10

Chapter - 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
 11

CHAPTER - 2

CHAPTER – 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 GENERAL 13-16

2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF HPC 16-18

2.3 RAW MATERIALS AND PROPORTIONS OF HPC 18-18

2.3.1 Mineral Admixtures 18-18

2.3.1.1 Silica fume 18-25

2.3.1.2 Superplasticizer 25-25

2.3.2 Aggregates 26-26

2.3.2.1 Coarse aggregate 26-26

2.3.2.2 Fine aggregate 26-27

2.3.3 Method of Mix Design

27-29
2.4 ENGINEERING PROPERTIES 29-29

2.4.1 Fresh Concrete 29-29

2.4.1.1 Workability 30-30
2.4.1.2 Curing 30-30
2.4.2 Hardened Concrete 31-31
2.4.2.1 Compressive strength 31-34

2.4.2.2 Stress-strain 34-34

2.4.2.3 Split tensile strength 34-35

2.4.2.4 Bond strength 36-36

2.4.2.5 Static and dynamic elastic modulus 36-37

2.4.2.6 Poisson’s ratio 37-37

2.4.2.7 Shrinkage and creep 37-39

2.4.2.8 Durability 39-39

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2.4.2.9 Porosity and permeability 40-40

2.4.2.10 Freeze-Thaw 40-42

2.4.2.11 Specific heat and thermal conductivity 42-43

2.4.2.12 Reinforcement 43-43

2.4.2.13 Temperature 43-45

2.4.2.14 Impact loading 45-47

2.4.2.15 Chloride resistance 47-47

2.5 LITERATURE REVIEW OF SLAB ELEMENTS 48-65

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CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 GENERAL

Concrete may be defined as a solid mass made by the use of a

cementing medium, generally the ingredients compose of cement,

sand, gravel and water. Concrete has been in use as a building

material for more than a hundred and fifty years. Its success and

popularity may be largely attributed to

1. Durability under hostile environments

2. Ease with which it can be cast into a variety of shapes and

size

3. Its relative economy and easy availability.

Concrete is remarkably strong in compression but it is

equally weak in tension. Hence, the use of plain concrete as a

structural material is limited to situations where significant tensile

stresses and strains do not develop.

High Performance Concrete (HPC) is made with carefully

selected high quality ingredients and optimized mixture designs.

These are batched, mixed, placed, compacted and cured to the highest

industry standards. Typically, such concretes will have a low water-

cement ratio of 0.20 to 0.45. Superplasticizers are usually used to

make these concrete. However, strength is not always the primary

required property. For example, a normal strength concrete with very

 14

high durability and very low permeability is considered to have high

performance properties.

Aitcin7 describes about HPC, it is a concrete, which possess

high durability and high strength when compared to conventional

concrete. This concrete contains one or more of cementetious

materials such as fly ash, Silica fume or Ground granulated blast

furnace slag and usually a superplasticizer. The term ‘high

performance’ is somewhat pretentious because the essential feature

of this concrete is that its ingredients and proportions are specifically

chosen so as to have particularly appropriate properties for the

expected use of the structure such as high strength and low

permeability.

HPC is a special type of concrete, which exceeds the properties

and constructability of normal concrete. Normal and special materials

make these specially designed concretes that must meet a

combination of performance requirements. Special mixing, placing,

and curing practices may be needed to produce and handle HPC.

Extensive performance tests are usually required to demonstrate

compliance with specific project needs. HPC has been primarily used

in tunnels, bridges for its strength, durability, and high modulus of

elasticity. It has also been used in shotcrete repair, poles, parking

garages, Irrigation structures.

HPC works out to be economical, even though its initial cost is

higher than that of conventional concrete because, the use of HPC in

 15

construction enhances the service life of the structure and the

structure suffers less damage which will reduce overall cost.

American Concrete Institute (ACI) defines HPC as “A concrete

which meets special performance and uniformity requirements that

cannot always be achieved routinely by using only conventional

materials and normal mixing, placing and curing practices”. The

requirements may involve enhancement of characteristics such as

placement and compaction without segregation, long term mechanical

properties, and early age strength or service life in severe

environments. Concrete possessing many of these characteristics

often achieve High Strength, but High Strength concrete may not be

necessarily be of High Performance.

HPC can be designed to give optimized performance

characteristics for a given set of load, usage and exposure conditions

consistent with the requirements of cost, service life and durability.

HPC does not require special equipments except careful design and

production. HPC has several advantages like improved durability

characteristics and much lesser micro cracking than normal strength

concrete.

HPC significantly reduces construction time to permit rapid

opening or reopening of roads to traffic, without compromising long

term serviceability. Therefore it is not possible to provide a unique

definition of HPC without considering the performance requirements

of the intended use of the concrete.

 16

HPC has been used in various structures all over the world

since last two decades. In India, it is about a decade old. Major

applications in the constructions are nuclear power plants, ultra high

rise buildings, and tall structures. Recently a few infrastructure

projects have also seen specific application on HPC. The development

of HPC has brought about the essential need for additives both

chemical and mineral to improve the performance of concrete. Most of

the developments across the work have been supported by continuous

improvement of these admixtures. However for better practical

applications, behaviour of different structural elements like slabs,

beams, columns etc., made of HPC need to be evaluated.

2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF HPC

There are numerous definitions of high performance concrete

there are different types of high performance concrete. Generally, the

term high performance concrete refers to concrete with a variety of

enhanced properties and characteristics. The various kinds of high

performance concrete and their properties should be understood. As

will be seen, the majority of the descriptions of high performance

concrete are based on compressive strength and they, therefore use

the term “High Strength Concrete”. However a unifying feature is that

most types of high-performance concretes have low water cement

ratios.

Strategic Highway Research Programme Types of High

Performance Concrete
 17

In a report prepared for the strategic highway research

programme, the following type of high performance concrete are

defined for highway applications

Very Early Strength: Concrete with a compressive strength of at least

21 MPa within 4 hours after placement. This concrete is intended

mainly for making repairs that require a minimum time of traffic

shutdown.

High Early Strength: Concrete with a compressive strength of at least

34 MPa within 24 hours of placement.

High Strength Concrete: Concrete with a compressive strength of at

least 42 MPa at 28 days.

Very High Strength: Concrete with a compressive strength of at least

69 MPa at 28 days.

Fiber Reinforced Concrete: Concrete with sufficient fiber

reinforcement to provide a ductility or toughness equal to at least five

times the area under the stress-strain curve for the same concrete

mixture without fiber reinforcement. Fiber reinforced concrete is

normally associated with toughness i.e., the ability to absorb energy.

This energy absorption occurs primarily after the ultimate strength of

the concrete has been attained.

High Durability Concrete: Concrete with a minimum durability

factor (freezing and thawing) of 80% and water cement ratio of 0.35 or

less. A maximum water cement ratio of 0.35 will provide a paste with

a discontinuous capillary system after a relatively short curing period

 18

(normally about a day). This provides improved resistance to moisture

penetration and chemical attack from the environment.

High Strength Light Weight Concrete: Concrete produced by using

light weight aggregates such as expanded clay, shale and slate

aggregate, so as to reduce the mass 20 to 25% below that

conventional concrete. Since light weight concrete can attain

compressive stress greater than 69 MPa. This type of HPC is defined

in applications where reduction of dead load is a significant

consideration.

2.3 RAW MATERIALS AND PROPORTIONS OF HPC

Study the different materials and their properties and

proportions for producing high performance concrete.

2.3.1 Mineral Admixtures

The various properties of mineral admixtures are discussed

below.

2.3.1.1 Silica fume

Silica fume (SF) is probably the most common addition to

concrete admixtures to produce HPC. This SF is also called condensed

silica fume or micro silica. It is finely powdered amorphous silica that

is highly pozzolonic. Its use is becoming so common around the

world.

Silica fume is a by-product from electric arc furnaces used in

the manufacture of elemental silica or Ferro-silicon alloys. Silica fume

contains large amounts of silicon dioxide (between 85 and 98%) and

consists of extremely fine particles. It is collected by filtering the

 19

furnace gases. The average size of these spherical particles is less

than 0.1micron, which is approximately one hundred times finer than

cement. The extremely fine particles can fill spaces between cement

particles, which results in a more refined microstructure and a more

dense cement paste. As the pores within the paste become finer and

more dispersed, the permeability is reduced considerably.

Micro silica concrete has provided a low range of initial surface

absorption varying from 28.1x10-2 to 4.3x10-2 ml per m2/sec after 10

to 120 minutes. An initial surface absorption after 120 minutes is

considered high if it becomes greater than 0.15 ml per m2/sec and low

if less than 0.07 ml per m2/sec. The corresponding higher and lower

values after 10 minutes are 0.5 and 0.25ml/m2/sec respectively.

Physical properties of micro silica are low water absorption, colour is

gray, specific gravity is 2.2 to 2.3 g/cm3, specific surface is 15-30

sq.m/g and the average particle size is around 0.1 micron.

Yogendran et al., (1987)133 studied the efficiency of silica fume

in high strength concrete at different water cement ratios. They

conclude that in high strength concrete the optimum replacement of

cement by silica fume for concretes 50 to 70 MPa at 28 days is 15%.

Li and Chung (1998)77 studied the treatment of silica fume with

sulfuric acid prior to incorporation in cement matrix. The results

revealed that increased tensile strength by 12%, ductility by 57%,

tensile modulus by 72%, abrasion resistance by 20%, flexural storage

modulus by 80-120%, loss tangent by 30-80%, and flexural loss

modulus by 160-300%.
 20

Vagelis (1999)125 measured the development of the strength,

porosity and calcium hydroxide content by conducting series of

experiments adding silica fume to the mortar and replacement of

cement by silica fume. Addition of silica fume in both cases gave

higher strengths than the control mixture. A model was developed to

predict the behaviour of silica fume concrete and this model give the

expression for estimation of the volumetric composition of silica fume

concrete. Excellent agreement was found between the model

prediction and experimental results.

Yunsheng and Chung (2000)136 studied the silica fume

properties, which was introduced by either coating silica fume

particles with silane or using silane as an admixture. Both methods of

silane introductions enhanced the workability, tensile strength and

compressive strength, but the later method resulted in low

compressive ductility, lower damping capacity, more drying shrinkage,

lower air void content, higher density, higher surface wear and greater

thermal conductivity, mainly due to the network of covalent coupling

among the silica fume particles.

Appa Rao (2001)17 investigated the development of compressive

strength with age of mortar incorporated with silica fume with

different water binder (w/b) ratios. The silica fume content varied from

0 to 30% by weight of cement. Four w/b ratios, 0.35, 0.40, 0.45 and

0.50 were used. At every w/b ratio, the strength developments at 3, 7,

28 and 90 days have been observed. The highest development rate of

compressive strength was observed at early ages (3 and 7 days) at w/b

 21

ratio 0.35, the highest value has been observed at 3 days with a silica

fume content of 22.5% at w/b ratios 0.35, 0.40 and 0.45. The strength

increased up to an optimum content of silica fume, beyond which it

decreases as the silica fume content increases.

Langan et al., (2002)75 presented the results of calorimeter tests

on Portland cement silica fume fly ash mixture. Silica fume

accelerated hydration of cement at high water cement ratios and

hydration retarded at low water cement ratios. On the other hand fly

ash retards hydration of cement more significantly at high water

cement ratios. When both silica fume and fly ash are added with

cement, the reactivity of silica fume is hampered and the hydration of

cement system is significantly retarded.

Santanu Bhanja and Bratish Sengupta (2003)102 studied on the

contribution of silica fume on concrete and determining its optimum

content. Extensive experimentation was carried out over water binder

ratios (w/b) ranging from 0.26 to 0.42 and silica fume binder ratios

from 0.0 to 0.3. The results indicate that the optimum replacement

percentage for 28 day strength is not a constant one but depends on

the water cement material ratio of the mixture and has been found to

ranges from 15 to 25%. On quantifying the pozzolanic and physical

effects of silica fume, it is observed that both the mechanisms

significantly contribute to the concrete strength.

Abdullah et al., (2004)1 conducted experimentation on usage of

silica fume in concrete and evaluated the effect of silica fume on the

compressive strength and split tensile strength and modulus of

 22

elasticity of low quality coarse aggregate concrete. Concrete specimens

were prepared with four types of low quality aggregates, namely

calcareous, dolomite quartzite, limestone and steel slag. Results

indicated that, type of coarse aggregate influenced the compressive

strength, split tensile strength and modulus of elasticity of both plain

and silica fume cement concretes and concluded that incorporation of

silica fume enhanced the compressive strength and split tensile

strength of concrete, especially that of the low quality limestone

aggregate.

Konstantin Sobolev (2004)70 reported the results of research on

silica fume based high performance concrete. The strength parameters

and the rheological behaviour of a cement silica fume superplasticizer

system are presented. It is suggested that from the test results an

optimal superplasticizer to silica fume ratio (1:10) provides ultra-

dense packing and high fluidity of the system. Model of high

performance concrete are developed from the experimental data. These

models provide equations for calculating water cement ratio for the

compressive strength up to 130 MPa and the volume of cement paste

for the required slump within the range of 40-200m.

Katkhuda et al., (2009)66 conducted experiments on high

strength light weight aggregate to determine the effect of silica fume

on tensile, compressive and flexure strengths by replacing cement

with different percentages of silica fume at 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25%

with different water binder ratio 0.26 to 0.42 keeping other mix design

variables constant. Compressive, Split tensile and flexural strengths

 23

were determined at 28 days. The results showed that the compressive,

tensile and flexure strengths increased with silica fume incorporation,

but the optimum replacement percentage is not a constant, it depends

on the water cementitious material ratio of the mix. Based on the

results, a relationship between compressive, split tensile and flexure

strengths of silica fume concrete was developed using statistical

methods.

Mohammad and Mohammad (2009)84 conducted

experimentation on high strength concrete. The targeted strength of

concretes are ranging from 60 to 130 MPa and ratio of coarse

aggregate to fine aggregate was considered 1.81 and water binder ratio

ranging from 0.73 to 2.95% and concluded that for high strength

concrete the materials of highest quality are required. By using low

water-cement ratio and incorporating ultra-fine particles in the

concrete mix along with superplasticizer the increased bond strength

and reduced capillary pores are achieved.

Shakir et al., (2009)105 studied the production of high

performance concrete mixes by using high range water reducing agent

and 10% silica fume or 10% metakaolin as partial replacement by

weight of cement. Cubes, cylinders and prisms are cast and tested. To

investigate the compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, static

modulus, modulus of rupture, rebound number, dynamic modulus,

ultra sonic pulse velocity, initial surface absorption, total absorption

and density for all mixes at 7, 28, 90 and 120 days age. Results of the

destructive tests and non-destructive tests are statistically analysed

 24

by using SPSS Ver.15 software to study the possibility of predicting

the mechanical properties of high performance concrete by using non-

destructive test.

Magudeaswaran and Eswaramoorthi (2013)79 studied strength

properties of silica fume and fly ash concrete, such as compressive

strength, flexural strength and split tensile strength. Seven HPC

mixtures were cast and tested with cement replacement of fly ash 0,

2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5 and 15% by weight of cement and silica fume as

addition 0, 5, 10, 15, 25 and 30% by weight of cement. The results

show that compressive strength was increased by 13.9% for

replacement of cement by 10% fly ash and 5% addition of silica fume,

split tensile strength is increased by 12.15% for replacement of

cement by 15% fly ash and 7.5% addition of silica fume and flexural

strength increased by 16% for replacement of cement by 15% fly ash

and 7.5% addition of silica fume by weight of cement.

Shanmugapriya and Uma (2013)107 conducted experimentation

on high performance concrete with partial replacement of cement by

silica fume. The target mean strength of concrete was fixed 60 MPa

and percentage of silica fume are used in this investigation are 2.5, 5,

7.5, 10 and 12.5%. The cubes and cylinders of standard size are cast

and tested for 28 days and concluded that maximum values of cube

compressive strength and split tensile strength were obtained at 7.5%

replacement of cement by silica fume.

Subhro chakraborty and Samaresh Pan (2014)113 studied the

effect of partial replacement of cement by silica fume on compressive

 25

strength by incorporation of 0, 5, 10 and 15% at different water binder

ratio of 0.3, 0.34, 0.38 and 0.42 maintaining constant binder content

of 525 kg/m3 and coarse aggregate to fine aggregate rations are 60:40.

Results are showed that maximum compressive strengths are attained

at 10% replacement of cement by silica fume of all water binder ratios.

2.3.1.2 Superplasticizer

Kung-Chung Hsu et al., (1999)73 studied the adsorption

behaviour of Sulfonated melamine formaldehyde (SNF) in cement for

different initial concentration and reported that its concentration

decrease rapidly in the first 5 min after its addition in to all cement

slurries. In most of the cases its concentration reaches a constant

value when adsorption time is greater than 10 min and suggests a

relationship between the SNF adsorption behaviour on cement

particles and the workability of concrete.

Chiara et al., (2001)27 conducted rheological tests on cement

paste and these tests were used to select the type and dosage of

mineral admixtures that improved concrete workability. Six different

mineral admixtures are tested, only the ultrafine fly ash gave the best

results by reducing the viscosity and yield stress. These rheological

properties were not achieved by increasing the water or the high range

water reducing admixture dosage. The cement paste rheological data

was also compared with mini slump and marsh cone. They concluded

that tests are unreliable for measuring the workability.

 26

2.3.2 Aggregates

The various properties of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate

are as follows.

2.3.2.1 Coarse aggregate

Appa Rao (2001)18 investigated the influence of high-strength

cement with silica fume on long term strength of mortar and studied

the effect of aggregate size, specific surface area on compressive

strength. He observed that early strength was developed by the

addition of silica fume in mortars. It also found that size of the

aggregate and its specific surface play significant role on the strength

of the mortar. The strength of mortar increased initially and then

gradually decreased as the grain size and specific surface of aggregate

increased. The modulus of elasticity also increased as the compressive

strength of the mortar increased. He also observed strength losses in

silica fume and non-silica fume mortars at the age of 180 days.

2.3.2.2 Fine aggregate

Ta Peng et al., (2001)120 investigated the effect of fineness

modulus of fine aggregate on high performance concrete. The

properties of the 6 mixes were investigated including slump, slump

flow, unit weight and compressive strength, splitting tensile strength,

static modulus of elasticity and poison’s ratio and dynamic modulus

of elasticity and showed the aggregate mixture incorporating the

coarse aggregate in a denser packing structure. Fine aggregate with

fineness modulus in the range of 2.18 and 3.24 does not substantially

affect compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of HPC.

 27

Ahmed et al., (2012)5 studied the strength development of

concrete with fine aggregate was partially replaced with silica fume.

Models were developed to predict the compressive strength of

concrete. Fine aggregate replacement levels are ranged from 0 to 15%

and water cement ratio varied from 0.50 to 0.60 and compressive

strength test were conducted at the age of 7, 28 and 56 days.

Conclude that the compressive strength of concrete made by fine

aggregate replaced by silica fume was higher than the control concrete

and these models are useful for proportioning concrete mixes

incorporation of silica fume as fine aggregate replacement material0

2.3.3 Method of Mix Design

Concrete mix design involves complicated issues and the correct

ways to perform this can be achieved with expert’s advice and

experience, mix designs of HPC is more complicated because HPC

includes more materials, like superplasticizer and supplementary

cementitious materials (e.g. silica fume, fly ash, fillers, etc.). In

addition, maintaining a low water binder ratio with adequate

workability makes the design process more complicated.

Aitcin (1998)7 proposed the methods and guidelines for the use

of silica fume in concrete, ACI 234R-964 are useful for the mix design

of HPC and concluded that traditionally and experienced civil

engineers has to do mix design largely based on their knowledge.

Bharatkumar et al., (2001)25 presented the modified mix design

procedure which utilizes optimum water content and the efficiency

factor of mineral admixture. The results showed that it is possible to

 28

utilize the cement effectively by adopting the lower water binder ratio

with higher cement replacement materials.

Islam Laskar and Talukdar (2008)57 proposed the procedure for

mix design to investigate the effect of high range water reducing agent

dosage, maximum size of coarse aggregate percentage, sand and zone

of sand on yield stress and plastic viscosity. Mix design of high

performance concrete has been evaluated and concluded that it is

possible to make mix design of concrete based on plastic viscosity and

yield stress at the design stage for a given target strength of concrete.

Also they concluded that dosage beyond 7 Liters/cum does not

significantly improve the rheological parameters and both the

rheological parameters are minimum at sand content is equal to 28%.

Aminul Islam Laskar (2011)15 presented the mix design

procedure for high performance concrete, correlation in between

rheological parameters and compressive strength used instead of

using water cement ratio and compressive strength relationship. In

the proposed mix design water cement ratio and aggregate volume to

paste volume were determined from the rheological parameters and

also able to estimate rheological parameters like plastic viscosity and

yield stress for a given target strength.

Vinayagam (2012)130 formulated a simplified design mix

procedure for HPC by combining BIS and ACI code methods mix

design and literature available on HPC. On the above procedure, the

mix design is arrived for M80 and M100. The HPC mixes were tested

experimentally for compression, flexure, split tension and workability

 29

and the results showed that the performances of the design mixes are

very good.

Patil Shreekedar and Kumbhar (2013)92 studied the workability

and compressive strength of M60 grade HPC by incorporating different

percentage of Fly Ash, Micro Silica by weight of cement along with

some suitable superplasticizer. The results of the study revealed that

the workability and strength properties of HPC improved by

incorporating fly ash and micro silica up to desirable content of 10

and 15% by weight of cement.

Annadurai and Ravichandran (2014)16 developed mix design for

high strength concrete with silica fume and high range water reducing

admixture. Five mixes were designed, one mix was treated as a basic

mix without silica fume and 0.5% High Range Water Reducing and

remaining four mixes were designed with micro silica quantities varied

from 5 to 9% of cement and HRWR varied between 0.6 to 0.9% with

increment of 0.1%, for each mix two cylinders were cast and tested

after 28 days and results showed that replacement of cement with

micro silica 9% and HRWR 0.9% gives the maximum compressive

strength.

2.4 Engineering Properties

The various engineering properties are as follows.

2.4.1 Fresh Concrete

The various properties of fresh concrete are as follows.

 30

2.4.1.1 Workability

Tsong Yen (1999)122 studied the effects of materials and

rheological properties. A new rheometer was established by

conducting a two-point test to investigate the flow behaviour of high

strength HPC. Test results showed that the high strength HPC with

good uniformity and without tendency of segregation can possess the

properties of rheology according to Bingham’s equation. An increase of

the fraction of mortar in HPC can lead to a more distinct rheological

behaviour. Moreover, it is found that the application of a rheological

method can provide more stable results than any other test method in

describing the flowability of high strength HPC.

2.4.1.2 Curing

Bushlaibi (2004)26 investigated the compressive strength of

silica fume high performance concrete under different curing methods.

The concrete specimens were kept under five different curing

conditions and in two different environments for a period of 9 months.

The curing conditions used were water curing (Control), no curing,

sprinkle curing, plastic curing and burlap curing. Each of the last four

conditions was exposed to two different environments indoor

environment and outdoor environment. The strength results were

determined at 1, 3, 7, 14, 28 and 270 days. Concluded indoor samples

were more sensitive to curing than those cured outdoor. In the case of

the outdoor all these curing methods give similar results due to the

arid nature of hot climate.

 31

2.4.2 Hardened Concrete

The various properties of hardened concrete are as follows.

2.4.2.1 Compressive strength

Goldman and Bentur (1993)43 investigated the compressive

strength development of high strength concrete. Carbon block was

introduced an alternative micro filler to silica fume. The results

showed that, carbon block was effective in modifying the basic

concrete matrix strength relationship to an extent similar to that

obtained by silica fume and concluded the micro filler effect is of

greater significance to strength enhancement.

Said Iravani (1996)99 studied the mechanical properties of high

performance concrete. High performance concretes with 56 day

compressive strengths of 65 to 120 MPa (with or without silica fume).

Results are presented on gain of compressive strength with time, effect

of type of cement, effect of drying, specimen size effect, static modulus

of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio, split tensile strength and modulus of

rupture. A modification of the ACI 318-M equation for the modulus of

elasticity of normal weight high performance concrete is

recommended. The validity of equations recommended by ACI 363R

for estimating split tensile strength and modulus of rupture can be

extended for high performance concretes with or without

supplementary cementitious materials and with 28-day compressive

strengths up to 120 MPa.

Li Jianyong and Tian Pei (1997)76 studied on changes of the

mechanical properties, including compressive strength, split tensile

 32

strength and rupture strength of four high strength concretes, caused

by the addition of ground blast-furnace slag and silica fume. The

study indicated that the mechanical properties of high strength

concrete were improved to a great extent at later ages when cement

used in concrete was replaced by slag and silica fume by 25% by

weight.

Duvl and Kadri (1998)35 investigated the compressive strength

of silica fume concrete with low water cementitious material ratios

with a naphthalene sulphonate superplasticizer. The results showed

that partial cement replacement up to 10% silica fume does not

reduce concrete workability and observed at low water cementitious

materials ratios, slump loss with time is observed and increase with

high replacement levels. Silica fume at replacement content up to 20%

produce high compressive strength than that of control concretes and

proposed a model to evaluate the compressive strength of silica fume

concrete at any time and the model is related to the water

cementitious materials and silica fume ratios.

Kamran et al., (1998)65 studied the behaviour of both normal

and high strength concrete under uniaxial and confined condition

using proposed technique and concluded that the surface area of

cracks increased considerably when the specimens loaded uniaxially.

Confinement decreased the percentage of interfacial cracks to a

similar level for both types of concrete. The crack densities in the

centre and edge were smaller in the confined portion than in

 33

unconfined portion. In the same specimen the average crack length

was smaller in the centre portion of the specimen than along the edge.

Kim et al., (1998)67 suggested a new model for the strength

prediction based on the rate constant model. Test results revealed that

the concrete subjected to high temperature at an early age attains

higher strength but eventually attains lower strength at later age. The

concrete subjected to a low temperature at an early age leads to lower

strength but almost the same later-age strength. They concluded that

proposed model showed better agreement with the test results than

the existing models.

Nihal Anoglu et al., (2006)87 performed regression analysis using

experimental data to evaluate the ratio of splitting tensile strength to

cylinder compressive strength as function of compressive strength of

concrete. The proposed equation is based on experimental data for

compressive strengths ranging from 4 to 120 MPa and concluded that

for low compressive strengths, the splitting tensile strengths are 10 %

of the cylinder compressive strength and for higher compressive

strength the ratio reduces to 5%.

Debabratha and dutta (2013)33 studied the influence of silica

fume on normal concrete with replacement of cement by silica fume.

Five mixes were prepared with 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20% of silica fume

with constant water-cement ratio of 0.4. Cube compressive strengths

were determined for all the mixes and concluded that 20%

replacement of cement by silica fume attained higher strengths and

also observed that the failure plane cut the aggregates but not the
 34

interfacial zone. Interfacial zone attained higher strength than the

normal concrete without silica fume.

2.4.2.2 Stress-strain

Hsu and Hsu (1994)49 conducted a series of compression tests

on cylindrical specimens using a modified testing method that gave

the complete stress-strain behaviour of high-strength concrete with or

without tie confinements. Various parameters were studied and their

relationships were experimentally determined. Proposed empirical

stress-strain equations are compared with actual cylindrical tests

under axial compression and showed good agreement.

Wee et al., (1996)131 conducted experimentation to generate the

complete stress-strain curves of concrete in compression with a

strength range of 50 to 120 MPa. The variation of concrete strength is

achieved by varying the water to binder ratio of the mix, types of

cement, replacing, admixture and the age at testing. The effects of

these parameters on the shape of stress-strain curves are discussed.

Based on test data, a simple model was proposed to generate the

complete stress-strain relationship and it has been found to give a

good representation of the actual stress-strain response.

2.4.2.3 Split tensile strength

Zain et al., (2002)137 proposed an equation to calculate the

splitting tensile strength of HPC and suggested formulae that relate

split tensile strength with that of compressive strength, water-binder

ration and concrete age.

 35

Ping (2004)95 investigated the mechanical properties of HPC and

concluded that the HPC with water binder less than 0.3 has lower

strength than the control group at early stages before 28 days and at

later ages it exceeded the strength of the control group. The

compressive strength at the age of 1 year is 1.2 to 1.5 times greater

than the strength of the concrete at the age of 28 days. The strength of

HPC with silica fumes is higher than HPC with slag by partial

replacement of cement. The split tensile strength is about 5 to 10% of

the compressive strength.

Bhanja and Sengupta (2005)24 conducted experimentation on

water binder ratios ranging from 0.26 to 0.42 and silica fume binder

ratios from 0.0 to 0.3 for tensile strength of high performance

concrete, and determined compressive, split tensile and flexural

strengths for all the mixes. Compressive and tensile strengths

increased with silica fume incorporation and the results showed that

the optimum replacement percentage is not a constant one but

depends on the water cementitious material ratio of the mix.

Selim Pul (2008)103 produced a high strength concrete strength

ranging from 44 to 81 MPa. Compressive, Uniaxial tensile, flexural

and split tensile strength test have conducted and proposed

relationships between the respective tensile strengths and concluded

that the ratios of flexural tensile strength and uniaxial tensile strength

to compressive strength increased but whereas for split tensile

strength there is no effect.

 36

2.4.2.4 Bond Strength

Fu et al., (1998)39 conducted experiments on bond strength

between concrete, steel rebar using silica fume and methylcellulose as

admixture and concluded that the combined use of silica fume (15%

by weight of cement) and methylcellulose (0.4% by weight of cement)

as admixtures was found to give concrete that exhibited high bond

strength to steel rebar. The bond strength attained was higher than

those attained by using either silica fume or methylcellulose.

2.4.2.5 Static and dynamic elastic modulus

Zhou et al., (1995)138 conducted experimentation on high

performance concrete mixes, of low water cement ratio and fixed

mortar composition, containing six different types of aggregates of

constant volume fraction, has been used to check modulus of

elasticity at 7, 28 and 91 days. The results confirmed that apart from

the aggregates of very low and very high modulus, concrete modulus

at 28 days can be predicted quite well by well known models,

concluded that the cube strength of weaker aggregate is drastically

reduced.

Mostofinejad and Nozhati (2005)86 prepare a model to predict

the modulus of elasticity of high strength concrete based on some

known characteristic of the concrete mix. Forty five mix proportions

including 5 different ratios of silica fume (0, 5, 10, 15 and 20%), three

water to cementitious materials ratio (0.24, 0.3 and 0.4) and three

types of coarse aggregates, (limestone, quartzite and andesitic) were

selected. 540 cylinder specimens were cast, cured and tested after 7,
 37

28 and 91 days. Different ratios of silica fume different ratios of water

to cementitious materials, the relationship of modulus of elasticity of

coarse aggregate and concrete at different ages were discussed and

also proposed empirical equations.

2.4.2.6 Poisson’s ratio

Bertil Persson (1999)23 conducted experimentation and studied

on poison’s ratio of high performance concrete subjected to air or

sealed curing. Parallel studies of strength and internal relative

humidity were carried out. The results indicate that the poison’s ratio

of high performance concrete is slightly smaller than that of normal

strength concrete.

2.4.2.7 Shrinkage and creep

Surendra et al., (1997)117 investigated long term shrinkage

cracking on HPC. The main aim of this study is determining the

parameters which influence shrinkage cracking, by improving material

quality which prevent or limit shrinkage cracking. A computer model

developed which is capable to predict the age of first cracking.

Experimental results are presented with the composition of several

materials to describe the role of various percentages of silica fume and

shrinkage reducing admixture on mechanical properties. He conclude

that this model can predict the age of first cracking through the

fracture mechanics concepts in conjunction with coupling the effects

of creep relaxation and shrinkage stress.

Jason Weiss et al. (1998)60 studied the early age shrinkage

cracking on restrained concrete structures with ring-type and slab-

 38

type specimens. Experimentation is performed on both high strength

and normal concretes with addition of 0, 1 and 2% of shrinkage

reducing admixtures. Results are good agreement between theoretical

modeling and experimental observations.

Jianyong and Yao Yan (2001)61 studied the creep and drying

shrinkage properties of HPC. Prepared three HPC mix with variable

cement content, Ground granular blast slag (GGBS) and silica fume,

their creep behaviour and drying shrinkage characteristics were

measured with the Chinese Standard GBJ 82-85. The effects of GGBS

and silica fume on creep and drying shrinkage of HPC were compared

and the mechanism was analysed. Addition of silica fume and GGBS

in concrete will strengthen the structure and reduce the drying

shrinkage and creep.

Al-Amoudi (2007)11 conducted experimentation to assess the

properties of plain and silica fume cement concrete. The specimens

are cast and cured in the field under hot weather conditions. The

shrinkage strains in both the plain and silica fume cement concrete

specimens cured by continuous water pounding were less than that in

similar concrete specimens cured by covering them with wet burlap.

The results point to the importance of selecting a good quality silica

fume and good curing for avoiding cracking of concrete due to plastic

and drying shrinkage, particularly under hot weather conditions.

Ha Won Song et al., (2009)45 studied on the permeability of the

high-strength silica fume concrete. The permeability of concrete is

dramatically reduced when the silica fume replacement ratio exceeds

 39

8%. If replacement ratio is over 12% the permeability is marginal and

a programme is developed to obtain permeability.

Cusson and Margeson (2010)30 conducted experimentation and

evaluated the mechanical, chemical and durability characteristics of

different formulations of normal density, air entrained high

performance concrete with a water-cement ratio of 0.35 and

concluded that HPC is prone to early age cracking when shrinkage is

restrained in concrete structures.

Ahmed et al., (2012)6 conducted experimentation on shrinkage

behaviour of concrete for 1 year observation using three mineral

additions. The test were carried out on mortar specimens with

replacement of cement by 5, 15 and 25% of lime stone, 10, 30 and

50% of slag and 10, 20 and 30% of limestone powder. Optimum

improvement of compressive strength of mortar was obtained at

substitution of cement by 10% of lime stone, 20% of natural pozzolan

and 30% of slag. Presence of limestone in the mortar improved the

microstructure.

2.4.2.8 Durability

Aitcin (2003)8 reported the durability characteristics of HPC

with water binder ratio between 0.3 and 0.4 concluded that HPC is

more durable than ordinary concrete not only because of less porous

but also capillary and pore networks are somewhat discontinued due

to the development of self desiccation in HPC and he concluded that

the fire resistance of HPC is not as good as that of ordinary concrete.

 40

2.4.2.9 Porosity and permeability

Elsayed (2011)38 investigated the effect of mineral admixtures

on compressive strength and water permeability containing

superplasticizer and silica fume used as a replacement of cement by

5, 10 and 15% and the cubes were cast and tested. The results were

compared with the control specimens. The results showed that 10% of

replacement of cement by silica fume having 12 mm penetration and

gives 56% reduction in permeability and increase of compressive

strength of 32% and also the permeability of concrete reduces with

increase of compressive strength. He concluded that concrete with

silica fume have higher compressive strength at all replacement levels

and give lower permeability values when compared to control

specimens.

Perraton et al., (1988)93 studied on air permeability of two series

of silica fume and non-silica fume concretes having water cement

ratios of 0.4 and 0.5 as well as that of 0.24 water cementitious ratio

silica fume concrete. Silica fume dosage varied from 5 to 20% by

weight of cement. Two drying methods are used which, yielded a

positive correlation between silica fume dosage and air permeability.

Equal variations were observed for values up to 10%, whereas at 20%,

the increment was shaper.

2.4.2.10 Freeze – Thaw

Aitcin and Laplanate (1990)9 reported the results of compressive

strength data on 4 to 6 years old cores obtained where both silica

fume and non-silica fume concrete mixtures were used. All concretes
 41

were exposed to freeze and thaw and thawing cycles and heavy deicing

salt application. The tested 1988 core results showed that the silica

fume concrete have not experienced any strength loss, compared to

the non silica fume concretes.

Hooton (1993)47 conducted a series of test program on the

physical properties and durability of pastes, mortars and concretes

made with silica fume. Results indicated that silica fume reduced the

permeability of both cement pastes and concretes, size of pores and

total porosities of both cement pastes and concretes, leachable

calcium hydroxide contents of cement pastes, level of alkalis leached

from pastes.

Ramazan and Gul (2004)96 studied on freeze-thaw resistance of

cement concrete and the effect of fly ash and silica fume by replacing

cement (10, 20 and 30%). Investigated the effect of silica fume, fly ash

and expanded perlite aggregate volume fraction on the freeze thaw

durability of light weight aggregate concrete. Observed that perlite

ratio in the mixture increased the freeze thaw resistance of the light

weight aggregate concrete up to 132%. Replacement of cement by

silica fume and fly also increased the freeze-thaw resistance of the

samples up to 83% for mixtures with and 18% for mixtures without

expanded perlite aggregate and concluded that expanded perlite

aggregate, silica fume and fly ash can be used to improve freeze thaw

resistance.

Toutanji et al., (2004)121 studied the different supplementary

cementitious materials (silica fume, fly ash, slag and their

 42

combinations) on strength and durability of concrete cured for a short

period of 14 days. 16 mixes were made and compared to the control

mix for characteristics of the materials, including strength, durability

and resistance to wet and dry and freeze and thaw environments. The

results revealed that at 14 days of curing, the use of supplementary

cementitious materials reduced both strength and freeze-thaw

durability of concrete. The combination of 10% silica fume, 25% slag

and 15% fly ash produced high strength and high resistance to freeze-

thaw and wet-dry exposures as compared to other mixes.

Shang and Song (2006)106 studied the strength and deformation

behaviour of plain concrete under biaxial compression after 0, 25, 50

and 75 cycles of freezing and thawing. Concrete cubes were tested

under biaxial compressive stresses. Five principal compression stress

ratios and four different cycles of freeze–thaw were the main variables.

Static compressive strengths, stress–strain relationships and failure

modes were examined. The experimental results concluded that the

biaxial compressive strength of plain concrete decreased as the freeze–

thaw cycles were repeated. The influence of freeze–thaw cycles and the

stress ratio on the biaxial strength, the strain corresponding to peak

stress and the elastic modulus after freeze–thaw cycles was also

analyzed.

2.4.2.11 Specific heat and thermal conductivity

Yunsheng and Chung (2000)135 studied the high specific heat

and high thermal conductivity coating silica fume particles with silane

or silica fume as effective admixtures for increasing significantly both

 43

the specific heat up to 50% and the thermal conductivity up to 38% of

cement paste and concluded that the silica fume alone increases the

specific heat but decreases the thermal conductivity. Silane provides a

network covalent coupling among the silica fume particles, there by

increasing both the specific heat and the thermal conductivity, in

addition to increasing the workability, compressive strength and

tensile strength.

2.4.2.12 Reinforcement

Abu Zakir Morshed et al., (2014)3 investigated the effects

between corrosion of reinforcement and pre-loading. Three concrete

specimens of size 1170x100x150mm were used as test specimens.

Two specimens were made of HPC incorporating silica fume and fly

ash, while the other as a control specimens of 100% cement as binder.

The beams are reinforced with one 16 mm diameter bar and subjected

to loading of four points at a constant load of 80% of the average

ultimate flexural strength. Corrosion process was accelerated by 5%

NaCl solution. Results revealed that initiation of corrosion followed

liner trend for constant supply of external current and switched to an

exponential trend when the current was increased. Concluded that

concretes having silica fume and fly ash showed better resistance in

respect of corrosion in terms of lower current density and lesser

cumulative weight loss.

2.4.2.13 Temperature

Phan et al., (2001)94 conducted experimentation on effects of

elevated temperatures on residual mechanical properties of HPC. Cast

 44

and tested the cylinders of size 102x204 mm to study the mechanical

properties by heating at a target temperature and loading up to failure

after the specimen had cooled to room temperature. Test specimens

were made of four HPC mixes out which two are with silica fume with

water to cementitious material ratios are ranging from 0.22 to 0.57

and compressive strength rages from 51 to 93 MPa at room

temperature. The concrete specimens were heated to a maximum

temperature of 450 degree at the rate of 5 degree/min. Results

indicate that HPC specimens with higher strength and with silica

fume attains more residual strength after elevated temperature than

those without silica fume.

Metin Husem (2006)83 examined the variation of compressive

and flexural strengths of ordinary and high performance micro

concrete at high temperatures. Compression and flexural strengths of

ordinary and high performance micro concrete which were exposed to

high temperatures (200, 400, 600, 800 and 1000 °C) and cooled

differently (in air and water) were obtained. Compression and flexural

strengths of these concrete samples were compared with each other

and then compared with the samples which are not heated. Strength

loss curves of these concrete samples were compared with the

strength loss curves given in the codes. Experimental results indicated

that concrete strength decreases with increasing temperature and the

decrease in the strength of ordinary concrete is more than that in high

performance concrete. The type of cooling affects the residual

 45

compression and flexural strength, the effect being more pronounced

as the temperature increases.

Ali Behnood (2007)12 presented the results of an experimental

investigation, the effect of silica fume and water to cement ratios (w/c)

on the compressive strength of high strength concrete after exposure

to higher temperatures. Result showed that the rates of strength loss

for concrete specimens containing 6 and 10% SF at 600 °C were 6.7

and 14.1% lower than those of the ordinary concrete. The dosage of

silica fume had not effect on the compressive strength at 100 and

200 °C, whereas the percentage of silica fume had considerable

influences on the compressive strength above 300 °C, similar response

at 600 °C. The optimum dosage of SF and w/c was found to be 6%

and 0.35, respectively.

2.4.2.14 Impact Loading

Knab and Clifton (1982)68 studied the methods of measuring the

cumulative damage of steel reinforced concrete slabs subjected to

repeated impact. Cumulative damage was monitored by measuring the

crater depth and the reduction in ultrasonic pulse velocity across the

impact region. Crater depth generally increased with increasing

number of impacts and therefore, was determined to be a reasonable

indicator of cumulative damage. The percent reduction in velocity

generally increased with increasing number of impacts up to about 40

percent or more of the total number of impacts to failure. Beyond that,

interpretation of the ultrasonic results with respect to the failure

mechanism appears necessary. The addition of steel fibers to the bar

 46

grid reinforcement resulted in substantial increase (about 2 to 7 times

or more) in the total number of impacts to failure as compared to

specimens with only bar grid or expanded metal placed at the

midpoint of the slab thickness.

Clifton and Knab (1983)29 developed 3 test methods to

determine the resistance of concrete subjected to low velocity single

and repeated impact to failure and to higher velocity small projectiles.

Performance tests were used to evaluate the effects of reinforcing

concrete with steel fibers, rebar’s, or expanded metal. Concretes with

and without latex were included. With all three test methods, the

results indicated that, in general, increases in the impact resistance

were obtained with increases in the compressive strength. For the

single and repeated impact to failure tests, the type of reinforcement

used also affected the impact resistance.

Sidney Mindess et al., (1987)109 studied the fracture toughness

of plain concrete, high strength concrete and concrete reinforced with

fibrillated polypropylene fibers. Single edge notched beams, of

dimensions 1400×100×125 mm, were loaded dynamically in 3-point

bending, using an instrumented drop weight impact machine.

Fracture energies and dynamic fracture toughness (KID) values were

determined, using three different drop heights of the impact hammer.

It was found that, for all three types of concrete, KID increased with

increasing drop height, the fracture toughness values under impact

loading were much higher than those obtained in static tests. There
 47

were also dramatic increases in the fracture energies under impact

loading.

2.4.2.15 Chloride Resistance

Vagelis (2000)126 investigated the durability of cement

incorporating cementing materials silica fume, low-and high-calcium

fly ash (SCM). Experimental tests were carried to simulate the

deterioration mechanism in reinforced cement concrete (Chloride

penetration and carbonation). It was found that the carbonation depth

decreases as aggregate replacement by SCM increases. The specimen

incorporate SCM, by substitutes aggregate or cement exposed to

chlorides exhibit lower total chloride content for all depths from the

surface. Estimated new parameter values and existing models were

modified to describe the chloride penetration and carbonation

propagation in concrete incorporation of SCM.

Hooton and Titherington (2004)48 measured the strength and

chloride penetration resistance of a series of high performance

concretes after curing either 23° C or accelerated by heating to 65° C.

The results confirmed that concrete containing silica fume or ternary

blends of silica fume and ground granulated blast furnace slag exhibit

improved chloride penetration resistance compound to those of plain

portland cement concretes and concluded that the chloride

penetration resistance of portland cement concretes is adversely

effected by accelerated curing.

 48

2.5 LITERATURE REVIEW OF SLAB ELEMENTS

Joseph (1980)64 presented a design procedure for slabs

subjected to concentrated loads. The five step procedure provide for

the actions peculiar to concentrated loads as well as the effects of all

loads and provide positive provisions for the inclusion of the effects of

concentrated loads, including column reactions in flat slabs and flat

plates.

Gilbert (1985)42 proposed a design procedure for the control of

deflection in reinforced concrete slab. A reliable expression for the

maximum allowable span to depth ratio for beams which proposed by

Rangan was extended to entire range of reinforced concrete flexural

members including flat slabs, two way slabs, edge supported slabs,

and flat plates. The procedure was tested using data generated by

finite element slab simulation model and shown to agree well with the

field measurements of in service slabs.

Bauer and Redwood (1987)22 presented a numerical method

based on virtual work approach of yield line theory. The method

consists of computing yield load of plate based on the geometry of

assumed collapse mechanism defined by means of planes, nodes and

lines. This method allows the yield line analysis of plates with a

complex shapes, assumed loadings and mechanism and concluded

that the computer program to analyse plate structures and also

features such as orthotropic and skewness, line loads, point loads,

uniformly distributed loads, fans, it also includes procedures for

optimization of the yield line mechanisms.

 49

Mary Theresa and Richard (1989)80 proposed two methods for

analysis of slab under combined gravity and lateral loads. For flat

plates, satisfactory deflections and member action were obtained

using a single model based on the explicit transverse torsional

member method. For two-way slab on beams, satisfactory deflections

and member action are obtained using a single model based on either

the explicit transverse torsional member method or the extended

equivalent column method. Explicit transverse torsional member

method are found to give good results for slab-beam connections and

drifts and were recommended for analysis and design of two way slabs

under combined gravity and lateral loads.

Clark and Birjandi (1990)28 investigated punching shear

resistance for light weight aggregate concrete slabs, which has limited

in the code to 80% of normal weight concrete of the same compressive

strength. Tests were made on the slabs with five different light weight

aggregates and on the basis of the results it is concluded that the code

provisions are unnecessarily conservative.

John and David (1990)63 summarized the results of

experimentation of punching shear strength on reinforced concrete

slabs with varying span to depth ratios. Five slabs with flexural

reinforcement and five slabs with both flexural and shear

reinforcement tested with different span depth ratios. Concluded the

punching shear strength increase as the span to depth ratio decreased

below 6.
 50

Vechio and Tang (1990)128 discussed the influence and

formation of compressive membrane action in reinforced cement

concrete. An experimental programme is planned, two large scale slab

specimens are tested under concentrated mid span loads. One slab

restrained against lateral expansion at the ends, for the other was free

to elongate. The laterally restrained specimen produced high axial

compressive force, flexural stiffness and load carrying capacity. A

nonlinear analysis procedure was used to model specimen behaviour

and thus gave accurate predictions of load-deformation response and

the ultimate load.

Isao Kojima (1991)56 describes a series of missile impact tests of

reinforced concrete slabs. The method of testing consists of making

steel missiles collide against reinforced concrete steel slabs to

investigate the local behaviour of slabs. A total of 12 tests were

prepared varying the targets and missile conditions and concluded the

degree of damage from a soft-nosed missile is less than that of a hard-

nosed missile, steel lining is effective in preventing scabbing, the

impact resistance of a double reinforced concrete slab is inferior to

that of a single reinforced concrete slab in case of a hard-nosed missle

and almost equal in case of a soft-nosed missile and concluded that

the existing formula for evaluating critical thicknesses against

perforation and scabbing give slab thickness on the conservative side.

Morzouk and Hussein (1991)81 examined the strains, ultimate

capacity mode of failure and deformation of the concrete slab in

punching shear. Based on the test results a mechanical model was

 51

proposed with actual behaviour of the high strength concrete and

steel. The proposed model gives a fairly good agreement between the

predicted and experimental punching shear load.

Marzouk and Hussein (1992)82 investigated the deformation and

strength characteristics of punching shear failure of high-strength

concrete slabs. The tested specimen had different slab depth and

reinforcing ratios varying between 0.49 and 2.53%. The test results

revealed that high-strength concrete slabs exhibit a more brittle

failure than normal strength concrete. Experimental results indicated

that as the level of reinforcement is increased, the punching shear

strength of the slab also increased.

Kuang and Morley (1992)72 reported punching tests on twelve

restrained reinforced concrete slabs. The slab panels were restrained

on all four sides by edge beams. Investigate the influence of the degree

of edge restraint, span-depth ration and percentage of steel

reinforcement. The punching shear strengths were much higher than

those predicted by Johnson’s yield-line theory, ACI 318 and BS 8110.

Abul Azad et al., (1994)2 conducted on a series of simulated

deck panels of girder bridge slab to determine the punching resistance

of the reinforced concrete slabs, with the aim to generate reliable test

data from representative large-size models. Variables included in this

test were the different load areas and the amount of reinforcement in

the slab. A comparative study of the relative accuracy of three

analytical methods for computation of punching resistance of slabs

under a patch load has been presented by comparing results with the
 52

experimental values. Based on the observed failure modes, moderation

to the often used ACI formula for two way shear resistance has been

proposed.

Wen Bin Siao (1994)132 studied the punching shear strength of

flat slabs with and without shear reinforcements by a beam strip

approach, the effect of wide beam shear, especially when specimens

are supported on two opposite edges only and to unveil its inter

relationship with punching shear resistance. Predicted results were

compared with existing experimental data previously reported by other

researchers good agreement was observed.

Shaaban and Gesund (1994)104 studied the addition of steel

fibers to the concrete mix could increase the punching shear strength

of the reinforced cement concrete. Cast and tested 13 slabs and

cylinder specimens with addition of steel fibers 0 to 6.4% weight of

concrete. Test results show that addition of steel fibers to concrete mix

enhanced the punching shear strength of slabs and developed an

equation and it is good agreement with the experimental values.

David Z Yankelevsky (1997)31 presented a model to predict the

penetration and perforation of concrete slabs impacted by low velocity

missiles. The two stage model incorporates a first stage penetration

algorithm into an infinite medium and a second stage of punching

shear. The transition between stages is determined and the

penetration time history as well as concrete plug, shear resistance and

shape are calculated. The present model predictions are compared

 53

with several common formulae as well as with test data and good

agreement is obtained.

David Z. Yankelevsky and Orit Leibowitz (1999)32 presented a

model, based on rigid post-fractured behaviour and the properties of

the concrete at the rough crack interfaces that has developed. The

model predicts the force-displacement resistance during punching, the

stress distribution along the cracked interfaces and the shape of the

punching concrete plug. Comparison of the model predictions with the

test data showed good agreement.

Osman et al. (2000)89 investigated the high strength light weight

concrete slabs where the compressive strength is greater than 70 MPa

with steel ratio ranging from 0.5 to 2.0%. Four slabs were laid with

high strength light weight concrete and another two reference

specimens were laid with normal strength concrete and light weight

aggregate with steel reinforcement ratios of 1 and 0.5%. The results

were compared with other test data on normal strength and high-

strength concrete slabs and code predictions for slab strength.

Normally a reduction factor of 0.85 and 0.80 is recommended for light

weight aggregate by the ACI and BS 8110 codes respectively. These

reduction factors were conservative when applied to high strength

concrete and reduction factor of 0.85 for normal strength light weight

and 0.95 for high strength light weight concrete. The results revealed

that change of reinforcement had more serious effect on the

behaviour of high strength light weight concrete slab specimens when

compared with normal strength and high strength concrete slabs.

 54

Tuan Ngo (2001)123 studied the experimental results from 4

research works and that are used to review the existing

recommendations in design codes for punching shear failure of slabs.

Design codes referred in this study as AS 3600 and CEB-FIP MC 90.

In AS 3600 the punching shear strength is expressed as proportional

to fc½. However in CEB-FIP MC 90 punching shear strength is

assumed to be proportional to fc1/3, it shown that the present

provisions in AS 3600 are applicable up to 100 MPa.

Monetrey (2002)85 discussed punching failure mechanism based

on the results obtained with numerical simulations demonstrating

among others the influence of concrete tensile strength. An analytical

model was derived for punching load prediction. The model allows a

unified treatment of slabs with various types of reinforcement.

Uwe Albrecht (2002)124 studied the punching shear design and

detailing of the shear reinforcement of various European and

American design Codes and found that the thickness of the slab or the

amount of distribution of shear reinforcement may vary between

different countries. The punching shear capacity of concrete, the

punching shear resistance with shear reinforcement and the relevant

detailing provision of four European and two American Codes and the

CEB-FIP Model code are compared. The provisions have been

compared by analysis of flat slabs with typical dimensions and

reinforcement ratios.

Arpana Rani Datta and Salek M.Serak (2003)20 studied the

effect of overlay on punching shear capacity of slabs. Overlay causes

 55

an increase in thickness as well as in the stiffness of the slab. Total of

six simply supported square slabs with a side of 2250 mm were cast

and tested. These slabs were divided in to two groups. In one group

studied the effect of overlay. In other group studied the effect of dowel,

and concluded that the overlay causes an increase in the punching

shear capacity of existing slabs. In the case of slabs with larger steel

ratio and relatively high overlay thickness the capacity is greater that

of the monolithic slab (same thickness) for monolithic and overlay,

and also in slab with overlay and dowel bars, the punching shear

capacity is more than the slab with overlay and no dowel bar and the

results concluded that the slab with overlay is higher than the

predictions of present code provisions.

Salim and Sebastian (2003)101 presented the results of

experimental study of the ultimate punching load carrying capacity of

reinforced concrete slabs that were restrained by means of

incorporating hoop reinforcement. Four reinforced concrete slabs and

one control specimen were tested up to failure. Punching shear failure

loads in restrained slabs are predicted and presented using plasticity

theory. The predictions were in good agreement with experimental

data from the literature.

Kwan (2004)74 developed a new method for yield lines that are to

be applied any convex polygonal shaped slab. In this method

deflections of the slab divided by yield lines are measured in terms of

dip and strike angles of the slab surface, which are define the

geometry of collapse mechanisms or yield line patterns. The internal

 56

energy dissipation and the external work done at yield lines are

evaluated has a functions of dip and strike angles and principle of

virtual work is used for determination of the corresponding load

factor. A computer program is developed based on this method and

verified by checking results obtained by others and has good

agreement with the model and experimental values.

Oliveira et al. (2004)88 conducted experimentation on high

strength concrete slabs with rectangular supports and three different

load patterns. The results showed that current code provisions can

over estimate the punching resistance in some cases. Investigation

made using the finite element method on the distribution of shear.

Factors are proposed for these effects while using the control

perimeter and basic shear resistance of the CEB Model Code 90 and it

demonstrated that, this approach was provides strength estimates

better than those of MC 90, BS 8110 and ACI 318.

Susanto Tang et al. (2004)118 investigated the punching shear

strength of slabs with openings and supported on rectangular column.

Twenty slabs specimens are tested under concentrated loads. The

stresses in the slabs were concentrated mostly around the shorter

sides of the rectangular columns. Openings reduce punching strength.

An accurate equation for calculating the punching strength of slabs is

proposed based on the ACI 318-02 approach. The performance of the

proposed equation together with the ACI 318-02 equations has been

verified with 223 data from literature as well as with 20 slab

specimens.
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Ali et al., (2005)14 investigated the influence of length and

volumetric percentage of steel fibers on energy absorption of concrete

slabs with various concretes by testing 28 small steel fiber reinforced

concrete slabs under flexure. Variables included are fiber length,

volumetric percentage of fibers and concrete strength. The results

indicate that generally longer fibers and higher fiber content provide

higher energy absorption. The results are compared with a theoretical

prediction based on random distribution of fibers and found that the

theoretical method resulted in higher energy absorption than that

obtained in experiment.

Papanikolaou et al., (2005)90 presented the results of 30

reinforced concrete slabs subjected to a concentrated load in the

middle with and without shear reinforcement. Shear reinforcement

consists of either closed stirrups or bent up bars. Punching shear

strength were measured and compared with strengths predicted from

the American, Euro Code 2 and ACI 318, as well as two models from

the literature. It was found that the predictions by both codes were

conservative for the slabs without shear reinforcement and less

conservative for slabs with shear reinforcement, concluded that the

bent-up bars are more efficient than stirrups in increasing the

punching shear strength.

Aurelio Muttoni (2008)21 presented the phenomenon of

punching shear in slabs without transverse reinforcement on the

basis of the opening of a critical shear check and it lead to the

formulation of new failure criteria for punching shear based on the

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rotation of a slab. It required load-rotation relationship of the slab, for

which a simple mechanical model is proposed. Parametric studies

demonstrate that it correctly predicts several aspects of punching

shear previously observed in testing as size effect (decreasing nominal

shear strength with increased size of the member) and concluded that

the punching shear strength of a flat slab shown to depend on the

span of the slab, rather than on it’s thickness as often proposed.

Gerd Birkle and Walter H. Dilger (2008)41 studied the influence

of slab thickness on the punching shear strength of flat slabs clearly

demonstrated the significant effect of size on the shear stress

resistance, particularly for tests without shear reinforcement. New

tests were carried out in which the slab thickness varied between 160

and 300 mm and the tests by others with slabs up to 500 mm thick.

Concluded that slabs with shear reinforcement increases in shear

capacity and ductility when compared with slabs without shear

reinforcement.

Jahangir et al., (2009)59 investigated the punching shear

capacity of flat slabs. Fifteen slabs were cast and tested ascertain the

influence of boundary restraint, influence of flexural reinforcement

and the effect of the thickness of slabs and punching load-carrying

capacity, monitored crack pattern and load-deflection behaviour of

slabs. Punching shear strengths are calculated as per the American,

British, Canadian, European and Australian codes and concluded that

some codes are not effectively estimated the punching shear strength.
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Koh Heng Boon et al., (2009)69 conducted experimentation on

one-way reinforced concrete slabs with rectangular central openings.

Five types of RC slabs which include one control slab without opening

and remaining four slabs with rectangular opening at the centre, first

slab with additional rectangular bars all around the opening, second

slab provided additional diagonal bars located at the edge of the

opening, for third slab provided additional and rectangular and

diagonal bars around the opening and for fourth slab no additional

reinforcement is provided. Results shows the reduction of area due to

central opening is 15% and the corresponding flexural strength

reduces 3.6% and also provision of addition reinforcement around the

opening increases the flexural capacity of the RC slab.

Solmaz (2009)111 reported the slab analysis with yield line

method to determine yield line pattern. Correct pattern of yield line

should be obtained for exact determination of slab ultimate load. It

could be probable more than one yield line pattern for slab. Plastic

analysis of some concrete reinforced slabs with ANSYS and the stress

and strain distributions were obtained for each case. Also, the yield

line pattern for each case was presented and compared.

Stefano Guandalini et al., (2009)112 presented the results of test

specimen on the punching behaviour of slabs without transverse

reinforcement and varying flexural reinforcement ratios. The size of

the specimens and aggregates was also varied to investigate the effect

on punching shear with low reinforcement ratios. The results are

compared with design codes and critical shear crack theory. On

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comparison it was clear that the formulation of ACI 318-08 lead to

less conservative estimates of punching strength for thick slab and for

lower reinforcement ratios than the test results. Satisfactory results

are obtained using Eurocode 2 and the critical shear crack theory.

Sudarsana Rao et al., (2009)115 studied the effect of various

volume percentage of steel fiber in SIFCON slab specimens subjected

to punching shear, deflection, failure load and crack patterns in

punching shear. Plain concrete slab and fiber reinforced concrete

specimens were used as control specimens. The results showed that

SIFCON slabs with 12% fiber volume possess higher performance than

the other slab specimens in all respects. The experimental result is

compared with IS and ACI codes and the need for separate provisions

for SIFCON in punching shear was emphasized. To predict the

punching shear capacity of SIFCON slabs a regression model was

developed.

Sudarsana Rao (2010)116 studied the behaviour of slurry

infiltrated fiber concrete two-way slabs in flexure with three edges

fixed and the other edge simply supported with fiber percentage of 8,

10 and 12%. For comparison fiber reinforced concrete and reinforced

cement concrete slab specimens were also cast and tested, all slabs

specimens are of size 600x600x50 mm. The results showed that the

slabs with 12% fiber volume shows excellent performance over FRC

and RCC slab specimens.

Sudarsana Rao et al., (2010)114 investigated the behaviour of

slurry-infiltrated fibrous concrete (SIFCON) slabs under impact

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loading. Fiber-reinforced concrete, reinforced cement concrete and

plain cement concrete slabs were also cast and tested for comparison

purposes. The impact force was delivered with a steel ball drop weight.

The test results revealed that SIFCON slabs with 12% fiber volume

fraction exhibit excellent performance in strength and energy

absorption characteristics when compared with other slab specimens.

Regression models have been developed to estimate the energy

absorption for SIFCON slab specimens.

Akinyele (2011)10 investigated two rectangular slabs with

different dimensions through a computer program that was adopted

the yield line theory for the analysis of solid slabs. The yield line

theory was compared with Finite element method and elastic theory

method. The results showed for a two way slab the yield line theory is

truly conservative, but the results increased by 25% by other two

methods. Concludes that computer based yield line theory programme

has good agreement with the analytical methods.

Rizk et al., (2011)97 studied the punching shear strength and

evaluated experimental results by using the equation prescribed in the

Canadian code. The experimental work presented include testing of

ten full-scale two way slabs with different reinforcement ratios to

examine the effect of reinforcement ratio on punching shear capacity.

Statically regression analysis is conducted on 190 test data available

in the literature to evaluate the influence of reinforcement ratio on

punching shear strength. The analytical study showed that the

reinforcement ratio has a strong influence on punching shear

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strength. The proposed equation could be an alternative to the current

punching shear equation used by Canadian standards association

CSA-A23.3-04 design code.

Elavenil and Samuel knight (2012)37 conducted experimentation

on steel fiber reinforced concrete plates with respect to displacement,

velocity and acceleration under impact loading. Eighteen plates were

cast of size 600x600 mm with different thickness 20, 25 and 30 mm

and with three different steel fiber contents of 0.5, 0.75 and 1% for the

investigation. The weight of the ball is taken as 4.5 Kg and height of

fall is 750 mm. The energy absorption at first crack and ultimate

stages are calculated and concluded that the energy absorption is

more for 1% steel fiber when the aspect ratio of fiber is 100.

Deepa shri and Thenmozhi (2013)34 studied the impact energy

absorption on hybrid ferrocement slabs of self compacting concrete of

size 300x300 mm with varying depth of 25 and 30 mm. A load of 3.5

Kg was applied by means of hammer. The drop height was 1.185 m

and 1.180 m for 25 mm and 30 mm slab thickness respectively.

Evaluated the initial and ultimate energy absorption and a model was

developed and it is good estimation of impact energy absorption.

Vasant and Kalurkar (2013)127 investigated the punching shear

behaviour of fiber reinforced concrete slabs with simply supported

condition along all the four edges and loaded up to ultimate failure

under a concentrated load at the centre over a square area. The

parameters were the volume fraction, slab thickness, concrete

strength, span to depth ratio and size of load-bearing plate

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characterized by first crack and ultimate load, increasing of slab

thickness and volume fraction and grade of concrete increases the

punching shear strength and ductility of slab. Concluded that the

ultimate punching shear strength of slab specimens are compared

with the predictions of equations available in literature and code

provisions. The CP 110’s equation of British standard was reasonably

matches with the experimental values.

Yousry et al., (2013)134 conducted experiment on reinforced

ferrocement concrete plates under impact load. Twenty ferrocement

plates were cast of size 500x500x25 mm and tested with a ball weight

of 1.15 Kg under a height of 1.12 m at the centre of plate. The test

programme is divided in to steel bars, metal meshes and metal

meshes with steel bars. Concluded that increasing the number of steel

mesh layers in the plate increases energy at first crack and ultimate

failure stage and also observed higher energy absorption at first crack

and ultimate stage in steel bars with steel mesh when compared with

those of reinforced with steel bars only.

Madheswaran et al (2014)78 studied the behaviour of concrete

slab under repeated low velocity impact loading on ordinary Portland

cement concrete (OPCC) slabs and geopolymer (GPC) concrete slabs.

The compressive strength of OPCC and GPC are 49 to 70 MPa. The

slab specimens are cast with and without fiber reinforcement. The

slab specimens are of size 1000x1000x60 mm. The weight of the

impact hammer having 8.4 Kg and it is freely falling at centre of the

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slab with a free fall of 10 to 50 cm and measured the impact loading.

The impact loads are ranging from 15.13 to 48.62 kN.

Sakthivel et al., (2014)100 conducted experimentation on mesh

and fiber reinforced cementitious composite slabs of size

250x250x25mm. The slab specimens are cast with polyolefin fibers of

0.5 to 2.5% of volume of slab specimen with 0.5% interval and

compared with the control specimen. The specimens are tested with

steel ball weight 3 Kg repeatedly dropped from a height of 600 mm on

centre of slab through a pulley arrangement. Concluded that the

impact strength of the cementitious composite has increased 2 to 6.66

times and energy absorption also increased 1.36 to 2.73 times of

control specimen.

Sidramappa and Archita (2014)110 studied the flexural

behaviour of RCC slab and ferrocement slabs for cyclic loading. The

first crack and collapse load along with their deflections were

measured during testing. On comparison ferrocement slabs are to be

more ductile when compared to RCC slabs design for same moment

and flexure behaviour of ferrocement slabs were found to superior

when compared to RCC slabs.

Conclusions are arrived from the present study of the review of

literature are as follows.

The use of silica fume in concrete as replacement of cement by

15% yield good results in compressive strength, cylindrical

compressive strength and split tensile strength. Many researchers

have studied the compressive strengths, cylindrical strength and split

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tensile strengths with different silica fume percentages. Not much

literature is available on the flexural strength, punching shear and

impact on concrete slabs with silica fume. Hence, considering the gap

in the existing literature, an attempt has been made to study the

flexure, shear and impact on HPC slabs.