Planimeters

How Planimeters Work

Why this page is viewed best with Internet Explorer or Sea Monkey

The following elegant proof of how a planimeter works is due largely to O. Henrici and
can be found in

O. Henrici, Report on Planimeters, British Assoc. for the Advancement of Science,

Report of the 64th meeting, 1894, pp. 496-523.
496

This paper also contains an interesting history of planimeters up through 1894.

I like this proof because it is almost entirely geometric, the algebra is minimal,
minimal and it
can be understood intuitively without calculus. In addition, it shows how both linear and
polar planimeters work independently of the linkages in their construction.
Consequently, the explanation is valid for variants of these planimeters, which area used
in a proof of the isoperimetric inequality
inequality.

Line Segments
nts Sweeping Out Area
The Area Difference Theorem
Turning the Moving Segment Into a Planimeter
How the Roll of the Wheel is Related to Area
Combining the Area Difference Theorem and the Roll of the Wheel
Measuring a Region

Line Segments Sweeping Out Area

Planimeters work based on the intuitive

notion of a moving line segment sweeping
out area. Here is a line segment sweeping
out a narrow quadrilateral. The segment is
oriented by a vector N, which is normal, or
perpendicular, to the segment.
 The area swept out is signed, or oriented.
The positive direction is indicated by N.

Area swept out in the direction of N

counts positively.

Area swept out in the direction opposite that of N

counts negatively.

The Area Difference Theorem

Suppose the endpoints of an oriented moving

line segment traverse closed curves in the
counter clockwise direction. The Moving
Segment Theorem says that the signed area
swept out by the segment is the difference
between the areas enclosed by the curves,
that is,

A = AR − AL ,

where AR and AL are the areas traversed by

the right and left endpoints of the
segment, respectively.

The reason for this is very intuitive.

Turning the Moving Segment Into a Planimeter

The moving line segment becomes a
planimeter by fixing its length and attaching a
wheel (red). The axis of the wheel is parallel to
the segment. The wheels are clearly seen on
the schematics for the polar and linear
planimeters, and on the underside of the
carriage of my K&E polar planimeter. The
surprising fact is that when a polar or linear
planimeter is used to trace the boundary of a
region, the amount the wheel rolls is
proportional to the area of the region. Keep
reading to see why.

Here is a planimeter moving with its ends

following two curves. Even though the curves
are different, the length of the planimeter
doesn't change.

As the planimeter moves, the wheel

partially rolls and partially slides. Motion
of the segment in the direction of the vector
N causes the wheel to roll, which is
recorded on a scale attached to the wheel.
The motion of the segment along its length
causes the wheel to slide, and this motion is
not recorded. Thus the wheel records the
component of motion in the direction
perpendicular to the planimeter's length.

The direction indicated by N is the

direction in which area swept out counts
positively -- it is not necessarily the
direction of motion. In the animation, note
that the left end of the planimeter has to
move in reverse at one point in order to
stay on its curve.

How the Roll of the Wheel is Related to Area

There are two basic types of movement of the

planimeter.
The first type of motion is when the
planimeter moves parallel to itself, sweeping
out a parallelogram. The important fact to
note is that the roll of the wheel, which
records the distance moved perpendicular to
the rod, is exactly the height of the
parallelogram. If A denotes the signed area
swept out and σ denotes the roll of the wheel,
we get

A = lσ,

where l is the length of the planimeter and

the parallelogram. Note that if the
planimeter moves in the direction opposite
of N, the wheel rolls backwards. The
equation above is still valid, but A and σ
are both negative.

The second type of motion is when the

planimeter rotates about the wheel. In this
case part of the area swept out is positive and
part of it is negative. Also note that the wheel
doesn't roll! In this situation the net area
swept out is related to the angle through
which the planimeter rotates and the position
of the wheel. The formula relating these is

A = − 1/2 λ l 2 ∆θ,

which takes a little explanation.

The wheel could be located at any point on the

rod. The number λ is between −1 and 1, and
indicates the position of the wheel on the rod.
At the right endpoint λ = 1; at the left
endpoint λ = −1; at the midpoint λ = 0. In the
example shown here λ = −3/10.

To get the formula for the signed area swept

out, first recall that the area of a circular sector
is A = 1/2 r2∆θ.
If it is clear to you that A should depend
 linearly on λ, note that A = − 1/2 λ l2 ∆θ must
be the correct formula since it gives the right
signed area for the values λ = −1, 0, 1. If this
isn't so clear, here is a more complete
derivation.

The general motion of the planimeter is a

combination of translations and rotations. The A = l σ€ −€ 1/2 λ l 2 ∆θ
signed area swept out is simply the sum of the
translational and rotational parts.

Combining the Moving Segment Theorem and the Roll of the Wheel

Now suppose the planimeter rod moves so that it comes to rest in the same position in
which it started. Then both formulas above for signed area (boxed in yellow) are valid,
and so we get

AR − AL = l σ€ −€ 1/2 λ l 2 ∆θ .€
In addition, ∆θ is an integer multiple of 2π, generally either 0 or 2π.

Measuring a Region

When a planimeter is used to measure a region, the user moves the right endpoint of the
rod, the tracing point, around the boundary of the region to be measured. Consequently
the desired area is AR. For a linear planimeter, the left endpoint moves back and forth
along a line, enclosing no area, and so AL = 0. Similarly, for a polar planimeter used in
the usual way, the left endpoint moves along the arc of a circle, but doesn't go
completely around the circle; again AL = 0. For both polar and linear planimeters used in
the usual way, the planimeter rod doesn't make a full rotation, and so ∆θ = 0. Plugging
these into the formula above boxed in green yields the simple formula for the area of the
region being measured:

AR = l σ .
Three simple observations can be made from this.

• The area of the region is proportional to the amount the wheel rolls. The
constant of proportionality is the length of the planimeter rod. The scale on the
wheel takes this into account, allowing the user to simply read the quantity l σ
from the scale.
• It doesn't matter where the wheel is located along the rod.
 • The left endpoint could follow any path that encloses no area -- polar and linear
planimeters are just special cases.

A polar planimeter can be used to measure a large region by placing its pole inside the
region. (The pole is the fixed endpoint of the pole arm -- also the center of the circle
followed by the left endpoint of the tracer arm.) When used in this way, the left
endpoint goes all the way around the circle it follows, and so AL = πr2, where r is the
radius of this circle, that is, the length of the pole arm. In addition, the tracer arm makes
a full rotation, and so ∆θ = 2π. Inserting these into the above formula boxed in green
yields

AR = l σ + πr2 − λπ l 2
for the area of the region being measured. The user reads the quantity l σ from the scale
and then adds πr2 − λπ l 2 to get the desired area. The extra quantity added involves the
lengths of the two planimeter arms and the location of the wheel. These are constants of
the instrument, and are generally printed in the instruction manual.

Planimeters and Isoperimetric Inequalities

Why this page is viewed best with Internet Explorer or Sea Monkey

The isoperimetric inequality for a region

in the plane bounded by a simple closed
curve states that

L2 4πA,
in which L is the length of the curve and A
is the area of the region. It's easily seen
that equality holds when the curve is a
circle. In fact, equality holds only in this
case.

There is a very simple and intuitive proof

of the isoperimetric inequality based on
how a planimeter works.
Proving the isoperimetric inequality requires tracing the boundary of the region with a
planimeter in such a way that

• The tracer point goes around the boundary of the region as usual,
• The curve followed by the opposite end of the tracer arm encloses no area, and
• The planimeter makes a full rotation in the process.

This puts a limitation on the length of the planimeter that can be used.
Pictures and animations showing how this can be done.

Now consider the formula

AR − AL = l σ€ −€ 1/2 λ l 2 ∆θ
from how a planimeter works. In this formula

• AR is the area enclosed by the tracer point; in this case it is the area A of the
region,
• AL is the area enclosed by the opposite end of the tracer arm; as in the other
applications, it is 0,
• l is the length of the tracer arm,
• σ is the roll of the wheel,
• λ is a parameter determined by the location of the wheel; in this case it is 1,
• ∆θ is the net rotation of the tracer arm; in this case it is 2π.

Plugging these values in we get

A = l σ − π l 2.
A little algebra (completing the square in l) yields

σ2 − 4πA = (A − πl 2)2/l 2 .
Now for a Key Observation: The roll of the wheel, σ, is less than or equal to the length
of the boundary, L. This is because the wheel is at the tracer point, and it records only
the component of the motion of the tracer point that is perpendicular to the tracer arm. It
follows that

L2 − 4πA (A − πl 2)2/l 2.

This is stronger than the desired result! We leave it to the reader to ponder the geometric
conditions under which equality occurs.

To see that the region has to be a circle when L2 = 4πA, consider the case when the
length l of the tracer arm is the radius r of the circumscribing circle. We have

L2 − 4πA (A − πr2)2/r2.
This is the same formula as above, of course, but it comes with an additional geometric
interpretation. Suppose L2 = 4πA. It follows that A = πr2. Now the region is completely
contained inside the circular disk. The only way for it to have the same area is for it to
be the circular disk! This formula, along with this additional geometric interpretation, is
known as a Bonnesen-type isoperimetric inequality.

A similar proof that works in spherical and hyperbolic geometry is contained in the
paper Planimeters and Isoperimetric Inequalities on Constant Curvature Surfaces. In
these spaces the isoperimetric inequality is

L2 4πA − €kA2,
where k is the curvature of the space: k is 1/R2 for a sphere, k is negative for the
hyperbolic plane.

Spherical planimeter, Jacob Amsler, 1884

Types Planimeter

A planimeter is a mechanical instrument used to compute the area of a planar region.

Here are some examples.

Prytz or "Hatchet"
Polar Planimeter Linear Planimeter
Planimeter
 Polar and Linear Planimeters
How They Are Used How They Work

The main working parts of polar and linear planimeters are the same. Each has a rod,
called the tracer arm, one end of which is the tracing point T, and a wheel attached to
the rod with its axis parallel to the rod. A scale attached to the wheel records how much
the wheel turns.

Polar Planimeter

Linear Planimeter

The two planimeters differ in the movement of the end of the tracer arm opposite the
tracer point. In the linear planimeter, that end is restricted to move along a straight line.
The drawing suggests that it runs along a track, but a more common way to cause this
motion is to have this end attached to a set of wheels that are fixed to an axis so that the
wheels turn together. In the polar planimeter, the end opposite the tracer point is
restricted to move along a circle. This is done by making that point the hinge between
the tracer arm and a secondary arm, one end of which (the pole) is fixed.

The original polar planimeter was invented in 1854 by Jacob Amsler, a Swiss
mathematician and inventor of many measuring instruments. It was so much simpler,
easier to use, and more accurate than previously invented planimeters that the latter
quickly became obsolete. Further modifications of his basic design were made only to
improve its accuracy. The linear planimeter works on the same basic principle as the
polar planimeter, and is simply a variation that allows the areas of long, skinny regions
to be measured.

Here are some pictures of a Keuffel & Esser polar planimeter I have (model 620015).
This was made by the German company Haff in about 1970.

The picture on the left shows the planimeter ready to measure the area of a region. On
the right is a disassembled view. The tracer point is equipped with a magnifying glass
to make it easier follow the curve. The box at the left end of the tracer arm is a carriage
containing the wheel and the counter with its scale. The wheel rests lightly on the paper
and can roll when the tracer point is moved. The pole is at the top and is held in place
by a weighted block that allows the pole arm to pivot.

The axis of the wheel is easily seen on the underside of the carriage. The wheel itself
(indicated by the pointer) is a steel disk attached directly to the cylinder with the scale.
The plastic wheel on the same axis that is visible in both pictures is slightly smaller than
the steel one and does not contact the paper. It is used to set the scale to zero.

This planimeter is on permanent loan from a member our biology department. If you
are looking for a planimeter, good places to check are physics, chemistry, and
engineering departments. They are almost always available at reasonable prices on
eBay.

How Polar and Linear Planimeters are Used

These planimeters are used by moving the tracer point around the boundary of the
region being measured. As the tracer point moves the wheel partially rolls and partially
slides on the paper, recording its motion perpendicular to the tracer arm. It turns out
that when the tracer point returns to the point where it started, the net rroll
oll of the wheel is
proportional to the area of the region. If a scale attached to the wheel is calibrated
appropriately, the area can be read from the scale.

Prytz Planimeters
This type of planimeter was invented in about 1875 by Holger Prytz, a Danish mathematician
and cavalry officer, as a simple and economical alternative to Amsler's polar planimeter.

It is a very simple
mple device, consisting of a rod
with its ends bent at right angles. One end,
the tracer point T, is sharpened to a point,
while the other end, C, is sharpened to a
chisel edge parallel to the rod. The chisel
edge is usually slightly rounded, making it
look
ok similar to a hatchet, and consequently
the device is also known as a "hatchet
planimeter." Prytz referred to it as a "stang
planimeter," "stang" being Danish for "rod."

When the tracer point T moves along a line, the chisel edge C follows a tractrix. Note that the
path of the chisel is always tangent to the planimeter.
 Here is a Prytz planimeter traversing an ellipse.

The tracer point goes around the ellipse.

Note that the chisel point does not return to
the point where it started. The angle
between the initial and final positions of the
chisel is roughly proportional to the area of
ellipse. The constant of proportionality is the
square of the length of the planimeter.
lanimeter. The
longer the planimeter, the more accurately
the area is measured.

A very simple Prytz planimeter can be made from a two-bladed

two bladed pocketknife. A description of
this is given in the Amateur Scientist column "An Excursion into the Problem of Measuring
Irregular Areas" by C.L. Stong in Scientific American, August 1958, pages 107-114.
114. This was
reprinted in "The Scientific American book of projects for the amateur scientist" by C.L. Stong,
and more recently in Scientific American's "The Amateur Scientist": The Complete 20th
Century Collection on CD-ROM.
Differential geometers will be interested to know that the Prytz planimeter is a simple example
of parallel translation on an S1 bundle governed by a connection on an SU(1,1) principal
bundle. For details, see Geometry of the Prytz Planimeter.

http://persweb.wabash.edu/facstaff/footer/planimeter/Planimeter.HTM