LAB EXPERIMENTS

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1. TRANSFER FUNCTION OF SEPERATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR
2. TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE CONTROLLED DC MOTOR
3. TRANSFER FUNCTION OF AC SERVO MOTOR
4. STUDY OF SYNCHROS
5. STUDY OF MAGNETIC AMPLIFIER
6. STUDY OF FIRST ORDER
7. STUDY OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS
8. BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION
9. MODELING OF DC MOTOR USING SIMULINK
10. STABILITY ANALYSIS OF LINEAR SYSTEMS
11. TIME RESPONSE OF LINEAR SYSTEMS
12. SIMULATION OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEMS
13. SIMULATION OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS
14. IMPLEMENTATION OF PID CONTRILLER

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 TRANSFER FUNCTION OF SEPERATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR.

EXPT. NO:
DATE:

AIM :
To obtain the transfer function of a DC generator.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :

S.No Item Specification / Range Quantity

1. DC generator trainer kit

2. DC motor – Generator set 0.5HP/180V/1500 rpm.

3. Patch cords

THEORY :
A DC generator can be used, as a power amplifier in which the power required
to excite the field circuit is lower than the power output rating of the armature circuit. The
voltage induced eg the armature circuit is directly proportional to the product of the
magnetic flux,  , setup by the field and the speed of rotation,  , of the armature which is
expressed as
eg = k1   ……….. (1.1)

The flux is a function of field current and the type of iron used in the field. A typical
magnetization showing flux as a function of field current is shown in figure
SLOPE=K1

FLUX

Figure:1.2.1

FIELD CURRENT AMPS

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Upto saturation the relation is approximately linear and the flux is directly proportional to
field current i.e.
 = k2 if . ………………. (1.2)

Combining both equations,

eg = k1 k2  if ………………...(1.3)

When used as a power amplifier the armature is driven at a constant speed and the
equation becomes
eg = kg if

A generator field winding is represented with Lf and Rf as inductance and resistance

of the field circuit. The equation for the generator are,
di f
ef  Lf  R f i f ...
dt
…………………………………………..(1.4) Finding
laplace transform of the equation 1.3 and 1.4 ,

E f s   sL f  R f I f s...........................................................(1.5)

E g s   k g I f s .......................................................................(1.6)
Combining the above two equations ,Then the transfer function of a DC generator is given
as,

Eg (S ) kg

E f (S ) SL f  R f

PRECAUTIONS :
1. At the time of starting the motor field rheostat should be in minimum resistance position
and generator field rheostat should be in maximum resistance position .
2. There should not be any load connected to the generator terminals .

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INFERENCE :

TYPICAL PROBING QUESTIONS :

 Define transfer function ?
 What is the importance of transfer function ?

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 What assumption is made concerning initial conditions when dealing with transfer
functions ?
 Why do transfer functions for mechanical networks look identical to transfer functions
for electrical networks ?
 To what classifications of systems can be transfer function be best applied?
 Do the zeros of a system change with a change in gain ?
 where are the zeros of the closed loop transfer function ?

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 TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE CONTROLLED DC MOTOR.

EXPT.NO:
DATE:

AIM:
To obtain the transfer function of an armature controlled dc shunt motor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S. No Name of the Apparatus Range Type

DC servo motor trainer kit -

1.

DC servo motor
2.

THEORY :
The DC motor is basically a torque transducer that converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. DC motors used in control systems also called “servo motors” are
characterised by large torque to inertia ratios, small size and better linear characteristics.
Most of the DC motor used in control systems can be modeled as shown in figure 1.
There are two circuits called the field circuit and armature circuit . Let i f and ia be the field
and armature current respectively. The torque T generated by the motor is given by
T(t) = k ia (t) if (t) ……………………. (1)
Where k is a constant . The generated torque is used to drive a load through a shaft. Let ‘J ’
be the total moment of the motor, ‘’ be the angular displacement of the load and ‘f ’ be the
viscous frictional coefficient of the bearing then we have,

d 2 d
T (t )  J 2
f ...........................................................................................(2)
dt dt

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 Figure :1 DC Motor Model

This describes the relationship between the motor torque and load’s angular displacement.
There are basically two ways of controlling the DC motor . If the field current is
kept constant and if the input voltage is applied to the armature circuit then the motor is
called an “armature controlled” DC motor. If the armature current is kept constant and the
input voltage is applied to the field circuit , the motor is called a “field controlled” DC motor
Consider the dc motor shown in figure 1. If the field current if is kept
constant and the input voltage is applied to the armature circuit then the motor is an armature
controlled dc motor. If if is constant equation (1) can be written as,

T(t) = kt ia(t). -------------------------------(3)

where kt = kif(t) is a constant. When the motor is driving a load, a back

electromotive force (back emf) voltage Vb, will develop in the armature circuit to resist the
applied voltage. The voltage Vb(t) is linearly proportional to the angular velocity  (t) of the
motor shaft

Vb(t)=kb  (t) -----------------------------------(4)

d (t )
 kb ................................................................(5)
dt

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Thus the armature circuit in the figure 1 is described by substitution of equation (3) in (2)

dia (t )
Ra ia (t )  La  Vb (t )  Va (t )  u (t ).............................................................(6)
dt

kt ia s   Js 2 s   fs s .............................................................................(7)
and the application of laplace transform to(2) and (6) give, assuming zero initial conditions,
Eliminating ia, we get the transfer function,

Ra ia ( s)  La si a ( s)  k b s ( s)  Va ( s).............................................................(8)

 ( s) kt
G( s)   ...................................................(9)
Va ( s) sJs  f Ra  ia s   k t k b 

Block diagram of armature controlled dc motor is shown in figure 2

d/dt
T 
V + kt 1 1
- Ra+Las f+Js s
MOTOR
LOAD

kb

Figure 2 Block diagram of armature controlled dc motor

 (s) K
 .........................................................................(10)
Va ( s )  kt kb 
s 1  s a 1  s m   
 Ra f 
The equation (9) can be rewritten as,

Where

La J Kt
a  m  K
Ra f Ra f

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PRECAUTIONS:
1. Initially keep all switches in OFF Position.
2. Initially keep voltage adjustment POT (VARIAC) in minimum position.
3. Initially keep Armature and field voltage adjustment POT in minimum position.

PROCEDURE:
To find armature resistance Ra :
1. Connect VPET - 300(A) module Armature output A and AA to motor Armature terminal
A and AA respectively.
2. Switch ON the power switch and SPST Switch 'S1'
3. Shaft should not rotate, when applying the DC input voltage.
4. Now note down the Armature current for various Armature voltage in the table.
Armature current should not exceed rated current value (2.5A).
5. Calculate the Resistance value Ra = Va / Ia.
6. The average resistance value gives the armature resistance.

Sl No Armature Voltage Va Armature Current Ra= Va/ Ia (Ω)

(Volts) Ia(A)

To find La:
1. Connect VPET-300(A) module variac output P and N to motor Armature terminal A and
AA respectively.
2. Switch ON the power.
3. Shaft should not rotate, when applying the AC input voltage.
4. Now note down the AC current for various AC voltage in the table
5. Calculate the Inductance value La = Va / Ia. .
6. The average Inductance value gives the armature Inductance.
S No Armature Armature Za= Va/Ia Xa = √Za2 - La=Xa/2∏f
Voltage(Va) Current(A) (Ω) Ra2 (H)
(Ω)

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To Find Back Emf Constant:
1. Connect VPET - 300(A) module, armature output A and AA to motor Armature terminal
A and AA respectively.
2. Connect VPET - 300(A) module, field output F and FF to motor Field terminal F and FF
respectively.
3. Switch on the power and SPST Switch 'S1' and ‘S2'.
4. Set the field Voltage at rated value (48V).
5. Adjust the Armature voltage by using Armature POT. Now note down the Armature
current and speed for various Armature Voltage (up to Motor rated Speed) in the table-5.
6. Plot the graph Eb versus T, model graph is as shown in Fig.1 and calculate the back emf.

S No Armature Armature Eb= V - Speed N T

Voltage(Va) Current(A) IaRa Rad/sec.
(V)

Figure 1
To Find Armature torque constant:
1. Connect VPET - 300(A) module armature output A and AA to motor Armature terminal
A and AA respectively.
2. Connect VPET - 300(A) field output F and FF to motor Field terminals F and FF
respectively.
3. Switch ON the power and SPST switches ‘S1' and ‘S2'.
4. Adjust the Field voltage to rated value.
5. Apply the Armature voltage till the Motor run at rated speed.
6. Apply load by tightening.
7. Now, note down the armature voltage, current and spring balance reading in the table.

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8. Plot the graph Torque Vs Armature current (Ia) model graph is shown figure-2.
9. Calculate the Torque constant from graph as shown below

Figure 2 Torque Vs Armature Current (Ia)

S No Armature Armature S1 S2 S1~ S2 T =(S1~S2)×9.81

Kg. Kg. Kg.
Voltage(V) Current (A) xr N-m

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Front Panel View

INFERENCE:

TYPICAL PROBING QUESTIONS :

 Illustrate the meaning of each of the following : Direct transfer function, Loop transfer
function and closed loop transfer function
 State an advantage of the transfer function approach over the state space approach.
 Since the motor’s transfer function relates armature displacement to armature voltage,
how can the transfer function that relates load displacement and armature voltage be
determined.

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 What do you mean by control system ?
 Define transfer function?
 What is DC servo motor? What are the main parts?
 What is servo mechanism?
 Is this a closed loop or open loop system .Explain?
 What is back EMF?

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 TRANSFER FUNCTION OF AC SERVO MOTOR

EXPT.NO:
DATE:

AIM:
To derive the transfer function of the given AC Servomotor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S. No Name of the Apparatus Range Type Quantity

1. AC servo motor trainer kit - 1
2. AC servo motor 1
3. Patch cords - As required
4. Loads As required

THEORY

The AC servo motor is basically a two phase induction motor with some special design
features. The stator consists of two pole pairs (A-B and C-D) mounted on the inner periphery
of the stator, such that their axes are at an angle of 90o in space. Each pole pair carries a
winding, one winding is called reference winding and other is called a control winding. The
exciting current in the winding should have a phase displacement of 90o. The supply used to
drive the motor is single phase and so a phase advancing capacitor is connected to one of the
phase to produce a phase difference of 90o.The rotor construction is usually squirrel cage or
drag-cup type. The rotor bars are placed on the slots and short-circuited at both ends by end
rings. The diameter of the rotor is kept small in order to reduce inertia and to obtain good
accelerating characteristics. The drag cup construction is employed for very low inertia
applications. In this type of construction the rotor will be in the form of hollow cylinder
made of aluminium. The aluminium cylinder itself acts as short-circuited rotor conductors.
Electrically both the types of rotor are identical.

WORKING PRINCIPLE AS AN ORDINARY INDUCTION MOTOR

The stator windings are excited by voltages of equal magnitude and 90o phase difference.
These results in exciting currents i1 and i2 that are phase displaced by 90o and have equal
values. These currents give rise to a rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude. The
direction of rotation depends on the phase relationship of the two currents (or voltages). This
rotating magnetic field sweeps over the rotor conductors. The rotor conductor experience a
change in flux and so voltages are induced rotor conductors. This voltage circulates currents
in the short-circuited rotor conductors and currents create rotor flux. Due to the interaction of
stator & rotor flux, a mechanical force (or torque) is developed on the rotor and so the rotor
starts moving in the same direction as that of rotating magnetic field.

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Front Panel diagram:

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Transfer Function:
The transfer function of the AC servomotor is obtained using the torque equation. The
developed torque is given by

Where k1 and k2 are motor parameters which depend on the control voltage ee(t).
k1 is expressed in Nm / Volt
k2 is expressed in Nm / rad / sec
Mechanical system consisting of the rotor, is described by the dynamic equation

Where J - moment of inertia kg.cm2

B - viscous friction co-efficient
T - speed in rad/sec
At equilibrium the motor torque is equal load/mechanical system torque

Taking Laplace transform

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Procedure:
To Find the motor constant K2:
i. Initially keep variac is minimum position.
ii. Connect banana connectors “ POUT” to “PIN” and “NOUT” to NIN (VARIAC output terminal
is connected to input of control winding)
iii. Connect 9 pin D-connector from motor feed back into input of, VPET-302 module.
iv. Switch ON the 230V AC supply to the motor setup.
vi. Switch ON the power ON/OFF switch.
vi. Switch ON the S2 (main winding) and S1 (control winding).
vii. Vary the control voltage by using VARIAC and set the rated voltage (230V) to control
phase winding.
viii. Apply the load on the motor step by step upto motor will run at 0 rpm.
ix. For each step note the readings (Load and Speed) as shown in the table 1. Speed is
measured from LCD display.
x. To calculate the torque value.
xi. Plot the graph Speed Vs Torque.
xii. The slope of speed - torque curve given the motor constant K2.

FORMULA TO BE USED
Torque (T) = 9.81 × r × s NM.
S = Applied Load in Kg.
r = Radius of shaft in m. = 0.068 meter
TABLE - 1
Control Voltage = Rated Voltage (230V)
SNo Speed (rpm) Load (kg) Torque (Nm)

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MODEL GRAPH:

ii) To determine the motor constant K1:

i. Initially keep variac is minimum position of VPET - 302 module.
ii. Connect banana connectors “ POUT” to “PIN” and “NOUT” to NIN (VARIAC output terminal
is connected to input of control winding)
iii. Connect 9 pin D-connector from motor feed back into input of VPET-302 module.
iv. Switch ON the 230V AC supply to the motor setup.
v. Switch ON the power ON/OFF switch.
vi. Switch ON the S2 (main winding) and S1 (control windings).
vii. Vary the control voltage by using VARIAC and set the rated voltage (230V) to control
phase winding.
viii. Apply the load on the motor step by step upto motor will run at 0 rpm
ix. For each step note the load and control winding voltage is shown in the table 2.
x. To calculate the torque value.
xi. Plot the graph Torque Vs Control voltage.
xii. The slope of torque - control voltage curve gives the motor constant K1

Table 2
SNo Load (kg) Control voltage Ec Torque (Nm)

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MODEL GRAPH

INFERENCE:

TYPICAL PROBING QUESTIONS :

1. What are the main parts of an AC servomotor?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of an AC servo motor?
3. Give the applications of AC servomotor?
4. What do you mean by servo mechanism?
5. What are the characteristics of an AC servomotor?

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 STUDY OF SYNCHROS

EXPT NO:
DATE:

AIM:
To study the characteristics of magnetic amplifier and SYNCHRO Transmitter & Receiver.

APPARATUS RECEIVED:

S.No: Item Specification / Range Quantity

1. Synchro transmitter and receiver kit ----- 1

2. Patch chords ----- 1

THEORY:

Synchro is an electromagnetic transducer commonly to convert an angular position of

a shaft into electric signal.
Basic synchro is usually called as synchro transmitter. It’s construction is similar to
that of a three phase alternator. ( Refer figure 13.2.1 ) The stator is of laminated silicon steel
and is slotted to accommodate a balanced three phase winding. The rotor is of dump-bell
construction and wound with a concentric coil. An a.c. voltage is applied to the rotor
winding through slip rings.
Let the a.c. voltage applied be
Vr(t) = Vm sin  t

This voltage applied to the rotor of the synchro transmitter cause a flow of
magnetising current in the rotor coil which produces a sinusoidal time varying flux directed
along its axis and distributed nearly sinusoidal in the air-gap along stator periphery. Due to
transformer action voltages are induced in each of the stator coils. The flux linking with the
stator coil is proportional to the cosine of the angle between rotor and stator coil axis and so
is the voltage induced in each stator coil.
The induced voltages in the stator coils s 1,s2 and s3 with respect to neutral are given
as,

Vs1N=KVm cos(  +120)

Vs2N=KVm sin  tcos 
Vs3N=KVm sin  t cos(  +240)

where  is the angle between the rotor coil axis and stator coil s2 axis.
The terminal voltages of the stator are,

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 Vs1s2=3KVm sin(  +240) sin  t
Vs2s3=3KVm sin(  +120) sin  t
Vs3s1=3KVmsin  sin  t
Thus the input angular position to the synchro transmitter results in a output of three
single phase voltages and the magnitude of the voltages are functions of shaft position.
A synchro system consists of two units namely,
1) synchro transmitter
2) synchro receiver.
Synchro receiver have almost the same constructional features as transmitter.
Initially the winding s2 of the stator of transmitter is positioned for maximum coupling with
rotor winding. If V is the voltage in the coil s2, the coupling between s1 and s3 of the stator
and rotor winding is a cosine function. Therefore the effective voltages in these windings are
proportional to cos 60 or they are v/2 each. so long as the rotor of the transmitter and
receivers remain in this position no current will flow between windings because of the
voltage balance.
When the rotor of the transmitter is moved to a new position, the voltage balance is
disturbed. This voltage imbalance between the stator winding of transmitter and receiver
causes currents to flow producing torque that tends to rotate the rotor of the receiver to a new
position. where the voltage balance is again restored. This balance is restored only if the
receiver turns through the same angle as the transmitter and also the direction of the rotation
is same as that of the transmitter is same as that of the transmitter.

FRONT PANEL VIEW:

SYNCHRO SYNCHRO
TRANSIMTTTER RECEIVER

PL OFF
MAINS
ON
R1 R2 R1 R2
SW1 SW2
S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3

PROCEDURE :
To Find the Stator otput voltage with respect to the rotor position:

i. Connect Digital Voltmeter across the any two Stator output of Synchro transmitter.
ii. Connect Synchro transmitter stator outputs to corresponding Stator terminals of Synchro
receiver.
iii. Power ‘ON’ the all ON/OFF Switches

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iv. Verify the Stator output voltage of 0V at 0 degree, if it is not make 0V at 0 degree to
adjust the pointer of both transmitter and Receiver.
v. Adjust the transmitter rotor position Step by Step.
vi. Now note down the output voltage for various rotor position in the table 1.
vii. Repeat the Same procedure for other pair of Synchro transmitter coils.

Table-1

Sl No Synchro transmiter
Rotor Position (degree) Stator Output(V)

Model Graph:

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To Study the Rotor position of Synchro transmitter and Receiver:
i. Connect Digital Voltmeter across to the any two Stator output of Synchro transmitter.
ii. Connect Synchro transmitter stator outputs to corresponding Stator terminals of
Synchro receiver.
iii. Power ‘ON’ the all ON/OFF Switches
iv. Verify the Stator output voltage 0V at 0 degree, if it is not make 0V at 0 degree to
adjust the pointer of both transmitter and Receiver.
v. Adjust the transmitter rotor position step by step by using knob
vi. Now note down the rotor position of transmitter and receiver in the table-2.

Table 2

SL.No Synchro Transmitter Rotor Synchro Receiver Rotor Error=Rotor position

Position(degree) position (degree) (Transmitter-Receiver)

Model Graph:

Output
angular
Position in
degrees

Input angular position in degrees

INFERENCE:

TYPICAL PROBING QUESTIONS :

 What are the advantages of synchros ?
 Define angular displacement?

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 For what purpose synchros are used ?
 On what principle synchros works?
 What is synchro transmitter?
 What is synchro control transformer?
 Synchro, what type of transducer?

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 STUDY OF MAGNETIC AMPLIFIER
EXPT.NO.:
DATE:

AIM:
To study the characteristics of magnetic amplifier
APPARATUS RECEIVED:

S.No: Item Specification / Range Quantity

1. Magnetic Amplifier Kit ---- 1

2. RPS (0-30)V 1

3. Ammeter ( 0 – 1)A MI, (0-1)A MC 1

4. Rheostat 270 Ω, 1A

5. Patch chords ----- 1

THEORY:
Magnetic Amplifier:
Magnetic Amplifier is a device consisting of combination of saturable reactors,
rectifiers and Conventional transformers used to secure control or amplification. In
magnetic amplifiers the load Current in the circuit is controlled by a D.C magnetizing
current, which is comparatively very low as compared with load current. A large current
valve is controlled by a small current valve. Hence such type of circuits are termed current
amplifiers. To control the load current a saturable reactor is used. The reactance of the
reactor depends upon magnetic coupling and magnetism included depends upon the D.C
control current. Thus the load current is controlled by using magnetic property and hence the
term magnetic amplifier.
The most common basic saturable reactor (which is used in magnetic amplifier circuits)
consists of a three-legged closed laminated core with coils wound on each leg. The coil
wound on central limb is called as control winding and coils wound on outer limbs are called
as Load winding. Due to DC current in the control winding the degree of magnetization in
the core is changed. An increase in control current increases the flux density. Until core
saturation is approached. After this change in flux density will not be applicable. Hence one
can change the flux density,ie reactance of the core by changing the DC current in the
control winding. If the Load winding is connected in series with the Load one can control the
current in the load by changing reactance of the coil with the help of DC control current. The
load current can be controlled still saturation of reactance is approached. This property of
saturable reactor is used in magnetic amplifier.

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Magnetic amplifier. Circuits can be used in different way.

In series connected magnetic amplifier, the two reactors (Load windings) are connected in
series. The total reactance is twice and control winding controls it. In such type of magnetic
amplifiers. The current can be controlled right from near zero current. By increasing the
control current the reactance is slowly decreased and hence Load current is increased. Two
meters are provided to measure control current (DC 0 – 10 mA) and load current (AC 0 –1A)
By plotting a graph of control current against load current nature of amplification can be
observed.
Load current

Control Current

Initially at zero control current, Load current will be very low, as the reactance is maximum.
As the Control current is increased load current will also increase with a constant slope
(Amplification) .After certain level of control current the slope will go on decreasing and
finally load current will reach saturation due to saturation of reactance.
In parallel connected magnetic amplifier the two reactors are connected in parallel .
The total reactance in this case will be decreased. At zero control current there will be
Appreciable load current .As compared to series connected magnetic amplifier initial load
current At zero control current will be more in case of parallel-connected magnetic
amplifier. Secondly Saturation level of load current is more as that of series connected
version.
Load current

Control Current

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At zero control current there will be some load current flowing in the circuit As the control
current is increased load current will also increase with a constant slope (Amplification) as
in series connection and will reach a saturation current. But this valve of saturation current
will be much more than that in series connected. We can control more load current with
nearly same amplification factor.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Parallel Connected Magnetic Amplifier

PROCEDURE:

i) Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.

ii) Keep the rheostat the minimum position.
iii) Switch on the RPS and vary the supply voltage and measure the control winding
current.
iv) Note down the load current for every control winding current.
v) Plot the graph.

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Tabular column:
Series Connected Magnetic Amplifier:
S.No. Control Current (mA) Load Current ( mA)

Parallel Connected Magnetic Amplifier:

S.No. Control Current (mA) Load Current ( mA)

INFERENCE:

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 BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION

EXPT. NO:
DATE:
AIM:
To reduce the given Block diagram to transfer function model using M-file Editor in
MATLAB.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Personal Computer with MATLAB.

THEORY:

It is a representation of the control system giving the inter-relation between the transfer
function of various components. The block diagram is obtained after obtaining the differential
equation & Transfer function of all components of a control system. The arrow head pointing
towards the block indicates the i/p & pointing away from the block indicates the o/p. After obtaining
the block diagram for each & every component, all blocks are combined to obtain a complete
representation. It is then reduced to a simple form with the help of block diagram algebra.

Blocks connected in Series

Let the process represented by the transfer function G(s) be
S 1
G(s) = .and let the controller represented by the transfer function
500 S 2
S 1
Gc(s) be Gc(s) = .Compute the series transfer function Gc(s)G(s)
S 2

S 1 S 1
G(s) = Gc(s) =
R(s) 500 S 2 S 2 Y(s)

»numg=[1 1]; deng = [500 0 0];

»numh=[1 1]; denh = [1 2]
»[num, den]= series(numg,deng,numh,denh);
»printsys(num,den)

The output of this program is

num/den =

s^2 + 2 s + 1
------------------
500 s^3 + 1000 s^2

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Blocks connected in parallel
A simple open – loop control system can be obtained by interconnecting a plant and a
controller in parallel.
1
G(s) =
S 2
+
R(s) + Y(s)
S 3
Gc(s) =
S  10

The transfer function in this case is Gc(s)+G(s).Let the process represented by the transfer
1
function G(s) be G(s) = .and let the controller represented by the transfer function Gc(s)
S 2
S 3
be Gc(s) = . Compute the combined transfer function of the blocks.
S  10

»num1 = 1;
»den1 =[1 2];
»num2 =[1 3];
»den2 =[1 10];
» [nump, denp] = parallel(num1, den1, num2, den2);
»printsys(nump, denp);

Execution of the above yields the result

num/den =
s^2 + 6s +16
s^2 + 12s + 20

Feedback function

This function reduces the process of computing the closed loop transfer function for single or
multiple loops.

R(s) Ys)
G(s)

H(s)

Y ( S ) num num1 num2

T(s) = = ; G(s)= ;H(s) =
G ( S ) den den1 den2

+1 – positive feed back

–1 – negative feedback

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command : [num, den] = feedback(num1, den1, num2, den2, sign)

Single loop

Example :1
R(s) Y(s)
G(s) =

H(s) =

» numg = [1 1] ; deng = [500 0 0];

» numh = [1 1] ; denh = [ 1 2 ];
» [num, den] = feedback(numg,deng,numh,denh,-1);
» printsys(num, den)

The output of the program will be

Transfer function
s^2 + 3 s + 2
----------------------------
500 s^3 + 1001 s^2 + 2 s + 1

PROCEDURE:

1. Enter the command window of the MATLAB.

2. Create a new M – file by selecting File – New – M – File.
3. Type and save the program.
4. Execute the program by either pressing F5 or Debug – Run.
5. View the results.
6. Analysis the stability of the system.

For reducing very complex systems, blkbuild and connect commands are used as
illustrated below;
BLKBUILD Builds a block-diagonal state-space structure from a block diagram of
transfer functions and state models. This is a SCRIPT FILE.
Each block is numbered as shown. In the first seven lines of the program, the above
blocks are completely defined. The numbers of blocks are then defined n blocks. The
command blkbuild uses the variable nblocks to begin building the system. It converts all the
transfer functions to state space models and assembles them into one large block state space
model called a, b, c, d.
lThe next step is to create the matrix q that describes the interconnections of various
blocks. Each row corresponds to a block and the first element in the row is the block number
and the remaining elements indicate the blocks whose outputs are connected to the input of
the current block.
After defining q, the block 1 that receives the system input and block 4 that produces the
system output are defined by the variables ‘input’ and ‘output’. The connect command

35
 makes the connections and reduces the system into a single state space model which is then
converted back into transfer function.

INPUTS:
n is the number of blocks in the diagram.
ni and di are the numerator and denominator polynomials for the ith block if it is a
transfer function.
ai,bi,ci,di are the state matrices for the ith block if it is a state model.

OUTPUTS:

a,b,c,d is the resulting state space structure. The matrices are built up by
progressive
APPENDs of the state

PROBLEM (i)

R(S) +
+ C(S)
G1(S) + G3 (S) + G4(S)
G2(S)

1 - - 3 - 4
2

H2(S) H3(S)

6 7
H1(S)

Let G1(s) = 1 G2(s) = 1/(s+1),

G3(s) = 1/(s+2) G4(s) = 1/(s+3),

H1(s) = 4 H2(s) = 8, H3(s) = 12,

Solution:

%TF OF COMPLETE BLOCK DIAGRAM 1

36
»n1=1;d1=1;
»n2=1;d2=[1 1];
»n3=1;d3=[1 2];
»n4=1;d4=[1 3];
»n5=4;d5=1;
»n6=8;d6=1;
»n7=12;d7=1;
»nblocks=7;
»blkbuild
»q = [ 1 0 0 0 0
2 1 -5 0 0
3 2 -6 0 0
4 2 -6 3 -7
5 3 0 0 0
6 3 0 0 0
7 4 0 0 0 ]
»iu = 1;
»iy = 4;
» [A,B,C,D]=connect(a,b,c,d,q,iu,iy);
» sys=ss(A,B,C,D);
»sys=tf(sys)

System Response:
State model [a,b,c,d] of the block diagrams has 7 inputs and 7 outputs

num/den =

1s + 3 _____ .
s^3 + 26 s^2 + 179s + 210

Inference:

Result:

The Block diagram to transfer function reduction of the given model has been done using
MATLAB.

Exp No:
Date:

MODELING OF DC MOTOR USING SIMULINK

37
AIM: To model an armature controlled DC motor using Simulink.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Personal Computer with MATLAB.

THEORY:

It is a representation of the control system giving the inter-relation between the transfer
function of various components. The block diagram is obtained after obtaining the differential
equation & Transfer function of all components of a control system. The arrow head pointing
towards the block indicates the i/p & pointing away from the block indicates the o/p. After obtaining
the block diagram for each & every component, all blocks are combined to obtain a complete
representation. It is then reduced to a simple form with the help of block diagram algebra.

Procedure:
i) Write the differential equation of Armature controlled DC Motor
ii) Derive the Transfer Function
iii) Draw the block diagram of Armature controlled DC Motor
iv) Model the block diagram in Simulink
v) Apply input and vary the output

(Finish the first 3 steps as pre-lab work before coming to the Lab))

Exp No : STABILITY ANALYSIS OF LINEAR SYSTEMS

Date :

AIM:

38
To obtain the various plots and check for stability of the system with open loop transfer
function,

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

A PC with MATLAB Software

THEORY:

A Linear Time-Invariant Systems is stable if the following two notions of system stability
are satisfied
 When the system is excited by Bounded input, the output is also a Bounded
output.
 In the absence of the input, the output tends towards zero, irrespective of the
initial conditions.

The following observations are general considerations regarding system stability,

o If all the roots of the characteristic equation have negative real parts, then the
impulse response is bounded and eventually decreases to zero, then system is
stable.
o If any root of the characteristic equation has a positive real part, then system
is unstable.
o If the characteristic equation has repeated roots on the jω-axis, then system is
unstable.
o If one are more non-repeated roots of the characteristic equation on the jω-
axis, then system is unstable.

a. Using BODE PLOT :

Consider a Single-Input Single-Output system with transfer function

C(s) b0 sm + b1 sm-1 + ……+ bm

=
R(s) a0 sn + a1sn-1 + ……+an
Where m < n.

 Rule 1 A system is stable if the phase lag is less than 180˚ at the frequency
for which the gain is unity (one).
 Rule 2 A system is stable if the gain is less than one (unity) at the frequency
for which the phase lag is 180˚.

The application of these rules to an actual process requires evaluation of the gain and phase
shift of the system for all frequencies to see if rules 1 and 2 are satisfied. This is obtained by

39
plotting the gain and phase versus frequency. This plot is called BODE PLOT. The gain
obtained here is open loop gain. The exact terminology is in terms of a Gain Margin and
Phase Margin from the limiting values quoted.

 If the phase lag is less than 140˚ at the unity gain frequency, the system is
stable. This then, is a 40˚ Phase Margin from the limiting values of 180˚.
 If the gain is 5dB below unity (or a gain of about 0.56) when the phase lag is
180˚, the system is stable. This is 5dB Gain Margin.

PROCEDURE:

Step 1: Write a program to obtain the Bode plot for the given system.
Step 2: Access the stability of given system using the plot obtained.

PROGRAM

%BODE PLOT OF THE SYSTEM

%Enter the numerator and denominator of the transfer function
num=[ ];
den=[ ];
sys=tf(num,den)
%Specify the frequency range and enter the command
w=logspace(-2,4,1000);
bode(sys,w)
xlabel('Frequency')
ylabel( ' Phase angle in degrees Magnitude of G(s) in decibels')
title('Bode Plot of the system ')
%To determine the Gain Margin, Phase Margin, Gain crossover frequency and
%Phase cross over frequency
margin(sys)
[ Gm, Pm, Wpc, Wgc ]= margin (sys)

MANUAL CALCULATIONS:

40
OUTPUT (from manual calculation):

OUTPUT (from program):

RESULT:

The Bode plot is drawn for the given transfer function using MATLAB and verified
manually. From the plot obtained, the system is found to be ______________.

b. Using Root Locus

AIM:

To obtain the Root locus plot and to verify the stability of the system with transfer function,
G(s) =

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

A PC with MATLAB Software

THEORY:

ROOT LOCUS PLOT:

The characteristic of the transient response of a closed-loop system is related to the location
of the closed loop poles. If the system has a variable loop gain, then the location of the
closed-loop poles depend on the value of the loop gain chosen. A simple technique known as
“Root Locus Technique” used for studying linear control systems in the investigation of the
trajectories of the roots of the characteristic equation.

This technique provides a graphical method of plotting the locus of the roots in the s-plane
as a given system parameter is varied over the complete range of values (may be from zero
to infinity). The roots corresponding to a particular value of the system parameter can then
be located on the locus or the value of the parameter for a desired root location can be
determined form the locus. The root locus is a powerful technique as it brings into focus the
complete dynamic response of the system. The root locus also provides a measure of
sensitivity of roots to the variation in the parameter being considered. This technique is
applicable to both single as well as multiple-loop systems.

PROCEDURE:

41
 1. Write a program to obtain the root locus plot for the given system.
2. Access the stability of given system using the plot obtained.

PROGRAM:

%ROOT LOCUS OF THE SYSTEM%

num=[ ]
den=[ ]
sys=tf(num,den)
rlocus(sys)
v=[-10,10,-8,8];
axis(v)
xlabel('Real Axis')
ylabel('Imaginary Axis')
title('Root Locus of the system')

MANUAL CALCULATIONS:

OUTPUT (from manual calculation)

OUTPUT (from program):

RESULT:

The Root locus plot is drawn for the given transfer function, G(s)= ___________________
using MATLAB and the range of gain K for stability is______________.

c. USING NYQUIST PLOT

AIM:

To obtain the Nyquist plot and check the stability of the system using Nyquist Stability
Criterion for the given unity feedback system with transfer function

42
 G(s)H(s) =

APPARATUS REQUIRED

A PC with MATLAB Software

THEORY:

NYQUIST STABILITY CRITERION:

POLAR PLOTS OR NYQUIST PLOTS:

The sinusoidal transfer function G(jω) is a complex function is given by
G(jω) = Re[ G(jω)] + j Im[G(jω)] or
G(jω) = │G(jω) │ ∟G(jω) = M ∟Φ -----------(1)

From equation (1), it is seen that G(jω) may be represented as a phasor of magnitude M and
phase angle Φ. As the input frequency varies from 0 to ∞, the magnitude M and phase angle
Φ changes and hence the tip of the phasor G(jω) traces a locus in the complex plane. The
locus thus obtained is known as POLAR PLOT. The major advantage of the polar plot lies
in stability study of systems. Nyquist related the stability of a system to the form of these
plots. Polar plots are referred as NYQUIST PLOTS.

PROCEDURE:

1. Write a program to obtain the Nyquist plot for the given system.
2. Access the stability of given system using the plot obtained.

PROGRAM

%NYQUIST PLOT
%Enter the numerator and denominator of the transfer function
num=[ ]
den=[ ]
sys=tf(num,den)

43
%Specify the frequency range and enter the command
nyquist(sys)
v=[ ]
axis(v)
xlabel('Real Axis');
ylabel('Imaginary Axis');
title('Nyquist Plot of the system ‘)

MANUAL CALCULATIONS:

OUTPUT ( from Manual calculation)

OUTPUT (from program)

RESULT:

The Nyquist plot is drawn for the given transfer function, G(s) = ______________________
using MATLAB and the system is found to be ______________________.

Exp No : TIME RESPONSE OF LINEAR SYSTEMS

Date :

AIM:

To obtain the various plots and study the response of the given system with various input
given.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

A PC with MATLAB Software

THEORY:

44
The order of a system is defined as being the highest power of derivative in the differential
equation, or being the highest power of s in the denominator of the transfer function. A first-
order system only has s to the power one in the denominator, while a second-order system
has the highest power of s in the denominator being two.

Types of the input functions (or test input signals) commonly used are:
• Impulse function:
• Step function: In the time domain, u(t) = c. In the s domain, U(s) = c/s.
• Ramp function: In the time domain, u(t) = ct. In the s domain, U(s) = c/s2
Sinusoidal function
where c is a constant in all the above.
With these test signals, mathematical and experimental analyses of control systems can be
carried out easily since the signals are very simple functions of time.
This of these typical signals to use for analyzing system characteristics may be determined
by the form of the input that the system will be subjected to most frequently under normal
operation. If the inputs to a control system are gradually changing functions of time, then a
ramp function of time may be a good test signal. Similarly, if a system is subjected to sudden
disturbances, a step function of time may be a good test signal, and for a system subjected to
a shock input, a pulse or an impulse function may be best.

PROCEDURE:

1. Write a program to obtain the various plot for the given system.
2. From the given system find the values for rise , peak ,settling times and % overshoot
.

%Compute step response for a second-order system for a different Zeta values
t=[0:0.1:10];num=[1];
zeta1=0.1;den1=[1 2*zeta1 1]; sys1=tf(num,den1);
zeta2=0.25; den2=[1 2*zeta2 1 ]; sys2=tf(num,den2);
zeta3=0.5; den3=[1 2*zeta3 1]; sys3=tf(num,den3);
zeta4=1.0; den4=[1 2*zeta4 1]; sys4=tf(num,den4);
[y1 ,T1]=step(sys1 ,t);
[y2,T2]=step(sys2,t);
[y3,T3]=step(sys3,t);
[y4,T4]=step(sys4,t);
plot(t,y1 ,t,y2,t,y3,t,y4)
xlabel(' \omega _nt');
ylabel('y(t)/omega_n');
title('\zeta = 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0');
grid

%Compute impulse response for a second-order system

45
t=[0:0.1:10];num=[5];
zeta1=0.2;den1=[1 2*zeta1 1]; sys1=tf(num,den1);
zeta2=0.4; den2=[1 2*zeta2 1 ]; sys2=tf(num,den2);
zeta3=0.6; den3=[1 2*zeta3 1]; sys3=tf(num,den3);
zeta4=1.0; den4=[1 2*zeta4 1]; sys4=tf(num,den4);
[y1 ,T1]=impulse(sys1 ,t);
[y2,T2]=impulse(sys2,t);
[y3,T3]=impulse(sys3,t);
[y4,T4]=impulse(sys4,t);
plot(t,y1 ,t,y2,t,y3,t,y4)
xlabel(' \omega _nt'), ylabel('y(t)/omega_n')
title('\zeta = 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0'), grid

n1=[1 5]
d1=[5 1 4 3]
g=tf(n1,d1);
t = 0: 0.005 :5;
r = 2 - 2*t+ t.^2;
c =lsim(n1,d1,r,t);%compute response using lsim function
plot(t,r,'*k',t,c,'-k');
grid;
xlabel('time,t in sec');
ylabel('Input,r(t) and Output,c(t)');
text(0.25,2.65,'r(t)')
text(0.25,0.6,'c(t)')
%computing the Time domain specifications

num = [6.3223 18 12.811];

den = [1 6 11.3223 18 12.811];
t = 0:0.02:20;
[y,x,t] = step(num,den,t);
plot(t,y)
grid
title('Unit-Step Response')
xlabel('t (sec)')
ylabel('Output y(t)')
r1 = 1; while y(r1) < 0.1, r1 = r1+1; end;
r2 = 1; while y(r2) < 0.9, r2 = r2+1; end;
rise_time = (r2-r1)*0.02
[ymax,tp] = max(y);
peak_time = (tp-1)*0.02
max_overshoot = ymax-1

46
s = 1001; while y(s) > 0.98 & y(s) < 1.02; s = s-1; end;
settling_time = (s-1)*0.02

%Computing the Time domain specifications using formula

num = 220;
den = [2 18 220];
T = tf(num, den)
omegan = sqrt (den(3))
zeta = den(2) / (2*omegan)
Ts = 4/ (zeta*omegan)
Tp = pi/ (omegan*sqrt(1-zeta^2))
Tr = (1.76*zeta^3-.417*zeta^2 + 1.039*zeta + 1)/omegan
percent = exp(-zeta*pi/ sqrt(1-zeta^2))*100
step(T)
title('a')

RESULT:

Expt. No. Date:

SIMULATION OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEMS

AIM:

To simulate the time response characteristics of a linear system without non-

linearity’s and to verify it manually.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

A PC with MATLAB package

THEORY:

The time response characteristics of control systems are specified in terms of time
domain specifications. Systems with energy storage elements cannot respond

47
instantaneously and will exhibit transient responses, whenever they are subjected to inputs or
disturbances.
The desired performance characteristics of a system of any order may be specified in
terms of transient response to a unit step input signal. The transient response characteristics
of a control system to a unit step input is specified in terms of the following time domain
specifications
 Delay time td
 Rise time tr
 Peak time tp
 Maximum peak overshoot Mp
 Settling time ts

STUDY OF BASIC MATLAB COMMANDS:

The name MATLAB stands for MATRIX LABORATORY. MATLAB was originally
written to provide easy access to matrix software developed by the LINPACK and
EISPACK projects. Today, MATLAB engines incorporate the LAPACK and BLAS
libraries, embedding the state of the art in software for matrix computation. It has evolved
over a period of years with input from many users. In university environments, it is the
standard instructional tool for introductory and advanced courses in MATHEMATICS,
ENGINEERING, AND SCIENCE. In industry, MATLAB is the tool of choice for high-
productivity research, development, and analysis.

MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates

computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems
and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include,

 Math and computation

 Algorithm development
 Data acquisition Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
 Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
 Scientific and engineering graphics
 Application development, including graphical user interface building

It is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not require
dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems, especially
those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a
program in a scalar non-interactive language such as C or Fortran. It also features a family
of add-on application-specific solutions called toolboxes. Very important to most users of
MATLAB, toolboxes allow you to learn and apply specialized technology. Toolboxes are
comprehensive collections of MATLAB functions (M-files) that extend the MATLAB
environment to solve particular classes of problems. Areas in which toolboxes are available
include SIGNAL PROCESSING, CONTROL SYSTEMS, NEURAL NETWORKS,
FUZZY LOGIC, WAVELETS, SIMULATION, AND MANY OTHERS.

Some practical examples of first order systems are RL and RC circuits.

48
PROCEDURE:

1. Derive the transfer function of a RL series circuit.

2. Assume R= 1 Ohms L = 0. 1 H. Find the step response theoretically and plot it on a
graph sheet.
3. To build a SIMULINK model to obtain step response / sine response of a first order
system, the following procedure is followed:
1. In MATLAB software open a new model in SIMULINK library browser.
2. From the continuous block in the library drag the transfer function block.
3. From the source block in the library drag the step input/ sine input.
4. From the sink block in the library drag the scope.
5. From the math operations block in the library drag the summing point.
6. Connect all to form a system and give unity feedback to the system.
7. For changing the parameters of the blocks connected double click the
respective block.
8. Start simulation and observe the results in scope. (Use a mux from the signal
routing block to view more than one graph in the scope)
9. Compare the simulated and theoretical results.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Step response of a first order system:

Sine response of a first order system:

49
2. MATLAB (m-file) program to obtain the step response and impulse response

% MATLAB program to find the step response

num=[ ];
den=[ ];
sys = tf (num,den);
step (sys);
grid

OUTPUT: (Paste the graph obtained from PC)

% MATLAB program to find the impulse response

num=[ ];
den=[ ];
sys = tf (num,den);
impulse (sys);
grid

OUTPUT: (Paste the graph obtained from PC)

CALCULATIONS:

Unit step response of the given RL series circuit:

Unit Impulse response of the given RLC series circuit:

50
RESULT:

The time response characteristics of a first order system is simulated digitally and verified
manually.

SIMULATION OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS

AIM:

To digitally simulate the time response characteristics of a second order system and verify
manually.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

A PC with MATLAB Software

THEORY

The time characteristics of control systems are specified in terms of time domain
specifications. Systems with energy storage elements cannot respond instantaneously and
will exhibit transient responses, whenever they are subjected to inputs or disturbances. The
desired performance characteristics of a system of any order may be specified in terms of
transient response to a unit step input signal. The transient response characteristics of a
control system to a unit step input is specified in terms of the following time domain
specifications:
 Delay time td
 Rise time tr
 Peak time tp
 Maximum overshoot Mp
 Settling time ts

PROCEDURE:

1. Derive the transfer function of a RLC series circuit.

51
 2. Assume R= 1 Ohms, L = 0. 1 H and C = 1 micro Farad. Find the step response
theoretically and plot it on a graph sheet.
3. To build a SIMULINK model to obtain step response / sine response of a second
order system, the following procedure is followed:
1. In MATLAB software open a new model in SIMULINK library browser.
2. From the continuous block in the library drag the transfer function block.
3. From the source block in the library drag the step input/ sine input.
4. From the sink block in the library drag the scope.
5. From the math operations block in the library drag the summing point.
6. Connect all to form a system and give unity feedback to the system.
7. For changing the parameters of the blocks connected double click the
respective block.
8. Start simulation and observe the results in scope. (Use a mux from the signal
routing block to view more than one graph in the scope)
9. From the step response obtained note down the rise time, peak time, peak
overshoot and settling time.
10. Compare the simulated and theoretical results.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Step response of a second order system:

Sine response of a second order system:

2. MATLAB program to obtain the step response and impulse response of second order
system.

52
% MATLAB program to find the step response
num=[ ];
den=[ ];
sys = tf (num,den);
step (sys);

OUTPUT: (Paste the graph obtained from PC)

% MATLAB program to find the impulse response

num=[ ];
den=[ ];
sys = tf (num,den);
impulse (sys);

OUTPUT: (Paste the graph obtained from PC)

CALCULATIONS:

Unit step response of the given RLC series circuit:

Unit impulse response of the given RLC series circuit:

53
RESULT:

The time response characteristics of the given second order system is simulated digitally and
verified manually.

54
Exp No
Date:
Implementation of PID Controller

Objective: Study the three term (PID) controller and its effects on the feedback loop response.
Investigate the characteristics of the each of proportional (P), the integral (I), and the derivative
(D) controls, and how to use them to obtain a desired response.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

A PC with MATLAB Software

Theory :

Consider the following unity feedback system:

R e u
Plant
Controller
+ - Y

Plant: A system to be controlled.

Controller: Provides excitation for the plant; Designed to control the overall system behavior.

The three-term controller: The transfer function of the PID controller looks like the following:

KI
Gc (s)  K P   KDs
s (1)

The transfer function of a PID controller is found by taking the Laplace transform of Eq.(1).

(2)

= Proportional gain = Integral gain = Derivative gain

55
We can define a PID controller in MATLAB using the transfer function directly, for
example:

Kp = 1;
Ki = 1;
Kd = 1;

s = tf('s');
C = Kp + Ki/s + Kd*s
C =

s^2 + s + 1
-----------
s

Continuous-time transfer function.

Alternatively, we may use MATLAB's PID controller object to generate an equivalent

continuous-time controller as follows:

C = pid(Kp,Ki,Kd)
C =

1
Kp + Ki * --- + Kd * s
s

with Kp = 1, Ki = 1, Kd = 1

Continuous-time PID controller in parallel form.

convert the PID object to a transfer function to see that it yields the same result as above:

tf(C)
ans =

s^2 + s + 1
-----------
s

Continuous-time transfer function.

56
KP = Proportional gain
KI = Integral gain
KD = Derivative gain
First, let's take a look at how the PID controller works in a closed-loop system using the
schematic shown above. The variable (e) represents the tracking error, the difference between
the desired input value (R) and the actual output (Y). This error signal (e) will be sent to the PID
controller, and the controller computes both the derivative and the integral of this error signal.
The signal (u) just past the controller is now equal to the proportional gain (KP) times the
magnitude of the error plus the integral gain (KI) times the integral of the error plus the
derivative gain (KD) times the derivative of the
deerror.
(t )
u(t )  K P e(t )  K I  e(t )dt  K D
dt

This signal (u) will be sent to the plant, and the new output (Y) will be obtained. This new output
(Y) will be sent back to the sensor again to find the new error signal (e). The controller takes this
new error signal and computes its derivatives and its internal again. The process goes on and on.

The Characteristics of P, I, and D Controllers

A proportional controller ( ) will have the effect of reducing the rise time and will reduce
but never eliminate the steady-state error. An integral control ( ) will have the effect of
eliminating the steady-state error for a constant or step input, but it may make the transient
response slower. A derivative control ( ) will have the effect of increasing the stability of
the system, reducing the overshoot, and improving the transient response.

The effects of each of controller parameters, , , and on a closed-loop system are

summarized in the table below.

CL RESPONSE RISE TIME OVERSHOOT SETTLING TIME S-S ERROR

Kp Decrease Increase Small Change Decrease
Ki Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate
Kd Small Change Decrease Decrease No Change

Note that these correlations may not be exactly accurate, because , , and are
dependent on each other. In fact, changing one of these variables can change the effect of the
other two. For this reason, the table should only be used as a reference when you are
determining the values for , and .

Example Problem:

Suppose we have a simple mass, spring, and damper problem.

57
The modeling equation of this system is

(3)

Taking the Laplace transform of the modeling equation, we get

(4)

The transfer function between the displacement and the input then becomes

(5)

Let

M = 1 kg
b = 10 N s/m
k = 20 N/m
F=1N

Plug these values into the above transfer function

(6)

We need to show how each of , and contributes to obtain

Fast rise time

58
 Minimum overshoot
No steady-state error

Open-Loop Step Response

Do the open-loop step response. Create a new m-file and run the following code:

s = tf('s');
P = 1/(s^2 + 10*s + 20);
step(P)

The DC gain of the plant transfer function is 1/20, so 0.05 is the final value of the output to
an unit step input. This corresponds to the steady-state error of 0.95, quite large indeed.
Furthermore, the rise time is about one second, and the settling time is about 1.5 seconds.
Then now design a controller that will reduce the rise time, reduce the settling time, and
eliminate the steady-state error.

Proportional Control

From the table shown above, we see that the proportional controller (Kp) reduces the rise
time, increases the overshoot, and reduces the steady-state error.

The closed-loop transfer function of the above system with a proportional controller is:

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 (7)

Let the proportional gain ( ) equal 300 and change the m-file to the following:

Kp = 300;
C = pid(Kp)
T = feedback(C*P,1)

t = 0:0.01:2;
step(T,t)
C=

Kp = 300

P-only controller.

T=

300
----------------
s^2 + 10 s + 320

Continuous-time transfer function.

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The above plot shows that the proportional controller reduced both the rise time and the
steady-state error, increased the overshoot, and decreased the settling time by small amount.

Proportional-Derivative Control

Now, let's take a look at a PD control. From the table shown above, we see that the
derivative controller (Kd) reduces both the overshoot and the settling time. The closed-loop
transfer function of the given system with a PD controller is:

(8)

Let equal 300 as before and let equal 10. Enter the following commands into an m-file
and run it in the MATLAB command window.

Kp = 300;
Kd = 10;
C = pid(Kp,0,Kd)
T = feedback(C*P,1)

t = 0:0.01:2;
step(T,t)

C=

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 Kp + Kd * s

with Kp = 300, Kd = 10

Continuous-time PD controller in parallel form.

T=

10 s + 300
----------------
s^2 + 20 s + 320

Continuous-time transfer function.

This plot shows that the derivative controller reduced both the overshoot and the settling
time, and had a small effect on the rise time and the steady-state error.

Proportional-Integral Control

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Before going into a PID control, let's take a look at a PI control. From the table, we see that
an integral controller (Ki) decreases the rise time, increases both the overshoot and the
settling time, and eliminates the steady-state error. For the given system, the closed-loop
transfer function with a PI control is:

(9)

Let's reduce the to 30, and let equal 70. Create a new m-file and enter the following
commands.

Kp = 30;
Ki = 70;
C = pid(Kp,Ki)
T = feedback(C*P,1)

t = 0:0.01:2;
step(T,t)
C=

1
Kp + Ki * ---
s

with Kp = 30, Ki = 70

Continuous-time PI controller in parallel form.

T=

30 s + 70
------------------------
s^3 + 10 s^2 + 50 s + 70

Continuous-time transfer function.

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Run this m-file in the MATLAB command window, and you should get the following plot.
We have reduced the proportional gain (Kp) because the integral controller also reduces the
rise time and increases the overshoot as the proportional controller does (double effect). The
above response shows that the integral controller eliminated the steady-state error.

Proportional-Integral-Derivative Control

Now, let's take a look at a PID controller. The closed-loop transfer function of the given
system with a PID controller is:

(10)

After several trial and error runs, the gains = 350, = 300, and = 50 provided the
desired response. To confirm, enter the following commands to an m-file and run it in the
command window. You should get the following step response.

Kp = 350;
Ki = 300;
Kd = 50;
C = pid(Kp,Ki,Kd)
T = feedback(C*P,1);

t = 0:0.01:2;

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step(T,t)
C=

1
Kp + Ki * --- + Kd * s
s

with Kp = 350, Ki = 300, Kd = 50

Continuous-time PID controller in parallel form.

Now, we have obtained a closed-loop system with no overshoot, fast rise time, and no
steady-state error.

General Tips for Designing a PID Controller

When you are designing a PID controller for a given system, follow the steps shown below
to obtain a desired response.

1. Obtain an open-loop response and determine what needs to be improved

2. Add a proportional control to improve the rise time
3. Add a derivative control to improve the overshoot
4. Add an integral control to eliminate the steady-state error

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 5. Adjust each of Kp, Ki, and Kd until you obtain a desired overall response. You can
always refer to the table shown in this "PID Tutorial" page to find out which
controller controls what characteristics.

Manual Calculations :

Output :

Result :

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