Contents.

Chapter.
 1 Basic Radio Theory.
 2 Communications.
 3 Automatic Direction Finding ( ADF ).
 4 VHF Omni-Directional Range ( VOR ).
 5 Instrument Landing System ( ILS ).
 6 Basic Radar.
 7 Cathode Ray Tube ( CRT ).
 8 Distance Measuring Equipment ( DME ).
 9 Air Traffic Control Radio Beacon System ( ATCRBS ).
 10 Radio Altimeter.
 11 Airborne Search Radar ( ASR ).
 12 Area Navigation ( RNAV ).
 13 Global Positioning System ( GPS ).
 14 Ground Proximity Warning ( GPWS ).
VHF Omni- Directional Radio
Range ( VOR ).
 Summary For VOR.
 Frequency : VHF range 108 MHz to 117.95 MHz 150
channels. 108 MHz is used for testing the VOR system.

108 MHz to 112 MHz shared by ILS.

VOR : Even first decimals : 108.20 Or 108.25 MHz.

ILS : Odd first Decimals : 108.30 Or 108.35 MHz.

 Transmission : Horizontally polarized radio wave. This Polarization is

not greatly affected by static noise.

 Range : Terminal VOR ( TVOR ) has a range of 100 NM. An

en-route VOR has a range of 200 NM. The VOR
transmission is a Direct Wave and is Line Of Sight.

 Emission : A9W.
 Summary For VOR.
 Identification : The VOR identifies every 10 seconds.
If there is no Identification, the VOR
can not be used even if the
indications appear to be correct.

 Accuracy : A Total Of 4° error may be seen on

the instrumentation. Only 1° degree
of this error is allowed for the ground
station, the remaining 3° degrees is
allowed for the aircraft equipment.

 Types : TACAN only provides DME but no

bearing information to civilian
aircraft. A VORTAC is a combination
of a VOR and A TACAN providing
information to both civilian and
military aircraft.
 Aircraft Equipment For VOR.

 VOR Receiver.

 VOR Antenna.

 Course Deviation Indicator ( CDI ).

 Radio Magnetic Indicator ( RMI ).

VOR Receiver.
 Aircraft Equipment For VOR.

 VOR Receiver.

 VOR Antenna.

 Course Deviation Indicator ( CDI ).

 Radio Magnetic Indicator ( RMI ).

VOR Antenna.
 Aircraft Equipment For VOR.

 VOR Receiver.

 VOR Antenna.

 Course Deviation Indicator ( CDI ).

 Radio Magnetic Indicator ( RMI ).

Course Deviation Indicator.
 Aircraft Equipment For VOR.

 VOR Receiver.

 VOR Antenna.

 Course Deviation Indicator ( CDI ).

 Radio Magnetic Indicator ( RMI ).

Radio Magnetic Indicator.
 Principal Of Operation.
 VOR Determines Bearing information by Comparing the
Phase Angle between two signals. These two signals are
called.

 Reference Signal : Omni Directional continuous wave

transmission on the stations
allocated frequency.

It carries the 9960 Hz

identification and reference
modulation.

The signal is Frequency Modulated

at 30 Hz.

 Variable Signal : Directional signal transmitted on

the stations allocated frequency.

Rotates at 1800 RPM or 30 times a

second and is called a Limacon.

The signal is apparently Amplitude

Modulated at 30Hz.
 Principal Of Operation.
The principal of operation is Bearing determination by
means of Phase comparison.

The following terminology is used in VOR operations:

Radial – A track that is radiated away from the VOR station.

QDR - Magnetic track from the station.

Brg - Bearing

Crs - Course.

Trk - Track.
 Reference Signal
Variable Signal

0°

270° 90°

180°
 CDI Operation.

The CDI consists of the following components :

 Omni – Bearing Selector (OBS ) and Display

Window.

The OBS is used to select the required

Radial to fly.
Course Deviation Indicator.
 CDI Operation.

The CDI consists of the following components :

 TO / FROM indicator.

The TO / FROM indicator indicates whether the pilot has

selected a Radial that will take him toward the VOR station or
away from the VOR.

Note : It will not indicate that the pilot is Flying toward or away
from the station.
Course Deviation Indicator.
 CDI Operation.

The CDI consists of the following components :

 Course Deviation Bar or Needle.

The LEFT / RIGHT Deviation Needle is a Command

instrument, it will tell the pilot which way to fly. Always follow The
Needle.
Course Deviation Indicator.
 CDI Operation.

The CDI consists of the Following Components :

 Angular Dot Calibration Scale

The Dot Scale Represents the angular displacement in

degrees from the selected radial. Indicators have either 5
dots, 4 dots Or 2 dots. The full scale deflection from the centre of
the scale to the last dot is always 10 Degrees for a VOR.
Course Deviation Indicator.
 CDI Operation.
Rules for CDI operation :

 The CDI is Not heading sensitive.

 The aircraft heading must be within 90° either

side of the selected radial.

 If you are on the same side of the station as the

selected radial you will see a FROM flag.

 Use Variation at the station as the work is done

at the station.

 Do not use Deviation with a VOR as an aircraft

compass is not used for any calculation.
 CDI Operation.
Use this sketch to solve CDI questions

TO FROM

SET OBS
Station

TO FROM
 CDI Calculations.

An aircraft is heading 340° magnetic at 30 Nm from a VOR

station on a Bearing of 142° magnetic. The pilot has
selected the 146° magnetic bearing on the OBS. What is
the indication on a 5 dot VOR CDI ?
 CDI Operation.
An aircraft is heading 340° magnetic at 30 Nm from a VOR station on a
Bearing of 142° magnetic. The pilot has selected the 146° magnetic
Bearing on the OBS. What is the indication on a 5 dot VOR CDI ?

A ) FROM Flag
B ) Two Dots Fly Right
056°

FROM
TO

4°
326° 146°
Station

TO FROM

236°
 CDI Calculations.

An aircraft is heading 065° magnetic and has the OBS set

to 095° magnetic. The Left / Right Needle of a 5 dot CDI is
3 dots left of centre with TO indicated. The aircraft is on
what radial ?
 CDI Operation
An aircraft is heading 065° magnetic and has the OBS set to 095°
magnetic. The Left / Right Needle of a 5 dot CDI is 3 dots left of centre
with TO indicated. The aircraft is on what Radial ?

A ) Radial 269°

005

FROM
TO

275 095°
6° Station

TO FROM

185
 CDI Calculations.

An aircraft is heading 045° magnetic and is on a True

Bearing of 135° Variation at the station is 8 ° east and
Variation at the aircraft is 10° east. If the OBS is set to
315°. What would the indication on a 5 dot CDI be?
 CDI Operation.
An aircraft is heading 045° magnetic and is on a True Bearing of 135°.
Variation at the station is 8 ° east and Variation at the aircraft is 10°
east. If the OBS is set to 315° what would the indication on a 5 dot CDI
be?

A ) TO Flag
B ) Four Dots Fly Left
225°

FROM
TO

135° 315°
8° Station

TO FROM

45°
 RMI Operation.

 The compass card shows the aircraft compass heading

under the lubber line.

 The VOR Pointer shows the angle measured clockwise

from the nose of the aircraft to the station, known as the
Relative Bearing.

 Remember with a VOR only the Variation at the station

must be used. Deviation is not required as the instrument
will automatically compensate for this error.
Radio Magnetic Indicator.
 RMI Operation.
Compass Heading.

VOR
Station.
Head Of The Pointer Indicates
QDM Tail Of The Pointer The QDR
Or Radial. Note The Compass Card
Must Work Otherwise The VOR
Needle Will Not Point To The Station

Magnetic Heading 060°

+ +
Relative Bearing 300°

QDM 360°
 VOR Errors.
 Site Errors : Caused by buildings, obstacles
uneven ground in the vicinity of
the station.
 Propagation Errors : The VOR signal is affected by uneven
terrain enroute to the aircraft. This is
called Scalloping.
 Interference Errors : Caused by two stations on the
same frequency being received by
the aircraft.
 Aircraft Equipment : Total error of 4°. One degree for the
transmitter and three degrees for the
instrument. On a Dual Pointer RMI
the total error is 6° between the two
needles.
 Cone Of Ambiguity : A VOR transmits in a Horizontal
plane up to 70°. This leaves an area
of 40° overhead with no signal.
When an aircraft overflies the VOR it
will receive no signal and the VOR
Will not show any navigation
information.
 VOR Test Facility ( VOT ).
360° Radial
CDI Calibration

OBS Set 360°

004° To 356° FROM

OBS 180°Set
184° To 176° TO

RMI Calibration

184° To 176°

Station

180° Radial
 VOR Exam Questions.
These are some of the more difficult
questions found in the CAA exam.

Twin pointer VOR RMI question.



 Max range of two VOR stations.

 1 in 60 rule.

 Leading and lagging of the two VOR signals.

 Twin Pointer VOR RMI.

 A VOR and a NDB are co-located on an aerodrome where

the Variation is 17° west. An aircraft is flying where the
Variation is 19° west on a magnetic Bearing of 332° from
the VOR station. What are the VOR and ADF readings on a
twin pointer RMI ?

 Identify the question.

 Write down the formula.
 Make the sketch accurately.
 Twin Pointer RMI.
A VOR and an NDB are co-located on an aerodrome where the
Variation is 17° west. An aircraft is flying where the Variation is 19°
west on a magnetic Bearing of 332° from The VOR. What are the
VOR and ADF readings on a twin pointer RMI ?

TB ± VAR = MB
315° + 17° W = 332°

Remember on a RMI the needles

point toward the station.
315° ± 180° = 135° True
17° W
Remember the RMI indications are magnetic so
add or subtract the correct variation:
ADF at aircraft , VOR at station.

ADF = 135° True + 19° West = 154°

315°
VOR = 135° True + 17° West = 152°
 Max Range Of Two VOR Stations.

 VOR GGV and PEV are 161 Nautical Miles apart. Both VOR’S
are on the same frequency and are 200 feet AMSL what is
the minimum altitude that an aircraft would be able to
receive both the VOR’S ?

 Identify the question.

 Write down the formula.
 Make the sketch accurately.
 Max Range Of Two VOR.
VOR GGV and PEV are 161 Nautical Miles apart. Both VOR’S are on the
same frequency and are 200 feet AMSL what is the minimum altitude
that an aircraft would be able to receive both the VOR’S ?

Flight level Aircraft must be halfway

between stations

GGV PEV
161 Nautical Miles
 Maximum Theoretical Range
Calculation.
VOR GGV and PEV are 161 Nautical Miles apart. Both VOR’S are on the
same frequency and are 200 feet AMSL. What is the minimum altitude
that an aircraft would be able to receive both the VOR’S ?

Range ( Nm )  1.25  Tx Height in Feet  1.25  Rx Height in Feet

80.5 Nm  1.25  200 Feet  1.25  Rx Height in Feet

80.5 ( Nm )  ( 1.25  14.14 )  ( 1.25  Rx Height in Feet )

80.5 ( Nm )  17.68  ( 1.25  Rx Height in Feet )

80.5 ( Nm ) - 17.68  1.25  Rx Height in Feet

62.83 Flight Level  2526 Feet

 Rx Height in Feet
1.25
 1 In 60 Rule.
A VOR DME defines the centre of an airway 10 Nautical Miles
wide. An aircraft At distance 180 Nautical Miles has a two dot fly
left indication on a 5 dot CDI. What is the distance from.

A) The centre of the airway.

B) The boundary of the airway.

Track Error Distance Off

=
60 Distance To Go
 1 In 60 Rule.
A VOR DME defines the centre of an airway 10 Nautical Miles wide. An
aircraft at distance 180 Nautical Miles has a two dot fly right indication
on a 5 dot CDI. What is the distance from.
Track Error Distance Off
=
60 Distance To Go
4° Distance Off
=
60 180 NM A ) Distance from centre = 12 NM

720 B ) Distance from boundary = 7 NM

= Distance Off
60
= 12 NM

5 Nautical Miles
180 NM 4°

GGV
5 Nautical Miles
 Leading And Lagging Of VOR
Signals.
If the Variable Signal of a VOR lags the Reference Signal by 40°. What is
the Bearing To the VOR.

Note : The Reference Signal can never

lead or lag it is a reference.
Reference
Signal
The Bearing is thus 40° 40°
but that is away from the
station i.e. Radial.
Variable Signal
To get the Bearing TO the
station 180° must be added
or subtracted.
Leads
Lags

The Bearing To The Station:

40° + 180° = 220°

 Leading And Lagging Of VOR
Signals.
With an OBS set to 090° on a VOR CDI and the directional signal lagging
the reference signal by 280°. What will the indications on the CD be?

Note : This is a CDI question and thus must be solved using the method
given.

360°

TO FROM

270° 090°
Station

TO FROM

180°
 Leading And Lagging Of VOR
Signals.
With an OBS set to 090° on a VOR CDI and the directional signal lagging
the reference signal by 280°. What will the indications on the CD be?

Note : The Reference Signal can never

lead or lag it is a reference.
Reference
Signal

Variable Signal
280°
Leads
Lags

The Bearing from the station:

= 280°
 Leading And Lagging Of VOR
Signals.
With an OBS set to 090° on a VOR CDI and the directional signal lagging
the reference signal by 280°. What will the indications on the CDI be?

Note : This is a CDI question and thus must be solved using the method
given.

360°

280° TO FROM

270° 090°
Station

TO FROM
To Flag.
5 Dots Fly Right.
180°