1st Law of Thermodynamics:

Chapter 7

ENERGY PRINCIPLE
This is a statement of conservation of energy of a system.

!E is the change in energy of the system.

Q is the heat input.

W is the work output (work done by the system)

The sign convention comes from the old days of steam

engines: You put heat into the engine, and you get
Fluid Mechanics, Spring Term 2011 mechanical work out of the engine.

We will now use Reynolds Transport Theorem to

Energy conservation can be written in
write the energy equation for a Eulerian setup, i.e.,
terms of time changes:
for a control volume cv.

We go through the derivation only to help you

understand what the terms are and where they come
from. You do not need to memorize this derivation.

The total energy E may take different forms, such as The integral equations are quite complicated, but in
1) Kinetic energy Ek the end weʼll get a simpler algebraic form which is
2) Potential energy Ep the form that we will apply to examples and
3) Internal energy Eu problems.
 Reynolds Transport Theorem Applied to Energy

Recall Reynolds Transport Theorem (Chapter 5): a) b) c)

One more time, letʼs look at the terms:

b) The total amount of energy inside the cv.

Now let E = B, and e = b (e = energy per unit mass):
a) Net heat input and work input into the system.

c) Correction between system and cv: Energy

carried across the cs by fluid flow.

or Note that heat carried by fluid particles is part of

, not of

The same way we wrote We do not measure energies directly, so the present form
of our energy equation is not very useful.

We write for the energies per unit mass: We therefore replace the energy terms with more easily
applied quantities:

The energy equation becomes:

where V is the velocity relative to inertial reference frame.

where we assume that all potential energy is gravitational

and that it is relative to some point with z = 0.
 Flow Work versus Shaft Work
Shaft work Ws is by definition all other work.
Flow work is the work done by pressure forces; itʼs the
same work as weʼve seen in the Bernoulli equation. It is usually work done through a shaft, such as a
pump or turbine shaft.

A pump does work on the flow, thereby increasing

its energy. By the definition

It doesnʼt matter whether this

work is done by a piston or by adjacent fluid. For a fluid, this means negative work.

and hence Work done by the flow on a turbine is positive

work.

This is Flow Work.

Throwing all of this into the energy equation: What we have so far is the general energy equation:

We now simplify this for specific applications.

For example, for steady flow the energy accumulation term

Notice that we may combine the area integrals into one:
(the volume integral) is zero.
Furthermore, if inflow and outflow is via pipes with constant
properties across, then

Sometimes we combine the last 2 terms in the 2nd integral:

where h is the specific enthalpy.

(still messy, but easier to apply…)
 Example 7.1: Solution
Example 7.1:
Steam Turbine Simplifying the equation for steady
Given: flow we just derived:

Inflow at p1 = 1.4 MPa and

T1 = 400oC;
This corresponds to
specific enthalpy
For constant elevation (zo = zi) and steady flow
h1 = 3121 kJ/kg

Outflow at p2 = 101 kPa and 100oC; h2 = 2676 kJ/kg

Steam enters at V1 = 15 m/s and exits at V2 = 60 m/s
Heat lost through turbine wall is 7600 kJ/h
Mass flow through turbine is 0.5 kg/s
…all parameters on right-hand side are given.
What is the power output of the turbine?

Another specific application: Start again with general (integral) equation:

Steady flow of incompressible fluid in pipe

Again, flow is steady (no energy accumulation in cv), so that

the volume integral is zero.

Between points 1 and 2:

Notice that we now allow velocity variations across

the pipe.
At points 1 and 2, there is no acceleration normal to the
streamlines, and hence

is constant across the sections.

Also, u is usually constant across a section. These terms

can thus be taken out of the integral. To get rid of that last integral, we define

where " is a kinetic energy correction factor

Recall so that…

Example 7.2: What is this “magic” correction factor a

Example 7.2: Solution
for laminar flow in a pipe?

The mean velocity is given by

The velocity profile is
given as
 Example 7.2 (continued) For laminar flow in a pipe (parabolic velocity profile):

From our definition of "

For turbulent flow in a pipe with constant velocity:

we see

In general, from

we see that

Now going back to the energy equation for flow in pipes:

It is common practice to associate pressures with their
equivalent “head” (height of hydrostatic fluid column):

Introduce Head supplied by pump:

(Shaft power is turbine power minus pump power)

Head given up to turbine:
And divide the entire equation by g (to get units of length):

Notice that all thermal terms are those in brackets on the

right, while all other terms are mechanical.
Thermal energy is generated from mechanical energy by
viscous action between fluid particles. This action is not
reversible, and the thermal energy is not recoverable as
mechanical energy.
Recall that this is still the energy equation.

We group all thermal terms into one parameter: It is a lot simpler than the general equation we started
out with, but thatʼs because it is now tailored towards
Head loss (due to very specific applications.
viscous dissipation)
The reason for the red box around the equation is that
this is the one we will use (not because it is particularly
fundamental)!

(Note: Energy in = Energy out. No accumulation of E)

Notice from our definition of the head for the pump Example 7.3:
and the turbine that Flow in pipe
with head loss.

Given:
Power supplied to flow by pump.
"= 1 (turbulent flow)
L = length of pipe
Q = discharge through pipe
Power delivered by turbine (taken D = diameter of pipe
from the flow) z1 = elevation of water level in tank
z2 = elevation of pipe

Head loss in pipe is given by

What is the pressure at point 2?

 Example 7.3: Solution
Example 7.3 (continued)

Write energy equation between water surface in tank and

Velocity in pipe in terms of discharge:
section at point 2 in pipe:

Head loss in terms of Q:

With and without pumps or turbines simplifies to:

Everything in the energy equation is now known;

Just solve for p2 and substitute the values given in book…

Example 7.4: Solution

Example 7.4:
Turbulent flow in a
pipe Start with basic energy equation for pipes:
Given:
p1 = pressure at 1
p2 = pressure at 2
Q = constant discharge With and we get

"1 = "2 = 1
hL = head loss
What power has to be
z1 = elevation at 1 supplied by the pump in
order to keep the pressure at Everything is given except hp. Solve for hp and substitute
z2 = elevation at 2
point 2 at the indicated level parameters given in book…
A1 = A2 = pipe cross p2?
sectional area
Example 7.5: Power Example 7.5: Solution
generation by
hydroelectric power Again, start with basic energy equation for pipes:
plant.

Given:
The book sets .
hL = head loss
Q = discharge at Thatʼs perhaps too simple, but
maximum rate of power
and
generation
gets rid of the velocity terms,
anyway.
What is the maximum rate of power generation?

(The book lists some additional parameters, but we donʼt Also:

need them.)

Example 7.5 (continued) A word about the Bernoulli Equation and the
Energy Equation
The energy equation simplifies to:
Energy equation for incompressible flow in pipes:

Once we have found the head used up by the turbine,

we turn this into the power delivered:
If velocity is constant at given section (" = 1), and there are
no pumps or turbines and no head loss:

where Iʼve used:

The Bernoulli equation is just a special case of the energy
equation, where the “pipe” is just a narrow imaginary tube
enclosing the streamline.
 Putting it all together:
And if we apply the Bernoulli equation to a problem in
An example that uses the energy, momentum and
which the velocities are zero:
continuity principles in combination (Section 7.3)

becomes

This is just the hydrostatic pressure equation from

chapter 3. The hydrostatic equation is thus also just a
special form of the energy equation.
Head loss due to abrupt expansion in a pipe.

For turbulent conditions, The momentum equation can also be written as

The energy equation becomes

From continuity for a steady flow, we have

The momentum equation Only when we combine the information from all 3
equations can we find

becomes (neglecting shear stresses against the pipe walls)

 One more basic concept: Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines

At any point along the

pipe, we can insert a
manometer and a
stagnation tube (recall
that the velocity at the
entrance to the
stagnation tube is zero).

The head loss is due to turbulent flow in the larger pipe. From energy eqn:

Note that the equation is also valid for flow into a

reservoir with V2 = 0.

(since p = 0 at top of stagnation tube)

Energy eqn. between top of reservoir and top of tube: EGL = energy grade
line
(Manometer)

The stagnation tube measures the same plus the velocity- HGL = hydraulic
term (since v = 0 at entrance to stagnation tube): grade line

(Stagnation tube)

The height of the fluid column in the manometer is the

hydraulic grade line; The linear slope is due to viscous head loss, which is
that in the stagnation tube is the energy grade line. a constant per unit length of pipe.
A pump gives an
abrupt rise in EGL
and HGL.

A turbine gives an
abrupt drop.