobile unit (pager)
 Wide area coverage
 Page broadcast from many base stations
simultaneously to remote units
 no information as to user location
 Reliable communication everywhere (need good
Signal to Noise performance)
 Requires large Tx power and low data rate (~ 2-8 kbps)
 Noise has less of an effect when the data rate is lower.
 Coverage needed even inside buildings w/ 20-30 dB signal
attenuation
 Needs an extensive network of transmitters to transmit the
signal everywhere

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38
VIII. Cordless Telephone Systems
 Primarily in-home use
 Use ISM bands – 900 MHz most popular for a while, now
2.4 GHz is common and 5.8 GHz is available.
 Low power, limited range (~ 100 m) and coverage, and
limited mobility

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IX. Cellular Telephone Systems

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 Large geographic coverage
 Limited frequency spectrum – a surprisingly
low amount of spectrum has been allocated for
a service with such popularity.
 High user mobility
 High system capacity - Large # of simultaneous
users
 obtained by limiting coverage of each base station
to small area (cell)
 frequency spectrum can be reused by other non-
adjacent cells in network
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 Base station
 serves mobile users in each cell
 bridge between mobile unit and MSC
 connected to MSC via phone line (for example,
T1 of 24 channels or T3 of 672 channels) or
Line of Sight microwave link

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 MSC: Mobile Switching Center
 controls base stations, call initiation & routing, handoffs, etc.
 connects cellular system to Public Switched Telephone
Network (PSTN)
 cellular network brains:
 call initiation/setup
 base station handoffs
 controlling power levels in mobile units
 billing information
 roaming user ID and verification
 Typically handles 5000 simultaneous calls supporting
100,000 cellular subscribers (at most 5% of subscribers are
assumed to be active at anyone time)

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 Common Air Interface (CAI)
 Standard mechanism used by all mobiles.
 Defines 4 different channels to be used by a mobile
unit
 Forward/reverse voice channels - FVC/RVC
 Full Duplex communication
 Forward/reverse control channels - FCC/RCC
 call initiation & setup
 makes up 5% of total # of available channels
 One cell contains 10 to 60 voice channels and only
1 to 3 control channel pairs (F+R)
 MSC broadcasts call request from PSTN over all
FCC's of all base stations – to find the mobile user
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 There are two ways to keep mobiles “connected” to the
best base station

1. Mobile unit monitors FCC's looking for strongest base

station (closest) and incoming call
 if FCC signal < acceptable level - mobile looks for
another base station
 neighboring base stations must use same frequencies for
FCC/RCC
 handoff from one base station to another occurs when
FCC signal is less than an acceptable level

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2. Base stations (current server + adjacent stations) monitor
RCC and report mobile unit signal strength to MSC
(analog AMPS system)
 if RCC signal < acceptable level - MSC initiates handoff
to one of neighboring base stations
 neighboring base stations must use different frequencies
for FCC/RCC

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 Cellular Phone Call Timing
 Mobile Identification Number (MIN) is the
subscriber's telephone number
 Electronic Serial Number (ESN) is device identifier.
 Station Class Mark (SCM) identifies the class of the
device, based on its maximum transmit power level.

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48
49
Modern AM
 Amplitude modulation is used for low frequency radio
broadcasting. Newer uses of AM include quadrature
amplitude modulation .
 QAM is a hybrid form of amplitude and phase modulation
used for high speed data transmission at RF frequencies.
 QAM is a digital modulation technique. QAM is used
extensively by broadband cable and wireless systems to
achieve bandwidth efficiency.

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The development of FM
 AMPS cellular telephone service is an FM based service
 FM is used for transmission of FM broadcast band, TV-
broadcasting sound transmission ,direct satellite TV service,
cordless telephones.
 FM is capable of much more noise immunity than AM

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The evolution of digital radio
 Advances in microwave digital radio technology and digital
modulation techniques provides increased data rates over
the same radio channel.
 Many service providers of point to point connectivity are
employing microwave and millimeter wave radio
transmission systems that use the most modern digital
modulation techniques to obtain high data rate links.
 Wireless Internet service providers are using digital radio
equipment for point to point and point to multi-point
systems that provide high bit rates internet connections.
 Cordless telephones adapted digital radio technology , and
all the newest wireless systems use modern digital
modulation technologies to achieve higher data rates and
better noise immunity.
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1.1 Different Generations of Wireless Cellular Networks

 1G Cellular Systems
 All first-generation cellular systems used analog frequency modulation
schemes for the transmission of voice messages with two separate
bands for downlink(from B.S to M.S) and uplink( from M.S to B.S)
transmissions.
 This type of system is known as frequency division duplex (FDD) Also
within these two separate bands FDM is used to increase the system
capacity.
 Identification numbers were assigned to the cellular system and the
subscriber device.
 These ID’s were used to determine the mobile status to perform
authentication of the mobile, and to define the mobile’s telephone
number for correct operation of the network.

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AMPS characteristics

 The AMPS system began operation in the 800Mhz band .

 The down link band was from 824 to 849 Mhz and the
uplink was from 869 to 894Mhz.
 The channel spacing was set at 30 khz and each B.S’s
transmit and receive frequency was separated by 45Mhz.

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AMPS channels

 The A and B channels consisted of 333channels, Out of

these 333 channels , channels 1-312 in A band are the
traffic channels used for the subscribers calls, and
 The channels 313-333 in the A band are used for system
control functions, These control channels are used by the
mobile and B.S to set up or tear down calls and other
network operation such as handoff.
 The B band used channels 334-354 for control channels and
channels 355-666 for traffic channels

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Table of AMPS channel numbers and frequencies
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AMPS system components and layout

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 As shown in fig below early AMPS cellular system
consisted of the following components
 Radio base stations
 Communications links
 The Base station from the cells that provide coverage to
mobile subscribers over a particular geographic area . The
base stations are connected to the MTSO that inturn is
connected to the PSTN.
 The MSC performs system control by switching the calls to
the correct cells, interfacing with the PSTN , monitoring
system traffic for billing, managing the operation of the
entire network.
 The B.S provides the interface between the MSC and the
mobile subscriber Mobile switching office
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Typical AMPS operation
 The AMPS base station uses the dedicated control channels to
send a variety of control information to idle M.S within its cell, a
 the M.S uses the corresponding reverse control channel to
communicate with the B.S while in the idle mode.
 When the M.S engaged in a voice call , control and signaling
information may also be transmitted over the traffic channel. Fig
below depicts the flow of information over these channels.
 The radio link status information is transmitted by the use of
supervisory audio tones (SAT) also known as analog color code.
 Three SAT frequencies are used : 5970 hz, 6000 hz, 6030 hz,
 These tones gives the B,.S and M.S the ability to keep informed
about each others transmitting capabilities and to confirm the
success or failure of certain mobile operations
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60
 B.S periodically adds a SAT signal to the FVC .

 If a M.S is captured by an interfering B.S or B.S is captured

by a interfering M.S, this is detected by the system due to
the return of an incorrect SAT & the mobile receiver will be
muted.

 Similar function is performed by the transmission of

DCC(Digital color code).

 Additionally a ST of 10khz can be transmitted over a voice

channel to confirm orders and signal various requests.

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 The B.S in an AMPS system controls the mobile phone by sending order
messages, some of these order messages are
 Alert order message: Used to inform the mobile phone there is an incoming
call
 Audit order message: Used by the B.S to determine if the mobile is still
active in the system.
 Change power order message: Used to alert the mobiles RF o/p power
 Intercept order message: Used to inform the user that a procedural error has
been made while placing a call.
 Maintenance order message: Used to check the operation of the M.S
 Reorder order message: Used to indicate that all facilities are in use.
 Send called address order message: Used to inform the M.S that it must
send a msg to B.S with dialed digit information
 Stop alert order message: Used to inform that it must stop alerting the user.

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AMPS security and identification
 The mobile’s electronic serial number (ESN)- is
provided by the manufacturer
 The mobile service providers system identification
number (SID)- 15 bit binary number that are uniquely
assigned to cellular system.
 The Mobile stations mobile identification number (MIN)
-34 bit binary number derived from the M.S’s 10 digit
telephone number , 24 bit are derived from th 7 digit
local number & 10 bits are derived from 3 digit area
code.

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Summary of basic AMPS operations

 Initialization

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AMPS ongoing idle mode tasks
 Task 1: Respond to overhead information
 Task 2: Page match
 Task 3: Order
 Task 4: Call initialization

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Mobile-to-land calls

 Handshaking
operations
 Signaling operations
 Service requests
 See Figure 2-6

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Land-to-mobile and mobile-to-mobile calls

 Paging
 ID information
exchange
 Signaling
 Control messages
 See Figure 2-7

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AMPS network operations

 Radio base station

operations
 Base station
control operations
 Mobile switching
center operations

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Handoff operations
This operation occurs in a
cellular system when a
mobile station moves to
another cell.
 Handshaking
operations
 Signal strength
measurements
 MSC operations during
handoff
 Confirmation messages
 See Figure 2-9

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Digital AMPS

 D-AMPS technology was introduced to increase the capacity of the

original AMPS cellular system.
 D-AMPS (Digital-Advanced Mobile Phone Service), sometimes spelled
DAMPS, is a digital version of AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone
Service), the original analog standard for cellular telephone phone
service in the United States.
 Both D-AMPS and AMPS are now used in many countries. D-AMPS
adds time division multiple access (TDMA) to AMPS to get three
channels for each AMPS channel, tripling the number of calls that can
be handled on a channel.
 D-AMPS is Interim Standard-136 from the Electronics Industries
Assocation/Telecommunication Industries Assocation (EIA/TIA).
 Like AMPS, D-AMPS uses frequency ranges within the 800 and 900
Megahertz (MHz) electromagnetic radiation spectrum. Each service
provider can use half of the 824-849 MHz range for receiving signals
from cellular phones and half the 869-894 MHz range for transmitting
to cellular phones.
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 The bands are divided into 30 kHz sub-bands, called channels.
The receiving channels are called reverse channels and the
sending channels are called forward channels.
 The division of the spectrum into sub-band channels is achieved
by using frequency division multiple access (FDMA). The time
division multiple access processing (TDMA) is added to each
sub-band channel created with FDMA to triple the number of
channels available.
 Although AMPS and D-AMPS originated for the North
American cellular telephone market, they are now used
worldwide with over 74 million subscribers, according to
Ericsson, one of the major cellular phone manufacturers.
 D-AMPS is one of three digital wireless technologies that
use TDMA. The other two are GSM and PDC

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 Each of these technologies interprets TDMA differently so
they are not compatible. An advantage of D-AMPS is that it
is easier to upgrade to from an existing analog AMPS
network. An alternative to D-AMPS and the other two
TDMA technologies is direct sequence code division
multiple access (CDMA).

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 Other 1G systems
 TACS cellular (total access [Link])
 NMT cellular (
 NTT cellular (nippon telegraph and telephone)
 Other analog cellular systems
Tacs, t-tacs, nmt 450, nmt -900, c-
450,rmts,ntt,ntacs

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2G
 Introduction
 The basic difference is that 1st generation systems used
analog modulation technique for transmission of
subscribers voice over the traffic channel, All subsequent
generations used digital modulation techniques. Along with
this it employed multiplexing techniques.
 1st generation systems relied on SAT & ST to facilitate
system operations, 2nd generation systems does t use SAT
& ST to facilitate system operations. 2nd generation
systems uses digital encoding & allows for the use of error
detection and correction codes.
 1st generation systems did not employ digital encryption.
2nd generation systems uses digital encoding & allows for
the use of error detection and correction codes.
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 Second-generation (2G) digital cellular systems constitute
the majority of cellular communication infrastructures
deployed today. 2G systems such as GSM, whose rollout
started in 1987, signaled a major shift in the way mobile
communications is used worldwide.
 In part they helped fuel the transition of a mobile phone
from luxury to necessity and helped to drive subscriber
costs down by more efficient utilization of air interface and
volume deployment of infrastructure components and
handsets.
 Major geographical regions adopted different 2G systems,
namely TDMA and CDMA in North America, GSM in
Europe, and Personal Digital Cellular (PDC) in Japan.

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 It effectively shows how the GSM system has been
successful and why it is now being adopted in geographical
areas other than Europe (such as North America, China, the
Asia-Pacific region, and more recently, South America).
CDMA, which originated in North America, has also
proliferated in South America and later in the Asia-Pacific
region.
 TDMA remains to be widely deployed in North and South
America regions, but it is expected to decline mostly
because of the decisions taken by few major North
American carriers to convert their TDMA networks to
GSM.

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 This second-generation system, widely deployed in the United
States, Canada, and South America, goes by many names,
including North American TDMA, IS-136, and D-AMPS(Digital
AMPS).
 As its name indicates, it is based on Time Division Multiple
Access. In TDMA the resources are shared in time, combined
with frequency-division multiplexing (that is, when multiple
frequencies are used). As a result, TDMA offers multiple digital
channels using different time slots on a shared frequency carrier.
 Each mobile station is assigned both a specific frequency and a
time slot during which it can communicate with the base station.

77
 The TDMA transmitter is active during the assigned time slot and
inactive during other time slots, which allows for power-saving terminal
designs, among other advantages.
 North American TDMA supports three time slots, at 30 kHz each,
further divided into three or six channels to maximize air interface
utilization.
 A sequence of time-division multiplexed time slots in TDMA makes up
frames, which are 40 ms long. The TDMA traffic channel total bit rate
is 48.6 Kbps.
 TDMA is a dual-band technology, which means it can be deployed in
800-MHz and 1900-MHz frequency bands.
 In regions where both AMPS and TDMA are deployed, TDMA phones
are often designed to operate in dual mode, analog and digital, in order
to offer customers the ability to utilize coverage of the existing analog
infrastructure.

78
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)

 There are still some analog cellular systems in operations in

Europe, but their number is declining, and some regional
networks are being completely shut down or converted to
Global System for Mobile Communications.
 The GSM cellular system initiative was initiated in 1982 by
the Conference of European Posts and Telecommunications
Administrations (CEPT) and is currently governed by
European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI),
which in turn has delegated GSM specification maintenance
and evolution to 3GPP.

79
 The intent behind GSM introduction was to have a common approach
to the creation of digital systems across European countries, to allow
among other advantages of a common standard easy international
roaming and better economies of scale by decreasing handset and
infrastructure components costs through mass production.
 In hindsight, this was a smart political decision, which contributed to
the worldwide success of European cellular infrastructure providers and
equipment manufacturers.

80
2.5 G cellular systems
 "2.5G" is an informal term, invented solely for marketing
purposes, unlike "2G" or "3G"
 which are officially defined standards based on those defined by
the International Telecommunication (ITU).
 The term "2.5G" usually describes a 2G cellular system
combined with General Packet Radio Services (GPRS), or other
services not generally found in 2G or 1G networks.
 Wireless telecommunication technology like CDMA200 1x RTT,
Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) or Enhanced
General Packet Radio Service (EGPRS),
 since they have data transmission rates of 144 kbps or higher,
may qualify as 3G technology.
 However, they are usually classified as 2.5G technology because
they have slower network speeds than most 3G services.

81
 GPRS is a service commonly associated with 2.5G technology. It
has data transmission rates of 28 kbps or higher.
 GPRS came after the development of the Global System for
Mobile (GSM) service, which is classified as 2G technology, and
it was succeeded by the development of the Universal Mobile
Telecommunication Service (UMTS), which is classified as 3G
technology.
 A 2.5G system may make use of 2G system infrastructure, but it
implements a packet-switched network domain in addition to a
circuit-switched domain.
 This does not necessarily give 2.5G an advantage over 2G in
terms of network speed,because bundling of timeslots is also
used for circuit-switched data services (HSCSD).

82
 The services and infrastructure of a 2.5G network may be
used on a per-transaction basis rather than a per-minute-of-
use basis, thanks to its packet-switched domain.
 This makes its infrastructure more efficient and improves
the service delivery.
 This impetus is known as the "always-on" capability.2.5G
networks may support services such as WAP, MMS, SMS
mobile games, and search and directory.

83
3G Cellular Systems
 Cell phones and systems are classified by the generation they belong
to. Third generation (3G) phones were developed in the late 1990s
and 2000s. The goal was to improve the data capability and speed.
 3G phones were defined by the Third Generation Partnership Project
(3GPP) and later standardized by the ITU-T. Generally known as
the Universal Mobile Telecomunications System (UMTS),
 this 3G system is based on wideband CDMA that operates in 5 MHz
of bandwidth and can produce download data rates of typically 384
kb/s under normal conditions and up to 2 Mb/s in some instances.
 Another 3G standard, cdma2000, was developed by Qualcomm. It
uses 1.25 MHz bands to produce data rates to 2 Mb/s.
 Another version of cdma2000 is an improved IS-95 version. It is a
3GPP2standard. It can transmit data at a rate to 153 kb/s and up to 2
Mb/s in some cases.

84
Route to 3G

 1G: analog
 2G : 1st digital mobile telephony
 2.5G: transition from 2G to 3G
 3G standard: IMT 2000
 3g phone standards have been expanded and enhanced to
further expand data speed and capcity.
 The wcdma phones have added high speed packet access
(HSPA) that use higher level QAM modulation to get
speeds up to 21 or 42 Mb/s downlink (cell site to phone)
and up to 7 and/or 14 Mb/s uplink (phone to cell site).
 AT&T and T-Mobile use HSPA technology. The cdma2000
phones added 1xRTT as well as Rev. A and Rev B
modifications that boost speed as well.
 Verizon and Sprint use cdma2000 3G standard technology.
Virtually all standard and smartphone models and most
tablets still use someform of 3G.

86
87
88
Where are We?
 Classic Wireline MaBell Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
 US Universal coverage achieved early 1980’s
 “Wireless” First Generation Analog Systems
 Speech
 AMPS, TACS
 Second Generation Digital Systems
 Enhanced Capacity
 CDMA, D-AMPS, TDMA, GSM, DECT, PDC
 2.5 Generation Systems
 Low Speed Data
 GPRS, EDGE
 Third Generation Systems
 “INTERNET” on Wireless
 WiFi/HyperLAN <-> WiMAX/HyperWAN <-> CDMA2000/WCDMA
 Evolution to All IP Network including VoIP
Representative Wireless Standards

 GSM/TDMA
 Time Division Multiplexing based access
 CDMA
 Code Division Multiplexing based access
 OFDM
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
 TDMA/FDMA

slot 1 slot 2 ... Slot n

Frequency 1 Circuit Circuit Circuit
Frequency 2 Circuit Circuit Circuit
.
. Downlink Path
.
Frequency Frequency n Circuit Circuit Circuit
Domain
Frequency 1 Circuit Circuit Circuit
Frequency 2 Circuit Circuit Circuit
.
. Uplink Path
.
Frequency n Circuit Circuit Circuit
CDMA

Freq:
Chips
X user 1
user 2

usern

Separated by PN codes
t

Message
III Channelization code: Separate xmissions
from a single source from each other
Scrambling code: separate different sources
t from each other
Spreading Code = Channelization code x
Resulting Signal
Scrambling code
 3G Services

2MHz video telemedicine

conferencing Video on Mobile
demand TV

electronic
Internet radio newspaper
Bandwidth paging
audio
conferencing messaging Mobile
radio

Fax
voice

1KHz
bi-directional unidirectional Broadcast/
multicast
Key Mobility Services
 Multimedia Messaging Services (MMS)
 Text, sounds, images, and video
 Transition from Short Message Service (SMS)
 Open Internet standards for messaging
 Web Applications
 Information portals
 Wireless Markup Language (WML) with signals using
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)
 Location Communications Services
 Location Awareness Based
 Personalization of information presentation format
 Service capability negotiations (MExE environment)
Customized Application for Mobile Enhanced Logic (CAMEL)

 CAMEL = IN + Service portability (incl mobility and roaming)

 Virtual Private Network (VPN)
 Mobile user <-> ISP <-> corporate server
 Mobility, Security, Capacity and quality
 Prepaid, Usage Limitations, Advanced Routing Services
 Virtual Home Environment (VHE)
 Subscriber profile, charging information, Service information,
numbering information
 Integration of array of services, content conversion to
heterogeneous services, network user profile, location aware
services
GSM Network

SCP
gsm
PSTN/ISDN SSP SCF
STP
ISUP IN
HLR
AuC
C
Gw-MSC
Billing
C, D Center

VLR SMS-GW
MSC
GSM
04.08 A

BSS

UE
Circuit domain
GSM & GPRS

SCP
gsm
PSTN/ISDN SSP IP Services PDN
SCF
STP
ISUP IN Gi
HLR
AuC Gc
C
Gw-MSC GGSN
Billing Ga Data,
Center CGw
C, D voice,
Gn video
Ga
call
SMS-GW Gr
VLR
MSC SGSN
GSM
GSM
04.08+ A Gb 04.08+

BSS

UE
Circuit domain Packet domain
WCDMA/UMTS

SCP
gsm
PSTN/ISDN SSP SCF IP Services PDN
STP IN, CAMEL
ISUP Gi+
HLR+
AuC Gc+
C
Gw-MSC GGSN
Billing Ga+ Data,
C+, D+ CGw
Center voice,
Gn+ video
Ga+
call
VLR SMS-GW Gr+
3G-MSC 3G-SGSN
GSM
GSM
04.08++ Iu-cs Iu-ps 04.08++

UTRAN

UE
Circuit domain Packet domain
 GSM/UMTS Bit rate, Mobility and Services

High
(Car / Train)
GSM
HSCSD
GPRS

Mobility
Text Messaging

EDGE
Voice
CS Data

UMTS
Fax

Low
(stationary)
Bit Rate, Kbps
9.6 14.4 76.0 GPRS 384.0 EDGE UMTS 2 Mb/s
HSCSD
 3G Evolution
2.5G
GPRS 3.5G
GSM EDGE
HSCSD 170 kbps 473 kbps EDGE Ph2
15.2 kbps GRAN
473 kbps

TDMA TD-SCDMA
CDPD TD-SCDMA Ph 2
43.2 kbps 284 kbps 2 Mbps

WCDMA TDD 2 Mbps

PDA/PDC-P WCDMA FDD
14.4 kbps 2 Mbps WCDMA HSDPA 10 Mbps

CDMA2000 1x 1XEV-DO (HDR) 2.4 Mbps

cdmaOne 307 kps
76.8 kbps 1XEV-DV (HDR) 5.4 Mbps

HyperLAN2
54 Mbps Harmonized
WLAN HyperLAN2
IEEE 802.11b And IEEE 802.11a
IEEE 802.11 a/h
11 Mbps
54 Mbps
WiMAX/HyperMAN also in the mix
Some Representative Current Wireless Options

 3G Cellular (WCDMA)
 Frequency Division Duplex (FDD): Uplink and Downlink are separated in
frequency – (“symmetric”)
 Time Division Duplex (TDD): Uplink and Downlink are separated in time
– allows “asymmetric” traffic (adjust time slots in uplink and downlink)
 3G Cellular (CDMA2000)
 Wi Fi
 802.11a and 802.11b; HyperLAN2
 2.4 GHz band
 WiMAX
 802.16d (fixed); 802.16e (“portable”)
 5.8 GHz band; 10 – 20 Mbps symmetrical BW
 Blue Tooth
 RF based LAN technology; 20-30 feet coverage
 2.4 GHz band
Why Move Towards 4G?
 Limitation to meet expectations of applications like
multimedia, full motion video, wireless teleconferencing
 Wider Bandwidth
 Difficult to move and interoperate due to different standards
hampering global mobility and service portability
 Primarily Cellular (WAN) with distinct LANs’; need a new
integrated network
 Limitations in applying recent advances in spectrally more
efficient modulation schemes
 Need all all digital network to fully utilize IP and converged
video and data
Where Do We Want to Go?

 Seamless Roaming
 Integrated “standard” Networks
 Mobile Intelligent Internet

 Onwards to (Ultra) Wideband Wireless IP Networks

Upcoming

 3.5 G
 Evolved radio Interface
 IP based core network
 4G
 New Air Interface
 Very high bit rate services
 Convergence of Wireline, Wireless, and IP worlds
3.5G Radio Network Evolution
 High Data rate, low latency, packet optimized radio access
 Support flexible bandwidth upto 20 MHz, new transmission
schemes, advanced multi-antenna technologies, and
signaling optimization
 Instantaneous peak DL 100 Mb/s and UP 50 Mb/S within
20 MHz spectrum
 Control plane latency of < 100 ms (camped to active) and <
50 ms (dormant to active)
 > 200 users per cell within 5 MHz spectrum
 Spectrum flexibility from 1.25 MHz to 20 MHz
 Eliminate “dedicated” channels; avoid macro diversity in
DL
 Migrate towards OFDM in DL and SC-FDMA in UL
 Support voice services in the packet domain
 Adaptive Modulation and Coding using Channel Quality
Indicator (CQI) measurements
 Key 3G and 4G Parameters
Attribute 3G 4G
Major Characteristic Predominantly voice- data as Converged data and VoIP
add-on
Network Architecture Wide area Cell based Hybrid – integration of
Wireless Lan (WiFi), Blue
Tooth, Wide Area
Frequency Band 1.6 - 2.5 GHz 2 – 8 GHz

Component Design Optimized antenna; multi- Smart antennas; SW multi-

band adapters band; wideband radios
Bandwidth 5 – 20 MHz 100+ MHz

Data Rate 385 Kbps - 2 Mbps 20 – 100 Mbps

Access WCDMA/CDMA2000 MC-CDMA or OFDM

Forward Error Correction Convolution code 1/2, 1/3; Concatenated Coding

turbo
Switching Circuit/Packet Packet

Mobile top Speed 200 kmph 200 kmph

IP Multiple versions All IP (IPv6.0)

Operational ~2003 ~2010

Key 4G Mobility Concepts
 Mobile IP
 VoIP
 Ability to move around with the same IP address
 IP tunnels
 Intelligent Internet
 Presence Awareness Technology
 Knowing who is on line and where
 Radio Router
 Bringing IP to the base station
 Smart Antennas
 Unique spatial metric for each transmission

Wireless IP <---> IP Wireless

 4G Networks Advances
 Seamless mobility (roaming)
 Roam freely from one standard to another
 Integrate different modes of wireless communications – indoor networks
(e.g., wireless LANs and Bluetooth); cellular signals; radio and TV;
satellite communications
 100 Mb/se full mobility (wide area); 1 Gbit/s low mobility (local area)
 IP-based communications systems for integrated voice, data, and video
 IP RAN
 Open unified standards
 Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
 Successor to “SS7”; replacement for TCP
 Maintain several data streams within a single connection
 Service Location Protocol (SLP)
 Automatic resource discovery
 Make all networked resources dynamically configurable through IP-based
service and directory agents

The demise of SS7

4G Cellular Systems and Beyond
 The fourth generation has been defined but we are not in it,
yet.
 Yes, many if not most of the mobile carriers and the various
phone and equipment manufacturers actually advertise 4G
now.
 The formal definition of 4G as declared by the 3GPP and
the ITU-T is something called Long Term Evolution-
Advanced (LTE-A).
 The standard has not been fully completed but basically it is
an improved and enhanced version of LTE that uses wider
bandwidth channels and a greater number of MIMO
antennas.

109
 The theoretical upper data rate is 1 Gb/s. That remains to be
seen in practice. As for what the various companies are
calling 4G, Verizon says that their LTE network is 4G.
 AT&T promotes their LTE and HSPA networks as 4G.
 T-Mobile indicates that their HSPA+ networks are 4G.
Furthermore Sprint and Clearwire say that their WiMAX
network is 4G.
 As mentioned, WiMAX is actually defined as a 3G
technology by ITU-T like LTE

110
Long-Term Evolution (LTE)
 Long-Term Evolution (LTE) is a standard for high-
speed wireless communication for mobile phones and data terminals,
based on the GSM/EDGE and UMTS/HSPA technologies.
 It increases the capacity and speed using a different radio interface
together with core network improvements.
 The standard is developed by the 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership
Project) and is specified in its Release 8 document series, with minor
enhancements described in Release 9.
 LTE is the upgrade path for carriers with both GSM/UMTS networks
and CDMA2000 networks.
 The different LTE frequencies and bands used in different countries
mean that only multi-band phones are able to use LTE in all countries
where it is supported.

111
112