AUTOMATION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Until about four decades ago, most manufacturing operations were carried out
on traditional machinery, such as lathes, milling machines, and presses, which lacked
flexibility and required considerable skilled labor. Each time a different product was
manufactured, the machinery had to be retooled, and the movement of materials had
to be rearranged. The development of new products and parts with complex shapes
required numerous trial-and-error attempts by the operator to set the proper
processing parameters on the machine. Furthermore, because of human involvement,
making parts that were exactly alike was difficult.
These circumstances meant that processing methods were generally inefficient
and that labor costs were a significant portion of overall production costs. The need
for reducing the labor share of product cost gradually became apparent, as was the
need to improve the efficiency and flexibility of manufacturing operations. This need
was particularly significant in terms of increased competition, both nationally and
from other industrialized countries.
Productivity also became a major concern. Defined as the optimum use of all
resources - materials, energy, capital, labor, and technology - or as output per
employee per hour, productivity basically measures operating efficiency. With rapid
advances in the science and technology of manufacturing and their gradual;
implementation, the efficiency of manufacturing operations began to improve and the
percentage of total cost represented by labor costs declined.
How can productivity be improved? Mechanization of machinery and operations
had reached its peak by the 1940s. Mechanization runs a process or operation with
the use of various mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic or electrical devices. Note that,
in mechanized systems, the operator still directly controls the process, and must
check each step of the machine's performance. If a tool breaks during machining, if
parts overheat during heat treatment, if surface finish begins to deteriorate during
grinding, and if dimensional tolerances become too large in metal forming, the
operator has to intervene and change one or more process parameters.
 The next step in improving the efficiency of manufacturing operations was
automation, from the Greek word automates, meaning self-acting. The word
automation was coined in the mid-1940s by the U.S. automobile industry to indicate
automatic handling of parts between production machines, together with their
continuous processing at the machines. During the past three decades, major
advances and breakthroughs in the types and extent of automation have occurred.
These important developments were made possible largely through rapid advances in
the capacity and sophistication of control systems and computers.
Automation can generally be defined as the process of following a
predetermined sequence of operations with little or no human labor, using specialized
equipment and devices that perform and control manufacturing processes. The
meaning and concept of automation has been variously interpreted as follows:
 Semiautomatic or automatic material handling, workpiece loading and
unloading in machines and workholding fixtures, and use of other labor-
saving devices.
 Automatic cycle control of machines and equipment, including use of
mechanical devices, numerical control of machines, and use of computers.
 Complete computer-based control of all aspects of manufacturing operations
from raw materials to the finished product.
Automation, in its full sense, is achieved through the use of a variety of devices,
sensors, actuators, techniques, and equipment that are capable of observing the
manufacturing process, making decisions concerning the changes that should be
made in the operation, and controlling all aspects of the operation. Automation is and
will continue to be an evolutionary, rather than a revolutionary, concept. All of us are
familiar with the evolution of automation, beginning with hand tools and hand-
operated simple machines, continuing to mechanized processes and machines, and
finally moving to higher levels of automation.
Automation in manufacturing plants has been implemented successfully in the
following basic areas of activity:
 Manufacturing processes. Machining, forging, cold extrusion, and grinding
 operations are examples of processes that have been automated extensively.
 Material handling. Materials and parts in various stages of completion are
moved throughout a plant by computer-controlled equipment without human
guidance.
 Inspection. Parts are automatically inspected for quality, dimensional
accuracy, and surface finish, either at the time of manufacturing (in-process
inspection); or after they are made (post process inspection).
 Assembly. Individually manufactured parts are automatically assembled into
a product.
 Packaging. Products are packaged automatically.
Automation has several primary goals:
 Integrate various aspects of manufacturing operations, so as to improve
product quality and uniformity, minimize cycle times and effort, and thus
reduce labor costs.
 Improve productivity by reducing manufacturing costs through better control
of production. Parts are loaded, fed, and unloaded on machines more
efficiently. Machines are used more effectively and production is organized
more efficiently.
 Reduce human involvement, boredom, and possibilities of human error.
 Reduce workpiece damage caused by manual handling of parts.
 Raise the level of safety for personnel, especially under hazardous working
conditions.
 Economize on floor space in the manufacturing plant by arranging machines,
material movement, and related equipment more efficiently.
Automation can be applied to manufacturing all types of goods, from raw
materials to finished products, and in all types of production from job shops to large
manufacturing facilities. The decision to automate a new or existing production
facility requires the following additional considerations:
 Type of product manufactured.
  Quantity and rate of production required.
 The particular phase of manufacturing operation to be automated.
 High initial cost of equipment.
 Reliability and maintenance problems associated with automated systems.
 Economics.

NUMERICAL CONTROL

Numerical control (NC) is a method of controlling the movements of machine

components by directly inserting coded instructions in the form of numerical data
(numbers and letters) into the system. The system automatically interprets these data
and converts it to output signals. These signals, in turn, control various machine
components, such as turning spindles on and off, changing tools, moving the
workpiece or the tools along specific paths, and turning cutting fluids on and off.
In order to appreciate the importance of numerical control of machines, let's
briefly review how a process such as machining has been carried out traditionally.
After studying the working drawings of a part, the operator sets up the appropriate
process parameters (such as cutting speed, feed, depth of cut, cutting fluid, and so
on), determines the sequence of operations to be performed, clamps the workpiece in
a workholding device such as a chuck, and proceeds to make the part. Depending on
part shape and the dimensional accuracy specified, this approach usually requires
skilled operators. Furthermore, the machining procedure followed may depend on the
particular operator, and because of the possibilities of human error, the parts produced
by the same operator may not all be identical. Part quality may thus depend on the
particular operator or even the same operator on different days or different hours of
the day. Because of our increased concern with product quality and reducing
manufacturing costs, such variability and its effects on product quality are no longer
acceptable. This situation can be eliminated by numerical control of the machining
operation.
In numerical control, data concerning all aspects of the machining operation,
such as locations, speeds, feeds, and cutting fluid, are stored on magnetic tape,
cassette, floppy or hard disks, or paper or plastic tape. Data are stored on punched 25-
mm (1-in.) wide paper or plastic tape, as originally developed and still used. The
concept of NC control is that holes in the tape represent specific information in the
form of alphanumeric codes. The presence (on) or absence (off) of these holes is read
by sensing devices in the control panel, which then actuate relays and other devices
(called hard-wired controls). These devices control various mechanical and electrical
systems in the machine. This method eliminates manual setting of machine positions
and tool paths or the use of templates and other mechanical guides and devices.
Complex operations, such as turning a part having various contours and die sinking in
a milling machine, can be carried out.
Numerical control has had a major impact on all aspects of manufacturing
operations. It is a widely applied technology, particularly in the following areas:
 Machining centers.
 Milling, turning, boring, drilling, and grinding.
 Electrical-discharge, laser-beam, and electron-beam machining.
 Assembly operations.
Numerical control machines are now used extensively in small- and medium-
quantity production (typically 500 parts or less) of a wide variety of parts in small
shops and large manufacturing facilities. Older machines can be retrofitted with
numerical control.
Numerical control has the following advantages over conventional methods of
machine control:
 Flexibility of operation and ability to produce complex shapes with good
dimensional accuracy, repeatability, reduced scrap loss, and high production
rates, productivity, and product quality.
 Tooling costs are reduced, since templates and other fixtures are not required.
 Machine adjustments are easy to make with minicomputers and digital
readouts.
 More operations can be performed with each setup, and less lead time for setup
 and machining is required compared to conventional methods.
 Programs can be prepared rapidly and can be recalled at any time utilizing
microprocessors.
 Less paperwork is involved.
 Faster prototype production is possible.
 Required operator skill is less, and the operator has more time to attend to
other tasks in the work area.
In the next step in the development of numerical control, the control hardware
mounted on the NC machine was converted to local computer control with software.
Two types of computerized systems were developed: direct numerical control and
computer numerical control.
In direct numerical control (DNC), as originally conceived and developed in the
1960s, several machines are directly controlled step by step by a central main frame
computer. In this system, the operator has access to the central computer through a
remote terminal. Thus handling tapes and the need for computers on each machine
are eliminated. With DNC, the status of all machines in a manufacturing facility
could be monitored and assessed from the central computer. However, DNC had the
crucial disadvantage that if the computer went down, all the machines became
inoperative.
A more recent definition of DNC includes the use of a central computer serving
as the control system over a number of individual computer numerical control
machines with onboard minicomputers. This system provides large memory and
computational capabilities, thus offering flexibility, while overcoming the previous
disadvantage of DNC.
Computer numerical control (CNC) is a system in which a minicomputer or
microprocessor is an integral part of the control panel of a machine or equipment
(onboard computer). The part program may be prepared at a remote site by the
programmer. However, the machine operator can now easily and manually program
onboard computers. The operator can modify the programs directly, prepare programs
for different parts, and store the programs. Because of the availability of small
computers with large memory, microprocessors, and program editing capabilities,
CNC systems are widely used today. We cannot overstate the importance of the
availability of low-cost, programmable controllers in the successful implementation
of CNC in manufacturing plants.
The advantages of CNC over conventional NC systems are:
 Increased flexibility. The machine can produce a certain part, followed by other
parts with different shapes and at reduced cost.
 Greater accuracy.
 More versatility. Editing and debugging programs, reprogramming, and plot-
ting and printing part shape are simpler.
A program for numerical control consists of a sequence of directions that causes
an NC machine to carry out a certain operation, machining being the most commonly
used process. Programming for NC may be done by an internal programming
department, on the shop floor, or purchased from an outside source. Also,
programming may be done manually or with computer assistance.
The program contains instructions and commands. Geometric instructions
pertain to relative movements between the tool and the workpiece. Processing
instructions pertain to spindle speeds, feeds, tools, and so on. Travel instructions
pertain to the type of interpolation and slow or rapid movements of the tool or
worktable. Switching commands pertain to on/off position for coolant supplies,
spindle rotation, direction of spindle rotation, tool changes, workpiece feeding,
clamping, and so on.
Manual part programming consists of first calculating dimensional
relationships of the tool, workpiece, and work table, based on the engineering
drawings of the part, and manufacturing operations to be performed and their
sequence. A program sheet is then prepared, which consists of the necessary
information to carry out the operation, such as cutting tools, spindle speeds, feeds,
depth of cut, cutting fluids, power, and tool or workpiece relative positions and
movements. Based on this information, the part program is prepared.
Manual programming can be done by someone knowledgeable about the
particular process and able to understand, read, and change part programs. However,
the work is tedious, time consuming, and uneconomical - and is used mostly in
simple applications.
Computer-aided part programming involves special symbolic programming
languages that determine the coordinate points of corners, edges, and surfaces of the
part. Programming language is the means of communicating with the computer and
involves the use of symbolic characters. The programmer describes the component to
be processed in this language, and the computer converts it to commands for the NC
machine. Several languages having various features and applications are
commercially available.
Computer-aided part programming has the following significant advantages over
manual methods:
 Use of relatively easy to use symbolic language. Several programs have been
developed: ADAPT, MINIAPT, UNIAPT, AUTOSPOT and AUTOMAP.
 Reduced programming time. Programming is capable of accommodating a
large amount of data concerning machine characteristics and process
variables, such as power, speeds, feed, tool shape, compensation for tool
shape changes, tool wear, deflections, and coolant use.
 Reduced possibility of human error, which can occur in manual programming.
 Capability of simple changeover of machining sequence or from machine to
machine.
 Lower cost because less time is required for programming.
Because numerical control involves the insertion of data concerning workpiece
materials and processing parameters, programming must be done by operators or
programmers who are knowledgeable about the relevant aspects of the manufacturing
processes being used.