Chapter 2: Medium and Technique in the Visual Arts
there is no format for three-dimensional;
MEDIUM usually attributed to scaling with respect
to being a part of a building (e.g.
It Is the material, or substance out of which a work
rectangular pediment, horizontal sections
is made.
of frieze, relief figures of the Parthenon);
The choice is part of the meaning of the work and depends on purpose
is a signifier of meaning in the context of the 3. Frame
work’s total meaning. a Western invention that came with the
development of easel painting in oil of
PROPERTIES OF A MEDIUM canvas
can affect or modify the meaning of the
1. Size or Scale painting
can be very large or very small; may also may be wood, gilded or elaborately
pertain to volume for three-dimensional handcarved and polished, plain
art aluminum, etc.; implies a social and
is part of the meaning of the work, thus cultural context
changes in this property may lead to artists prefer an unobtrusive frame
great changes in the meaning
o large-scale works may be to draw TWO-DIMENSIONAL EXPRESSION
attention to the dynamism, or an
environment of colors and shapes; It involves arts painted in a medium.
commonly to be able to unfold a Includes the surface or ground and the marking
panorama of history or to convey the or coloring substances applied to it.
sweeping impulse of a people’s
movement for change (two- Types of Medium
dimensional)
1. Easel Paintings
o small size may diminish the emotional
are portable paintings usually hung on
energy of heroic figures reduced into
walls
figurines (three-dimensional)
traditional surfaces are canvas, cotton or
2. Format
linen stretched on a frame and primed
Usually may be rectangular, square
with a white or lightly tinted base
(symbolizes intellectual order), or circular
2. Paper
(for two-dimensional). Deviation is solely
readily available; usually on hand
an intention of the artist
usually in different thicknesses, textures,
o Tondo (from Rotonda), Madonna and
and tones; usually taken into
Child by Raphael (circular)
consideration by artists depending on the
o abstractions of Piet Mondrian (square)
kind of work they want to do
o Frank stella (geometric shapes)
was first produced by the Egyptians from
o young Filipino artist (joined shapes of
papyrus, a marsh plant
plyboards)
became standard writing material in An opaque layer of oil paint is worked
Ancient Greece and Rome up to the 4 th
over another layer; small areas of the
century A.D. under color shows through in an
beautifully painted illuminated uneven, broken manner
manuscripts were done on paper from 3. Acrylic Painting
the 14th century. uses acrylic vinyl polymer emulsion paint
handmade ones are usually made of This paint is characterized by being quick
cogon and banana; finished paper usually drying and water soluble
slightly uneven and fibrous in texture can be applied in thin washes like water
3. Cheese Cloth color, or alla prima with a piled-up
also called katsa texture (impasto)
a common substitute for canvas; used 4. Watercolor
especially for large murals which can be the paper is first soaked and stretched to
rolled up after display keep it flat while painting
4. Wooden Surface water based pigments are applied as
Usually plywood, especially marine transparent layers
plywood; prepared by coating it with a. wet-on-wet technique
gesso, any white substance such as white ground of paper is shown for
plaster of paris mixed with glue to highlights
provide a smooth ground. b. dry brush technique
5. Glass or Stained Glass used to bring out fine details
Usually consists of designs made from ex. Gouache is an opaque watercolor
pieces of colored glass forming figures where pigments are mixed with zinc
held together by strips of lead. white for solid effect; Chinese watercolor
and calligraphy which uses rice paper
Techniques 5. Tempera painting
application of tempera which consists of
1. Alla prima
pigments ground with egg yolk; has
direct method of painting; paint is
luminosity and tone
applied directly on the surface with a
common technique of easel painting until
brush
15th century; usually of wooden panels
used by Impressionists and most
6. Fresco
contemporary artists.
mural (large-scale painting) on a wall
2. Indirect Method
to ensure durability; prepared by
traditional method which consists of
coating with damp plaster; work is
applying the paint in thin layers of
done while plaster is damp using
transparent color
water-based pigments
a. Glazing
ex. vault, upper walls, altar of Sistine
a transparent layer of oil paint is
Chapel by Michelangelo
applied over a solid one for color
7. Stained Glass
modification
ex. Gothic cathedrals of the 12th-13th
commonly used by the Old Masters.
century; windows of Manila Metropolitan
b. Scumbling
Cathedral by Galo B. Ocampo; sarimunok “those arts which depend for their effect
design of Abdulmari Imao for Philamlife on drawing and not on color”; drawing
Building; Art Nouveau and engraving
8. Mosaic a. Relief
small units of tesserae (chips from slabs parts of a woodblock or metal
of colored stone, marble glass) are plate meant to be black are left and
embedded of a wall or floor prepared those meant to be white are cut
with wet cement; done in such a way that away
the facets reflect light b. Intaglio
ex. early Rome to the Byzantine and Early reverse of relief; ink is held in the
Christian times; chapel of Bacolod made engraved grooves
entirely of different kinds of shells i. Etching
9. Tapestry o covered with resinous coating
fiber arts; incorporate indigenous impervious to acid, lines are
weaving techniques etched, then immersed in acid to
ex. dyed burlap sewn with abaca thread; darken exposed parts.
trapunto; great medieval castle for wall ii. Mezzotint
décor and warm buffer against winter o Deep tones and shadows are
cold achieved through a “rocker”
10. Collage which scrapes off small blurred
first done by Braque and Picasso; pasting dots to obtain halftones and
printed texts from newspapers on a light.
surface iii. Aquatint
later done using rope and pieces of o Tonal rather than linear; dusted
oilcloths; some with the use of bus tickets with powdered rosin which melts
and bottlecaps under heat; rosin protects the
ex. sawali panels by Imelda Cajipe-Endaya plate while exposed parts are
11. Material Experimentation darkened by acid.
Is but is not limited to ex. etching and aquatint: Brenda
Painting on tile with colored glazes Fajardo, Cajipe-Endaya, Ben
Painting and sewing on tree bark Cabrera, Orlando Castillo;
Painting with spray guns mezzotint: Fil de la Cruz, Manuel
Frottage; rubbing pencil on a texture Rodriguez, Sr.
surface c. Surface or Planographic Methods
Decalcomania (Decals); applying do not involve carving; printing is
pigments on two sheets and done on a perfectly flat slab of
pressing them to get its shape then stone
drawing out figurative potentials ex. Lithography; based on
Pressing sponge or crumpled cloth antipathy of grease and water
Mixed media of oil, acrylic, pastel which affect separation areas
12. Graphic arts where ink is receive or rejected
d. Serigraphy or Silkscreen
used for posters and shirt designs marble; marble statues of Michelangelo
using fine silk and mask of paper and Gianlorenzo Bernini, Chinese jade
or lacquer carvings
paint is brushed over sections 2. Clay
which have not been masked; color medium of pottery
can go over another to create 3. Metal
other colors. has been used since ancient times to
13. Printmaking processes present; usually bronze, steel, iron,
a. Collography aluminum, etc.
collage elements such as have properties of ductility (can be drawn
different texture materials, into wires) and malleability (can be shaped
leaves, etc. through hammering, melting, casting,
b. Plantigraphy molding, or pressing)
using stencils ex. Zeuz Hurling a Thunderbolt;
c. Thermography Doryphoros and Lance-bearer by
embossing Polycleitos; jewelry of T’boli; brassware of
d. Xerography Maranao; Himlayang Pilipino by Caedo
photocopy 4. Wood
e. Viscosity Printing Narra and Molave are the among the best
color separation is done in the world; other examples are bamboo,
through chemical reaction; forest vines, seed pods, tree barks,
introduced by Ofelia Gelvezon- batikuling, kamagong, langka, marang, etc.
Tequi extremely durable, have a warmth of tone
and natural coloration, which ranges from
dark brown to yellow and reddish hues,
and has a fine-grained texture.
evoke the forest they came from as wall as
THREE-DIMENSIONAL EXPRESSION the atmosphere of the human dwelling
ex. wooden sculptures (retablos and two-
Types of Medium sided crucifix) by Abueva, J. Elizalde
Navarro; bamboo sculpture by Francisco
1. Stone Verano; hangings by Junyee; bulol by
Composition of first sculptures; used Ifugaos and Kalingas; bihang; okir by the
stones such as adobe, granite, limestone, Maranao, ukkil by the Tausug; kulintang of
marble, alabaster, jade, etc. various household utensils; torogan or the
ex. menhirs: engraved male and female datu’s house which features the panolong,
pictures of stone; fertility statuettes, betis furniture, Paete, Laguna santero
venuses of the Stone Age; likha: block-like woodcarvings
human figures; adobe sculpture in front of 5. Industrial Revolution New Materials
UP Library; reliefs of massive stone blocks a. Plastics
by Napoleon Abueva; Egyptian statues of first used by Constructivists;
granite and limestone; Greek statues of synthetic materials
b. Crystal Technique
started through the invitation of
Philippine Artists by Steuben Glass Conventional Methods
c. Glass carving, modelling, and casting
associated primarily with Ramon Pottery
Orlina; forms standing sculptures a. Earthenware
d. Chromium most common pottery technique; sun-
e. Aluminum dried or kiln-baked
f. Plexi Glass Celluloid, Nylon, and ex. palayok
Lucite b. Stoneware
used by Naum Gobo to create goes though a much higher firing;
sculptures in which space seems to vitrifies the clay for it to become close-
flow through; transparent materials grained and non-porous
g. Light Bulbs c. Porcelain
used in luminal sculptures; marriage Chinese invented; body vessel is hard,
of art and technology white, and translucent
6. Non-traditional and Non-academic d. Glazing
Materials imparts a smooth finish, color and
a. Kinetic art decorative effects
introduction of the element of Figurative Sculpture
movement into art made of baked clay which is modeled and
b. Collage and Assemblage shaped
collage; small materials of all kinds ex. terracotta
are pasted to form a solid bulk Sand Casting
assemblage; collage of large involves making a mold of special sand
materials (e.g. aggressive from an original model of plaster of paris,
composition by Robert inserting a core and pouring in the molten
Rauschenberg) metal
materials may include recyclable Cire Perdue
waste such as paper, rubber tires, “lost-wax” method; the model and the
mattresses, discarded junk, metal, enclosing mold are filled with wax, then
machine parts, drift wood, shells, melted when the mold has hardened and
tough forest vines, stones and replaced with the melted metal
detritus important part of Malay metalworking; used
These can be called “found objects” by T’boli for jewelry and Maranao’s
in an artistic context. brassware
7. Boxes “…process developed by Caedo father and
work is composed of boxes of son sculptors…”
different sizes, with each figure is built by pulverized bronze shavings
compartment having its own passed through a sieve to ensure talcum
meaning. powder-like fineness; then combined with
chemicals with binding properties in exact
propertions
Wiry Figures Architectural Methods and Materials
done by Alberto Giacometti and Constantin
Materials are of five kinds: rock such as stone and
Brancusi; nervous, attenuated figures
clay; organic such as wood; metal such as steel;
Metal Sheet Figures
synthetic such as glass and plastics; and hybrid
done by Eduardo Castrillo; with verve and
such as concrete. Materials are used for structure
dynamism whether abstract or figurative
and veneer. Contemporary architecture is more
Welded Pieces Craggy
concerned with structure than veneer. With this,
done by Solomon Saprid; expressive figures
new materials such as steel and concrete give
in action
emphasis to structure.
Pointillist Technique
done by Virginia Ty-Navarro Materials are chosen according to their
Open Cage Constructions availability and the building design. Three
done by Conrado Mercado; using steel rods qualities of materials considered are:
Woodcarving
1. Structure
Traditionally, the carved figure is twice
determines the way it reacts under stress;
coated with a native gesso made of a mixture
directly define structural design and form
of fine white clay or kesong puti mixed with
2. Texture
glue made from boiled cow or carabao hide;
directs the choice of tool to use
done to provide a solid and nonporous
3. Aspect
surface for painting
tags its color and outside skin after tooling
Estofado
gesso is gilded, and paint is applied over it; Materials are also chosen based on the character
ornamental motifs are made through paint it signifies: [1] stone denotes strength; [2] marble
lightly scratched away with a fine instrument. denotes power and permanence; [3] wood
Empaquetage denotes warmth; [4] brick denotes practicality; [5]
a. wrapping objects or even parts of a building metal denotes lightness and impersonality.
with sheets, opaque or transparent
Earthworks Methods of Construction
a. used to modify the natural landscape by
1. Lashed construction
making large depressions in the ground or
prevalent in tropics; assembled by manual
building structures in water.
skill alone; without the aid of fabricated tools
b. ex. spiral jetty, scatterworks, stabiles, and
for sawing, mortising, etc.
installations
most wholesome; materials used are in
natural state
Conceptual Art members may be bamboo, twigs, posts, and
It stresses the primacy of the underlying concept willow shoots, rattan, ropes, etc. for ties
or principle in a work. This may involve parts are separately created and are fitted
“formalization” where something familiar is together by lashing
removed form its original context and brought ex. bahay kubo
into an art context. 2. Post-and-lintel construction
as old as the pre-historic Stonehenge load on the other side of the point of
consists of trilithons (three stones) in which support, which may be a column or pier
two are upright (post), supporting the one seen in bridges where two halves are
which is spanning the two (lintel); may be supported only on both ends
used for stone, wood, and metal ex. Cultural Center of the Philippines
lintel must be sufficiently strong in both
compression and tension to support the
load with out breaking; posts must be rigid
and strong against compression
3. Arch and Vault Construction
permits a greater span between the
supporting posts then the previous; the
arch transmits the pressure of weight
above the opening downwards mainly as
compression with a minimum tension
keystone hold the stone units of the arch;
wedge-shaped piece at the summit of the
arch
arches of the same size laid together form
a vault; common is a barrel vault; barrel
vault connected in a right angle form a
groined vault; dome is a hemispherical
vault which is supported by a circular wall
4. Skeleton Construction
made possible by the development of two
modern materials, structural steel and
ferroconcrete
skeletons are made of beams of steel which
are strong and light; walls of stone are no
longer necessary; doors can be of any size;
concrete is fluid, thus shell structure or any
shape may be formed
ex. skyscrapers, Philamlife Buildings,
National Press Club, Chapel of the Holy
Sacrifice
5. Cantilever Construction
makes use of steel and concrete but is
particularly characterized by the projection
of a unit of the architectural design beyond
its support
cantilever requires that the tensile strength
of the material be enough to withstand the
