ETC 8 – Probability
and Statistics
Engr. Michael Ernie F. Rodriguez, REE, RME
Instructor I
Palawan State University
Course Description
This course covers the basic principles of
statistics; presentation and analysis of data;
averages, median, mode; deviations; probability
distributions; normal curves and applications;
regression analysis and correlation; application to
engineering problems.
Course Prerequisite:
Math 1 – College Algebra
Course Outcomes
1. Define relevant statistical terms.
2. Discuss competently the following concepts:
a. Frequency Distribution
b. Measures of Central Tendency
c. Probability Distribution
d. Normal Distribution
e. Inferential Statistics
3. Apply accurately statistical knowledge in
solving specific engineering problem.
Course Outline
1. Basic Concepts
2. Steps in Conducting Statistical Inquiry
3. Presentation of Data
4. Sampling Techniques
5. Measures of Central Tendency
6. Measures of Variation
7. Probability Distributions
8. Inferential Statistics
9. Analysis of Variance
[Link] and Correlations
Course References
1. Probability and Statistics for Engineers and
Scientists 7th edition (2002) by Ronald E.
Walpole, et al.
2. Statistics and Probability: A Simplified
Approach (2009) by Madeleine S. Caras, et al.
3. General Statistics (2000) by Ferdinand P.
Nocon
4. Engineering Mathematics – Volume 1 3rd
edition (2014) by Diego Inocencio T. Gillesania
Course Requirements
Quizzes - 30%
Assignment/Seatwork - 10%
Problem Set - 10%
Major Exam - 50%
Total - 100%
Final Grade = 50% MTG + 50% TFG
Rating = (Final Grade / 2) + 50
PASSING GRADE = 75% (3.0)
Basic Concepts
Engr. Michael Ernie F. Rodriguez, REE, RME
Instructor I
Palawan State University
Statistical Methods
Statistical methods are the mathematical
techniques used to facilitate the interpretation of
numerical data secured from entities, individuals
or observations.
Little meaning can be derived from such data in
the unordered form in which they are originally
collected. Until they have been compactly and
systematically arranged, and until their
description has been condensed into a few
derived measures which can be conveniently
handled, such data cannot be adequately
interpreted for any large group or meaningfully
compared for different groups.
Statistics
Statistics is a branch of mathematics that deals
with the theory and method of collecting,
organizing, presenting, analyzing, and
interpreting data.
Statistical data are concerned with quantitative or
any kind of numerical data such as figures on
sales, ages, tax returns, population, births,
deaths, and many more.
Data gathering includes gathering information
through interviews, questionnaires, objective
observations, experimentations, psychological
tests and other methods.
Two Areas of Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
Methods concerned with collecting, describing,
and analyzing a set of data without drawing
conclusions about a large group.
Inferential Statistics
Methods concerned with the analysis of a
subset of data leading to predictions or
inferences about the entire set of data.
Population and Sample
Population
It is the complete collection of individuals,
items or data under consideration in a
statistical study.
Sample
It is the portion of the population selected for
analysis.
Population and Sample
EXAMPLES:
1. We may wish to draw conclusions about the
income rate of 1000 manufacturing companies
by examining only 200 companies from this
population.
2. We may wish to draw conclusion about the
electric consumptions in terms of number of
kilowatt-hour used by 100,000 households by
examining only 1,000 households from this
population.
Variables
A variable is a characteristic that changes or
varies over time and/or for different individuals
or objects under consideration.
Classification of Variables
Variable
Qualitative Quantitative
Discrete Continuous
Qualitative Variable
A qualitative variable measure a quality or
characteristic on each individual or object.
EXAMPLES:
1. Color of cars: red, blue, yellow, gray, black
2. T-shirt size: extra small, small, medium, large,
extra large
Quantitative Variable
A quantitative variable measure a numerical
quantity or amount on each individual or object,
often represented by x.
EXAMPLES:
1. Let x represent the height of male students in
a university.
2. Let x represent the number of batteries
produced by a manufacturing company.
Discrete Variable
A discrete variable can assume only a finite or
countable number of values.
EXAMPLES:
1. Let x represent the number of washers
produced by a company.
2. Let x represent the number of bolts produced
by a machine.
Continuous Variable
A continuous variable can assume the infinitely
many values corresponding to the point on a line
interval. A continuous variable can be measured.
EXAMPLES:
1. Let x represent the height (in meters) of
college students.
2. Let x represent the daily tonnage produced by
a coal mining company.
Measurement Scales
There are four measurement scales used in
Statistics:
1. Nominal Level
2. Ordinal Level
3. Interval Level
4. Ratio Level
Nominal Level
It is the first level of measurement. It is applied
to data that are used for category classification.
EXAMPLES:
1. Gender (Male, Female)
2. Marital Status (Single, Married, Widow)
3. Employment (Business, Engineering,
Education, etc.)
Ordinal Level
It is the second level of measurement. Data
measured can be ordered or ranked.
EXAMPLES:
1. Teachers (Instructor, Assistant Professor,
Associate Professor, Professor)
2. Grades of Students (A, B, C, D, F)
Interval Level
It is the third level of measurement. This level
has precise differences between measures but
there is no true zero.
EXAMPLE:
32°C and 33°C has a meaningful difference of
1°C but 0°C does not mean that there is no
temperature
Ratio Level
It is the final level of measurement. This scale
has a true zero and a value of zero means a
complete absence.
EXAMPLES:
1. Height, Weight, Area and Volume
2. Number of Computers in PB 15 and PB 16
Steps in Conducting
Statistical Inquiry
1. Examine a problem which may be solved using
data. Pose correct questions.
2. Collect data.
3. Organize the data.
4. Summarize and display the data
5. Analyze the data and make a conclusion.
6. Write a report.
Presentation of Data
Collected data are useless and invalid if they are
not presented effectively for analyses and
interpretations. Data are presented in three
general methods are enumerated below:
1. Textual Method
2. Tabular Method
3. Graphical Method
Textual Method
By textual method, the reader acquires
information through reading the gathered data.
Readers are directed to pay particular attention
on specific data such as comparisons, contrasts,
syntheses, generalizations, or findings.
However, this method, when employed alone
elicits boredom. It is a weak means of presenting
the quantitative comparisons or relations among
quantitative or numerical data attractively and
interestingly.
Tabular Method
The tabular method is a more effective way of
presenting relationships or comparisons of
numerical data. It provides a more precise,
systematic and orderly presentation of data in
rows and columns. This method results to easy
and comprehensible comparison of figure.
Tabular Method
EXAMPLE:
Population of the Philippines
1939 – 1980
Ave. Annual Rate
Year Population
of Increase (%)
1939 16,000,303 2.22
1948 19,234,182 1.91
1960 27,087,685 3.06
1970 36,684,486 3.01
1975 41,831,045 2.66
1980 48,098,000 2.40
Graphical Method
The utilization of graphs is the most effective
method of presenting statistical results or
findings.
It provides the relationships of data in pictorial
form.
Presentation of facts are made attractive and
meaningful through the colors use in the
pictures, making it easy for important
information to be grasped by the reader.
Graphical Method
Graphical methods include the following graphs:
1. Line Graph
2. Bar Graph
3. Pie Graph
4. Histogram
5. Frequency Polygon
Graphical Method
Its only limitations are as follows:
a. Graphs are not as precise as tables.
b. Graphs need more skills and time to
prepare.
c. Graphs can only be made after data have
been shown in tabular forms.
Sampling Techniques
Sampling techniques are utilized to test the
validity of conclusions or inferences from the
sample to the population.
A representative sample of 100 is generally
preferable to an unrepresentative sample of
1,000.
Sampling techniques include simple random
sampling, stratified random sampling, systematic
random sampling, cluster sampling and
multistage sampling.
Simple Random Sampling
A random sample refers to a limited number of
individuals chosen from the population. Every
individual has an equal chance of being
selected in the sample before the selection is
done.
Stratified Random Sampling
Statisticians utilize the stratified random
sampling in order to avoid biased samples. This
sampling technique is done through dividing
the population into categories or strata and
getting the members at random proportionate
to each stratum or sub-group.
Systematic Random Sampling
Systematic random sampling refers to a
process of selecting every nth element in the
population until the desired sample size is
acquired.
The members or elements can be arranged
alphabetically or in any systematic fashion.
Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling is the advantageous
procedure when the population is spread out
over a wide geographical area. It is also means
as a practical sampling technique used if the
complete list of the members of the population
is not available.
Multistage Sampling
This is a more complex sampling technique,
which includes the following steps:
1. Divide the population into strata.
2. Divide each stratum into clusters.
3. Draw a sample from each cluster using
the simple random sampling technique.
