Objectives
• Explain the concept of graphic communication
• Define the term drawing
• Differentiate between artistic and technical drawing
• Explain the types of technical drawings
• Explain the purpose of technical drawings
• Explain the application of technical drawings
Graphics Language
2
Effectiveness of Graphics Language
1. Try to write a description of
this object.
2. Test your written description
by having someone attempt
to make a sketch from your
description.
You can easily understand that …
The word languages are inadequate for describing the
size,
size shape and features completely as well as
concisely.
Composition of Graphic Language
Graphic language in “engineering application” use
lines to represent the surfaces,
surfaces edges and contours
of objects.
The language is known as “drawing”
drawing or “drafting”
drafting .
A drawing can be done using freehand,
freehand instruments
or computer methods.
Freehand drawing
The lines are sketched without using instruments other
than pencils and erasers.
Example
Instrument drawing
Instruments are used to draw straight lines, circles, and
curves concisely and accurately. Thus, the drawings are
usually made to scale.
Example
Drawings Described
• A drawing is a graphic representation of an idea,
concept, or an entity that actually or potentially exists
in [Link] is the language of engineers. It is a
vehicle of expression for designers and engineers.
• An engineer describes the structures or machine
parts with help of drawing.
• The drawing itself is a way to:
– Communicate all necessary information about an idea or
concept such as a machine part, a house, or a tool.
Types of Drawings
• Artistic
– Used to express feelings, beliefs, philosophies, or abstract ideas.
• Technical
– A means of clearly communicating all of the information needed by individuals for
converting the idea or concept into reality.
– The conversion may involve manufacturing, assembly, construction, and\or
fabrication.
• Illustration or Rendering
– Contain elements of the first 2 types, usually produced with a CAD system or
drafting tools and contain some technical information
– In some cases they attempt to convey a mood, attitude, status, or other non
technical abstract feelings.
Application of Technical Drawings
• Used in any setting that involves design
• Manufacturing
– Manufacturing engineers use technical drawings to document designs of products
• Engineering
– Structural, electrical, and mechanical (heating, ventilating, air conditioning, and plumbing) engineers use
technical drawings to design\ install systems and structures
– Civil engineers and surveyors use technical drawing to layout a new subdivision
• Architecture
– Residential, commercial, and industrial buildings are represented first in technical drawings
• Construction
– Use blueprints to convert architectural and engineering designs into reality
Types of Projection
• There are two main types of projection
– Perspective projection – the projectors come
together at the station point
• Perspective drawings represent objects as we see them
– Parallel projection – the projectors are parallel
Understanding Projections
• Behind every 2D drawing of an object is a
space relationship involving the object and
three “imagined” things:
– The observer’s eye or station point
– The plane of projection
– The projectors
• Also called visual rays or lines of sight
Types of
Projection
Types of Technical Drawings
• Parallel Projection (3 types)
– 1. Orthographic
– Multi-view drawing
» Shows flat representations of principal views of an object
» Principal Views (Front, Top, and Right side)
– 2. Oblique
– 3. Axonometric
– Isometric
» A three dimensional view of an object based on a 30 degree viewing
angle
• Perspective Projection
– Attempts to replicate what the eye actually sees
Classes of Perspective Projection
• One-Point Perspective
• Two-Point Perspective
• Three-Point Perspective
Types of Projection
• Orthographic projections are a type of parallel
projection
– Orthographic (right angle) projections have
parallel projectors that are perpendicular to the
plane of projection
– In orthographic projection objects can be
presented at true size or scaled at a proportion of
their true size
Types of Projection
• Oblique projection – when projectors are
parallel to each other but are at an angle
other than 90 degrees to the plane of
projection
Types of Projection
• Technical drawings of 3D objects usually use
one of four standard types of projection
– Multiview
– Axonometric (isometric)
– Oblique
– Perspective
Types of Projection
• Multiview projection – shows one or more
necessary views of an object
– There are two systems used to arrange the views:
• Third angle projection
• First angle projection
• Axonometric, oblique, and perspective
sketches show objects pictorially
Types of
Projection
Axonometric projection
• axon = axis; metric = measure, in Greek
• Axonometric projection is a parallel
projection technique to create a pictorial
drawing of an object by rotating the object
on an axis relative to a projection or picture
plane
Axonometric projection
• Axonometric projection
– Trimetric
– Dimetric
– Isometric
Isometric projection
• Isometric projection is a true representation of the
isometric view of an object
• Isometric view is created by rotating the object 45 degree
about vertical axis, and tilting it forward 35 deg 16’
Isometric projection: axes
• The 3 axis meet at A,B form equal angles of
120 deg and they are called Isometric Axes
• OA is vertical, OB is inclined at 30deg to
the right, OC is inclined at 30deg to the left
• Any lines parallel to these – Isometric Line
• Any planes parallel – Isometric Planes
Isometric dimensions
• Although isometric drawing is not intended to
transmit dimension, sometimes dimensions are
placed to indicate the size.
• Two types:
Isometric features
• Common feature shown in isometric drawing.
Screw thread (external)
Fillet and rounds
Isometric section view
Types of Machine drawings
• Production drawing
• Exploded assy drawings
• Schematic assy drawings
• Drawings for instruction manual
• Drawings for installation
• Drawings for catalogue
• Tabular drawings
• Patent drawings
Isometric assembly: 3D render
Isometric exploded assembly
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
AN
INTRODUCTION
Orthographic Projection
• An orthographic projection is a 2 dimensional
representation of a 3 dimensional object.
Orthographic Projections
• Orthographic Projections are a collection of 2-D drawings that work
together to give an accurate overall representation of an object.
Defining the Six
Principal Views
or Orthographic
Views
Which Views to Present?
General Guidelines
• Pick a Front View that is most descriptive of
object
• Normally the longest dimension is chosen as
the width (or depth)
• Most common combination of views is to use:
– Front, Top, and Side View
Glass Box Approach
Glass Box Approach
Glass Box Approach
Glass Box Approach
Glass Box Approach
Glass Box Approach
First and Third Angle Projections
Third-angle Projection
First-angle Projection
• First Angle
• Third Angle
Projection Convention
Conventional Orthographic Views
Width
Top Depth
View/Plan
Right
Front View Side Height
View
Sectional views
Auxiliary Views
• Used to show true dimensions of an inclined
plane.
Auxiliary projection
Auxiliary projection
Drawing Standard
Introduction
Standards are set of rules that govern how technical
drawings are represented.
Drawing standards are used so that drawings convey
the same meaning to everyone who reads them.
Standard Code
Country Code Full name
USA ANSI American National Standard Institute
Japan JIS Japanese Industrial Standard
UK BS British Standard
Australia AS Australian Standard
Germany DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung
ISO International Standards Organization
Partial List of Drawing Standards
Code number Contents
JIS Z 8311 Sizes and Format of Drawings
JIS Z 8312 Line Conventions
JIS Z 8313 Lettering
JIS Z 8314 Scales
JIS Z 8315 Projection methods
JIS Z 8316 Presentation of Views and Sections
JIS Z 8317 Dimensioning
Drawing Sheet
A4
Trimmed paper of
a size A0 ~ A4.
A3
Standard sheet size
(JIS) A2
A4 210 x 297
A3 297 x 420 A1
A2 420 x 594
A1 594 x 841
A0 841 x 1189
(Dimensions in millimeters) A0
Standard Sheet Sizes
Orientation of drawing sheet
1. Type X (A0~A4) 2. Type Y (A4 only)
c
d
d c Drawing
Border Drawing space
space Title block
lines Title block
c
Sheet size c (min) d (min)
A4 10 25
A3 10 25
A2 10 25
A1 20 25
A0 20 25
Drawing Scales
Length, size
Scale is the ratio of the linear dimension of an element
of an object shown in the drawing to the real linear
dimension of the same element of the object.
Size in drawing Actual size
:
Drawing Scales
Designation of a scale consists of the word “SCALE”
followed by the indication of its ratio, as follow
SCALE 1:1 for full size
SCALE X:1 for enlargement scales (X > 1)
SCALE 1:X for reduction scales (X > 1)
Dimension numbers shown in the drawing are correspond
to “true size” of the object and they are independent of
the scale used in creating that drawing.
Basic Line Types
Name according
Types of Lines Appearance
to application
Continuous thick line Visible line
Continuous thin line Dimension line
Extension line
Leader line
Dash thick line Hidden line
Chain thin line Center line
Meaning of Lines
Visible lines represent features that can be seen in the
current view
Hidden lines represent features that can not be seen in
the current view
Center line represents symmetry, path of motion, centers
of circles, axis of axisymmetrical parts
Dimension and Extension lines indicate the sizes and
location of features on a drawing
Types of Line
Line types & Conventions
Line Conventions
• Visible Lines – solid thick lines that represent visible edges or contours
• Hidden Lines – short evenly spaced dashes that depict hidden features
• Section Lines – solid thin lines that indicate cut surfaces
• Center Lines – alternating long and short dashes
• Dimensioning
– Dimension Lines - solid thin lines showing dimension extent/direction
– Extension Lines - solid thin lines showing point or line to which dimension applies
– Leaders – direct notes, dimensions, symbols, part numbers, etc. to features on
drawing
• Cutting-Plane and Viewing-Plane Lines – indicate location of cutting planes for sectional
views and the viewing position for removed partial views
• Break Lines – indicate only portion of object is drawn. May be random “squiggled” line
or thin dashes joined by zigzags.
• Phantom Lines – long thin dashes separated by pairs of short dashes indicate alternate
positions of moving parts, adjacent position of related parts and repeated detail
• Chain Line – Lines or surfaces with special requirements
General rules for dimensioning
• Dimensioning should be in such a way that further calculation or assumption of any dimensions is
not needed.
• Every dimension must be given without repetitions
• A dimension should be placed in that view where its use is shown more clearly
• Dimensions should be placed outside the views, unless they are clearer and easily read inside.
• Mutual crossing of dimension lines and dimensioning between hidden lines should be avoided.
• Dimension lines shouldn’t cross any other line of the drawing.
• An outline or a centre line should never be used as a dimension line. A centre line may be extended
to serve as an extension line.
• Aligned system of dimensioning is recommended.
Viewing-plane line
1
3Dimension 4
Center Line
2Extension Line
line 5Hidden Line
6Break Line
7Cutting-plane Line
8Visible Line
10
Center Line (of motion)
Leader
Phantom
14
Line
13
Section Line
12
SECTION A-A 11
VIEW B-B
Layer Manager
Fits & Tolerances
Tolerance Dimensioning
• Tolerance is the total amount that a specific
dimension is permitted to vary;
• It is the difference between the maximum and the
minimum limits for the dimension.
• For Example a dimension given as 1.625 ± .002
means that the manufactured part may be 1.627”
or 1.623”, or anywhere between these limit
dimensions.
Tolerances
The Tolerance is 0.001” for the Hole as well as for the Shaft
Allowance & Clearance
Interchangeable Fit
Size Designations
• Nominal Size: It is the designation used for general
identification and is usually expressed in common fractions.
For Ex. In the previous figure, the nominal size of both hole
and shaft, which is 11/4” would be 1.25” in a decimal system
of dimensioning.
• Basic Size or Basic dimension: It is the theoretical size from
which limits of size are derived by the application of
allowances and tolerances.
• Actual Size: is the measured size of the finished part.
• Allowance: is the minimum clearance space (or maximum
interference)intended between the maximum material
condition of mating parts.
Fits Between Mating Parts
• Fit is the general term used to signify the range of
tightness or looseness that may result from the
application of a specific combination of allowances and
tolerances in mating parts.
There are four types of fits between parts
1. Clearance Fit: an internal member fits in an external
member (as a shaft in a hole) and always leaves a space
or clearance between the parts.
Minimum air space is 0.002”. This is the allowance and is always positive
in a clearance fit
2. Interference Fit: The internal member is larger than the
external member such that there is always an actual
interference of material. The smallest shaft is 1.2513”
and the largest hole is 1.2506”, so that there is an actual
interference of metal amounting to at least 0.0007”.
Under maximum material conditions the interference
would be 0.0019”. This interference is the allowance,
and in an interference fit it is always negative.
3. Transition Fit: may result in either a clearance or
interference condition. In the figure below, the smallest
shaft 1.2503” will fit in the largest hole 1.2506”, with
0.003” to spare. But the largest shaft, 1.2509” will have
to be forced into the smallest hole, 1.2500” with an
interference of metal of 0.009”.
4. Line Fit: the limits of size are so specified
that a clearance or surface contact may
result when mating parts are assembled.
Basic Hole System
• Minimum hole is taken as the basic size, an allowance is
assigned, and tolerances are applied on both sides of and
away from this allowance.
1. The minimum size of the hole 0.500”
is taken as the basic size.
2. An allowance of 0.002” is decided on
and subtracted from the basic hole
size, making the maximum shaft as
0.498”.
3. Tolerances of 0.002” and 0.003”
respectively are applied to the hole
and shaft to obtain the maximum hole
of 0.502” and the minimum shaft of Minimum clearance: 0.500”-
0.495”. 0.498” = 0.002”
Maximum clearance: 0.502” –
0.495” = 0.007”
Basic Shaft System
• Maximum shaft is taken as the basic size, an allowance is
assigned, and tolerances are applied on both sides of and
away from this allowance.
1. The maximum size of the shaft 0.500”
is taken as the basic size.
2. An allowance of 0.002” is decided on
and added to the basic shaft size,
making the minimum hole as 0.502”.
3. Tolerances of 0.003” and 0.001”
respectively are applied to the hole
and shaft to obtain the maximum hole
of 0.505” and the minimum shaft of
0.499”. Minimum clearance: 0.502”-
0.500” = 0.002”
Maximum clearance: 0.505” –
0.499” = 0.006”
Specifications of Tolerances
1. Limit Dimensioning
The high limit is placed above the
low limit.
In single-line note form, the low limit
precedes the high limit separated by a
dash
Specifications of Tolerances
2. Plus-or-minus Dimensioning
• Unilateral Tolerance
• Bilateral Tolerance
Cumulative Tolerances
Tolerances Related to Machining Processes
Terms related to Metric Limits & Fits
Some Definitions
• Basic Size: is the size from which limits or
deviations are assigned. Basic sizes, usually
diameters, should be selected from a table of
preferred sizes.
• Deviation: is the difference between the basic size
and the hole or shaft size.
• Upper Deviation: is the difference between the
basic size and the permitted maximum size of the
part.
• Lower Deviation: is the difference between the
basic size and the minimum permitted size of the
part.
Some Definitions
• Fundamental Deviation: is the deviation closest to
the basic size.
• Tolerance: is the difference between the
permitted minimum and maximum sizes of a part.
• International Tolerance Grade (IT):
They are a set of tolerances that varies according to the basic size and
provides a uniform level of accuracy within the grade.
Definitions
• Tolerance Zone: refers to the relationship of the
tolerance to basic size. It is established by a
combination of the fundamental deviation indicated
by a letter and the IT grade number. In the dimension
50H8, for the close running fit, the H8 specifies the
tolerance zone.
• The hole-basis system of preferred fits is a system in
which the basic diameter is the minimum size. For the
generally preferred hole-basis system, the
fundamental deviation is specified by the upper-case
letter H.
• The shaft-basis system of preferred fits is a system in
which the basic diameter is the maximum size of the
shaft. The fundamental deviation is given by the
lowercase letter h.
• An interference fit results in an interference between
two mating parts under all tolerance conditions.
• A transition fit results in either a clearance or
an interference condition between two
assembled parts.
• Tolerance symbols are used to specify the tolerance
and fits for mating parts. For the hole-basis system
,the 50 indicates the diameter in millimeters; the
fundamental deviation for the hole is indicated by the
capital letter H, and for the shaft it is indicated by the
lowercase letter f. The numbers following the letters
indicate this IT grade. Note that the symbols for the
hole and shaft are separated by the slash. Tolerance
symbols for a 50-mm-diameter hole may be given in
several acceptable forms. The values in parentheses
for reference only and may be omitted.
STUFFING BOX
Practice Drawings
