AR  7902  LANDSCAPE DESIGN

M.Hemalatha . M.Arch (Landscape)

Unit – 1
Introduction

 Introduction to landscape architecture

 Basic concepts of ecology and the impact of human

activities on them

 Environmental impact assessment

 Reclamation and restoration of derelict lands

Introduction to landscape architecture :

A balance between the built and natural environments

Landscape architecture is the art, planning, design,
management, preservation and rehabilitation of the land and the
design of large-scale man-made constructs.

This profession seeks Landscape SUSTAINABILITY (the ability of a

landscape to be sustained without resource depletion or
degradation), REGENERATION (recurring recreation of landscape
system capacity), strong positive placeness ( ability of a place to
evoke strong mental images and be remembered over extended
periods of time) and COMMUNITY BUILDING that promotes
community wellness and productivity.

The scope of the profession includes architectural design, site

planning, estate development, environmental restoration, town or
urban planning, park and recreation planning, regional planning, and
historic preservation.
Depending on the project scope, landscape architects are responsible
for development of the entire site including building location, form and
exterior imagery, landform reshaping, storm water management, site
infrastructural system design, site construction and landscape planting.

Landscape architecture is a multi-disciplinary field, including within its

fold geography, mathematics, science, engineering, art, horticulture,
technology, social sciences, politics, history, philosophy.

The activities of a landscape architect can range from the creation of

public parks and parkways to site planning for corporate office
buildings, from the design of residential estates to the design of civil
infrastructure and the management of large wilderness areas or
reclamation of degraded landscapes such as mines or landfills.

Landscape architects work on all types of structures and external

space - large or small, urban or rural, and with "hard"/"soft" materials,
hydrology and ecological issues.
Landscape architects work on:

•The form, scale and siting of new developments

•Civil design and public infrastructure
•Site design for schools, universities, hospitals and hotels
•Public parks, greenways, golf courses, theme parks and sports
facilities
•Housing areas, industrial parks and commercial developments
•Highways, transportation structures, bridges, and corridors
•Urban design, town and city squares, and pedestrian schemes
•Large or small urban regeneration schemes
•Forest, tourist or historic landscapes, and historic garden appraisal
and conservation studies
•Reservoirs, dams, power stations, extractive industry applications
or major industrial projects
•Environmental assessment and landscape assessment, planning
advice and land management proposals.
•Coastal and offshore developments
Value of Landscaping
Enhancing our Environment
•Plants protect water quality. Proper landscaping reduces nitrate leaching from
the soil into the water supply. Plants also reduce surface water runoff, keeping
phosphorus and other pollutants out of our waterways and preventing septic
system overload.

•Proper landscaping reduces soil erosion. A dense cover of plants and mulch
holds soil in place, keeping sediment out of lakes, streams, stormdrains, and
roads; and reducing flooding, mudslides, and duststorms.

•Plants improve air quality. One tree can remove 26 pounds of carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere annually, equaling 11,000 miles of car emissions.
Landscape plants, including shrubs and turf, remove smoke, dust, and other
pollutants from the air. One study showed that I acre of trees. has the ability to
remove 13 tons of particles and gases annually.

•Landscaping lowers summer air temperatures. urban forests reduce urban air
temperatures significantly by shading heat sinks such as buildings and concrete,
and returning humidity to the air through evaporative cooling. Trees shading
homes can reduce attic temperatures as much as 40 degrees.
Landscaping conserves natural resources. Properly placed deciduous trees reduce
house temperatures in the summer, allowing air conditioning units to run 2 to 4
percent more efficiently, but allow the sun to warm the house in the winter. Homes
sheltered by evergreen windbreaks can reduce winter heat loss and are generally
warmer than homes without such protection. By using trees to modify temperatures
and protect against wind, the amount of fossil fuels used for cooling and heating is
reduced.

•Landscaping screens busy streets. Well-placed plantings offer privacy and

tranquility by screening out busy street noises and reducing glare from headlights.
Promoting Economic Development
•Landscaping increases property market value A 1991 study estimates
that an attractive landscape increase the value of a home by an average of
7.5 percent, and reduces the time on the market by five to six weeks

•Good landscaping increases community appeal well- landscaped grounds,

and places for taking walks to be among the most important factors
considered when individuals chose a place to live.

•Plants increase tourism revenues.

•Nature increases worker productivity. Psychologists have found that

plants and green spaces provide a sense of rest that allows workers with
access to plants and nature to be more productive.

•Landscaping renews business districts. Greening of business districts

increases community pride and positive perception of an area, drawing
customers to the businesses.
Landscaping for the Future

•Landscaping is an integral part of our culture and plays an essential role in

the quality of our environment, affecting our economic well-being and our
physical and psychological health.

•If we are to keep our communities strong and prosperous, we must take
responsibility for our environment. Environmental responsibility is a step
beyond awareness, developed only through experience. Through our gardens
and landscapes, we acquire a personal awareness and responsibility for the
environment while we relieve the tensions and frustrations of everyday life.

•Landscaping offers many opportunities for the encouragement and education

of responsible, productive citizens. School grounds represent the world
environment of a child and should be designed and integrated into the
curriculum to instill responsibility, knowledge, and experience in caring for the
environment, while teaching the math, science, and art associated with the
cultivation of plants.
•Public and commercial landscapes have a major influence on our
environment, and on peoples actions and attitudes. Sustainable landscape
maintenance techniques can be used to protect the environment while
enhancing economic development and improving worker productivity.

•Landscaping is one of the most cost effective tools for improving and
sustaining the quality of life, whether in the city, the suburbs, or the
country.
Basic concepts of ecology :

Study of interaction among organisms and their environment

Components of ecosystem
Abiotic Components
Abiotic Components
Those include the non-living or physic-chemical factors like air, soil, water
and the basic compounds and elements of the environment.

Abiotic factors are classified broadly under three categories:

Climatic factors, including the climatic regime with physical factors

in the environment such as light, atmospheric temperature, wind, humidity,
etc;

Edaphic factors, which relate to the composition and structure of

the soil like its chemical and physical properties – like the soil type, soil
profile, organic matter, minerals, soil water, and soil organisms.

Inorganic substances like water, carbon, sulphur, nitrogen,

phosphorus and so on. Organic substances like proteins, lipids,
carbohydrates, humid substances etc.
Biotic Components
Biotic Components
It consists of the living parts of the environment, including the association of a lot
of interrelated populations that belong to different species inhabiting a common
environment.

The populations are those of the plant community, the animal community and the
microbial community.

Producers (Autotrophic elements):

The producers are the autotrophic elements—chiefly green plants. They use radiant
energy of sun in photosynthetic process.

Consumers:
Those living members of ecosystem which consume the food synthesized by
producers are called consumers.

Decomposers :
Decomposers and transformers are the living components of the ecosystem and
they are fungi and bacteria.
Functions of an ecosystem:
Food chain, in ecology, the sequence of transfers of matter and
energy in the form of food from organism to organism.
Food web
Organism interaction :

(Trophic relationship in
an ecosystem)
Food web is an
important conceptual
tool for illustrating the
feeding relationships
among species within a
community, revealing
species interactions and
community structure, and
understanding the
dynamics of energy
transfer in an ecosystem.
Illustration of flow of matter
and energy in ecosystem
Pyramid of numbers

Pyramid of biomass
LEVELS OF ORGANISATION :

SPECIES –any unicellular or multicellular form exhibiting all of the

characteristics of life, an individual.

POPULATION – groups of organisms of same species living in

same area that interbreed and compete with each other for resources.

COMMUNITY – groups of different populations living in same

area and are interdependent.

ECOSYSTEM – all organisms that live in same area along with

environment.

BIOME – group of ecosystems with same climate & similar dominant

communities

BIOSPHERE – highest level of organization where all life exits

Pictorial representation of levels of organisation :
Biomes :
Types of Biomes
The Desert Biomes:
They are the Hot and Dry Deserts, Semi Arid Deserts, Coastal Deserts and
Cold Deserts.

The Aquatic Biomes:

Aquatic biomes are grouped into two, Freshwater Biomes (lakes and ponds,
rivers and streams, wetlands) and Marine Biomes (oceans, coral reefs and
estuaries).

The Forest Biomes:

There are three main biomes that make up Forest Biomes. These are the
Tropical Rainforest, Temperate and Boreal Forests (also called the Taiga)

The Grassland Biomes:

There are two main types of grassland biomes: the Savanna Grasslands and
the Temperate Grasslands.

The Tundra Biomes:

There are two major tundra biomes—The Arctic Tundra and the Alpine Tundra.
Biomes were formed by climate (rain and
temperature) and location on earth
(tropics to polar regions)
Terrestrial
ecosystem :

A terrestrial
ecosystem is an
ecosystem that exists
on land, rather than
on water. Such
ecosystem is a
community of
organisms existing
and living together on
the land.
Terrestrial ecosystem types :
The Forest Ecosystem
The forests are natural plant communities with dominance of flowering plants. Trees,
shrubs, herbs and climbers are present in plenty. Some examples of forest
ecosystem are: Tropical evergreen forest, Tropical deciduous forest, Temperate
evergreen forest, Temperate deciduous forest, Taiga

The Grassland Ecosystem

These are found in both temperate and tropical regions of the world. This area
comprises of grasses with a little amount of shrubs and trees. Main vegetation is
grasses, legumes and members of composite family. Many grazing animals,
herbivores and insectivores are found in grasslands. Two main types of grasslands
are Savannah , Prairie.

The Desert Ecosystem

Desert ecosystems occur in regions with an annual rainfall of less than 25cm. A
significant portion of land, about 17 percent, is occupied by the deserts. Due to
high temperature, intense light and low water availability, flora and fauna are poorly
developed.
Aquatic ecosystem :
An ecosystem that exists in water. An ecosystem is defined as a distinct
community of organisms (including plants, animals and so on) that exists in a
particular environment.
The marine ecosystem is the name for the community of organisms that
live in the sea.
Ocean Ecosystems:

Very large amount of Earth is

covered by ocean (~75%)
40% of all photosynthesis occurs
in oceans.

3 types of oceanic ecosystems

Shallow ocean waters
Deep ocean water
Deep ocean surface.
Photosynthetic plankton is base of
food chain.

Only occurs in Deep ocean surface

& Shallow ocean ecosystems

No photosynthesis can occur in

deep ocean because light cannot
penetrate deeply into water.
Freshwater ecosystems.
Freshwater ecosystem has little or
no salt.

The major types of freshwater

ecosystem includes pond
ecosystem, lake ecosystem and
river ecosystem.

Support many species of life

including fish, amphibians, insects
and plants.
Freshwater ecosystems.
River ecosystem:
A river can form a
distinct ecosystem, as
many animals and plants
will like to make a river
their home.

Fish such as salmon,

water weeds,
crustaceans such as
shrimp and many other
freshwater organisms
can exist in this
ecosystem.
Pond ecosystem :
Usually features fresh, stagnant (i.e. not flowing) water.
Pond ecosystems usually include water weeds and water plants (such as lily
pads) and animals such as frogs . Fish and water flies (such as dragon flies)
will also often make a home here.

Lake ecosystem:
It can be either a freshwater or a saltwater lake. Some lakes are stagnant,
whilst others are tidal, and these qualities determine the precise types of
animals, fish, and plants that make the lake their home.
Community ecology :
Community :
A group of populations (each population is one species) living close enough together
to Interact

There are many examples in nature of two organisms living in close association with
each other. The relationship can consist of two animals, two plants, a plant and an
animal, or even a fungus and an algae (such as lichens).

Biologists have tried to give names to and define certain examples of 'living
together' such as 'symbiosis' and 'mutualism' and 'parasitism' .
Predators tend to be larger than their prey, and consume many prey during their
lifetimes.
PARASITISM :
In this association one organism [the parasite] benefits, and the other [the
host] is adversely affected [weakened, sickened, damaged etc].

This description would also fit the relationship between a carnivore and its live
prey and a herbivore and the plant it feeds on, especially if they are very
specialized in the food they eat.

Parasites are organisms which cannot survive without their host and have
special modifications to their body or their life cycle for this association.

Dwarf mistletoe (Arceubothium)

on pine
Symbiosis
This comes from a Greek word simply meaning 'living together' and can be
used to describe any association between two organisms.

Mutualism:
This can be used to describe an association in which both organisms
apparently benefit.
The clownfish and sea anemone are an example of mutualism.
Clownfishes live among tentacles of giant tropical sea anemones.
Although these anemones stun and devour other species of fish
(using their poison bearing tentacles), clownfish are not harmed.

• Aggressively territorial clownfishes chase away butterfly fishes,

who eat anemone tentacles. Thus, a clownfish and its anemone
offer one another protection.

• Indeed, the clownfish cannot live without its anemone,

as it is quickly picked off by predators when left
unprotected, and is never found in nature away from an
anemone. However, anemones are sometimes seen
growing naturally without clownfishes.
Commensalism:
In this association one organism [the commensal] benefits, and the other [the
host] is apparently unaffected.

The advantage may be shelter, food, transport, support, or even a combination

of two or more of these.
For example, an epiphytic ("upon plant") orchid lives its entire life in a fork or
branch of a tree. In tropical forests where such orchids live, the forest floor is
so dark that the orchid requires a base of attachment
nearer the forest canopy.
The host tree seems to be unaffected by the commensal orchids.
FUNDAMENTALS OF ECOLOGY
Ecological
niche:
the sum total of an
organism's use of the
biotic and abiotic
resources in an
environment.

It includes:
Space utilization

Food consumption

Temperature range

Moisture
requirements RESOURCE PARTITIONING
Fundamental niche is the entire set of conditions under which an animal
(population, species) can survive and reproduce itself.

Realized niche is the set of conditions actually used by given animal

(pop, species), after interactions with other species (predation and
especially competition) have been taken into account.
Carrying capacity Is the largest population size
that an ecosystem can
sustainably support without
degrading the ecosystem.

To a certain extent, population

numbers are self-regulating
because deaths increase when a
population exceeds its carrying
capacity.

Disease, competition, predator-

prey interaction, resource use
and the number of populations in
an ecosystem all affect carrying
capacity.
Changes in Carrying Capacity
Limiting Factors
A limiting factor is an
abiotic or biotic
factor that restricts
the number of
individuals in a
population.

Limiting factors can

include:
1. Competitors
2. Disease and
parasites
3. Weather
4. Fires
5. Available habitat
6. Predators
Ecological succession
Is the observed process of change in the species structure of
an ecological community over time.
• Community changes during succession include increases in species
diversity and changes in species composition
• Ecosystem changes during succession include increases in biomass,
primary production, and nutrient retention
• Mechanisms that drive ecological succession include facilitation,
tolerance, and inhibition
• Community stability may be due to lack of disturbance or community
resistance
Primary
succession is one
of two types of
biological and
ecological
succession of plant
life, occurring in an
environment in which
new substrate devoid
of vegetation and
other organisms
usually lacking soil,
such as a lava flow or
area left from
retreated glacier, is
deposited.
Secondary succession

Is a process started by an event (e.g. forest fire, harvesting, hurricane,

etc.) that reduces an already established ecosystem (e.g. a forest or a
wheat field) to a smaller population of species.

Climax community :
A community where plant and animal populations remain stable and exist in
balance.
Resilience of ecosystem
Ecosystem resilience refers to the capacity of an ecosystem to
recover from disturbance or withstand ongoing pressures .
It is a measure of how well an ecosystem can tolerate disturbance
without collapsing into a different state that is controlled by a
different set of processes
What Disturbances (i.e. Threats)?
Biological – Pollinator declines, biomass depletion
Climatic – Drought or Flooding in dry lands
Physical – Erosion on steep slopes or sedimentation in lakes, streams,
river
Chemical – Nutrient pollution in water bodies, Ocean Acidification
Anthropogenic – Timber extraction and hunting in forests,
Overexploitation of fish stocks
Ecosystem degradation :
Impact of human activities on environment :
1. Overpopulation

Survival used to mean repopulating. That, however, is quickly becoming true for
the opposite as we reach the maximum carrying capacity that our planet can
sustain.

Overpopulation has grown into an epidemic since mortality rates have

decreased, medicine has improved, and methods of industrial farming were
introduced, thus keeping humans alive for much longer and increasing the total
population.

The effects of overpopulation are quite severe, with one of the most severe
being the degradation of the environment.

Humans require space, and lots of it whether it is for farmland, or industries

which also takes up tons of space. An increased population results in
more clear-cutting, resulting in severely damaged ecosystems. Without enough
trees to filter the air, CO₂ levels increase which carries the potential
to damage every single organism on Earth
Another issue is our dependency on coal and fossil fuels for energy, the larger the
population, the more fossil fuels will be used. The use of fossil fuels (such as oil and
coal) results in copious amounts of carbon dioxide into the air- threatening the
extinction of thousands of species which adds to the effect that forest
depletion already has.

Humanity continuously requires more space, which devastates ecosystems and

increases CO levels, further devastating the delicate environment. Although
processed materials are necessary to power the cities, the previous assessment
tells us that the planet can only sustain so much damage until it will begin to damage
us.
2. Pollution

Pollution is everywhere. From the trash thrown out on the freeway, to the
millions of metric tons of pollution pumped into the atmosphere every year-
it's obvious, pollution and waste are inescapable.

Pollution is so bad that to date, 2.4 billion people do not have access
to clean water sources. Humanity is continuously polluting indispensable
resources like air, water, and soil which requires millions of years to
replenish.

Air is arguably the most polluted with the US producing 147 million metric
tons of air pollution each year alone.

In 1950, smog was so bad in LA that the ground level ozone (atmospheric
gas that is great in the atmosphere, not so much on the ground) surpassed
500 parts per billion volume (ppbv)- well above the National Ambient Air
Quality Standard of 75 ppbv (6.6 times more to be precise).
People thought they were under foreign attack as the smog burned their
eyes and left an odor of bleach in the air. That is when the devastating
effect of aerosols was discovered.

While air quality in the US has slightly improved, the quality in developing
countries continues to plummet as smog continuously blocks out the sun in
a dense shroud of pollution. This is just one of the issues we have to tackle
in near future.
3. Global Warming

Global warming is arguably the greatest cause of impact to the environment.

The largest of causes emanating through CO levels from respiration to
more detrimental causes like burning fossil fuels and deforestation.

At any rate, humans are consistently increasing CO levels globally- every

year. The highest level of CO in recorded history before 1950 was
about 300 parts per million. However, current measurements of CO levels
have exceeded above 400 PPM, abolishing every record dating
back 400,000 years.

The increase of CO emissions has contributed to the planet's

average temperature increasing almost a whole degree.

As the Temperature increases, arctic land ice and glaciers melt which
causes the ocean levels to rise at a rate of 3.42mm per year, allowing
more water to absorb more heat, which melts more ice, creating a positive
feedback loop which will cause the oceans to rise 1-4 feet by 2100.
4. Climate Change

Climate change is closely connected to historical development of industry

and technology. As global temperatures increase, Earth's weather patterns
will drastically change. While some areas will experience longer growing
seasons, others will become barren wastelands as water will deplete in
vast areas, turning once floral regions into deserts.

The increase will impact weather patterns, promising more intense

hurricanes in both size and frequency, as well as intensifying and
prolonging droughts and heat waves. But air pollution does not just affect
the environment.

The evidence is mounting that poor air quality and rising temperatures
are ruining delicate ecosystems, even leading to increased asthma and
cancer rates in humans.
5. Genetic Modification

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have been a major contributor to

the survival and prosperity of humans. GMO's are selected bred crops or
crops that have had DNA directly implanted into it in order to give an
advantage to the crop, whether that be to sustain colder temperatures,
require less water, or yield more product.

But GMO's are not always intentional. For years humans have used glyph
sate, a herbicide designed to eliminate weeds - the biggest threat to any
plant. However, just as humans have a learning immune system, certain
weeds have developed a resistance to 22 of 25 known herbicides,
with 249 species of weeds completely immune according to the latest
scientific report.

"Super weeds" threaten farming lands by chocking outcrops. One of the only
solutions is to till the land, turning over the soil to kill the weeds and give
an early advantage to the planted crops.
The disadvantage of tilling, however, is that it causes the soil to dry faster
and kills off good bacteria, making its fertile lifespan significantly shorter.
To replenish the depleted soil, fertilizer is used, which introduces a whole
new set of problems to the environment and can be disastrous for local
agriculture in the long run
6. Ocean Acidification

Ocean acidification is caused when CO dissolves into the ocean bonding

with sea water creating carbonic acid. The acid reduces the pH levels in the
water, essentially changing the Ocean acidity by 30% in the last 200 years
according to analysis - a level that the ocean has not been at in over 20
million years.

The acidity depletes the calcium concentrations, making it difficult for

crustaceans to build their shell, leaving them vulnerable without their armor.
Between the global temperature rise of one degree and the ocean
acidification, scientists say a quarter of all coral reefs are considered
damaged beyond repair, with two-thirds under serious threat.

Coral reefs are home to 25% of aquatic life, many of which are responsible
for the natural filtration of the ocean and production of necessary nutrients
that are vital for life under the sea. However, acidification is not the only
watery threat as there are other human activities causing severe changes.
7. Water Pollution

Every year over 8 millions tons of garbage dumped into the ocean. Not only
is garbage introduced into the oceans, but also the excessive amounts of
fertilizer that finds its way into the ocean through rains, floods, winds, or
dumped in excess right into the largest producer of oxygen we have.

Fertilizer contains nitrogen, an element essential for the growth of plants-

but that does not limit it to what it was intended for.
Phytoplankton and algae thrive off of nitrogen, causing excessive growth in
what is known as "red tides" or "brown tides" in areas with high
concentrations of nitrogen. The brown tide is caused by the rapid growth of
billions of algae, which deplete water bodies of oxygen and cause poison to
accumulate in all life that consumes it, including fish and birds. But water
pollution does not end there.

Year after year, millions of tons of garbage is dumped into the ocean. Since
the garbage mainly consists of plastics, it is largely indissoluble. The
garbage accumulates in large vortexes across the ocean.

Marine life, including the loggerhead sea turtles, are tricked into thinking
they are eating food when really it is only a floating plastic bag or other
poisonous plastic that will cause starvation or suffocation to any unfortunate
animal that mistakenly ingests it.

Pollution is the number one threat to all aquatic life and is lead cause of
reduced biodiversity. This is really sad given that water and water life-forms
are some of the most important natural resources at our disposal.
8. Deforestation

With an exponential expansion in human beings, more food, materials, and

shelter are being manufactured at stupendous rates, mostly stemming from
forestry.

Forests are cleared to make way for new humans, which in turn, makes
more humans, you can see the problem. According to international data, an
estimated 18 million acres of trees are clear-cut each year to make way for
new development and wood products- that is just under half of all the trees
on the planet since the industrial revolution began.

With trees being one of the largest producers of oxygen, clearly that is not
a good thing for humans- and especially not for the animals that call the
forest home.

With millions of different species that live in forests, deforestation is a

major threat to their survival and a big conservation issue. It also increases
the greenhouse gases within the atmosphere which leads to further global
warming. Such human activities need to stop if we wish to survive.
9. Acid Rain

When humans burn coal, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released
into the atmosphere where they rise up and accumulate in the clouds until
the clouds become saturated and rain acid, causing havoc on the ground
beneath.

When the rain falls, it accumulates in water bodies which are especially
harmful to lakes and small bodies of water. The ground surrounding the
water soaks up the acid, depleting the soil of essential nutrients. Trees that
absorb the acid accumulate toxins that damage leaves and slowly kills large
areas of forest.

Acid rain has also been known to completely eliminate entire species of fish,
causing a snowball effect of damage to the ecosystem that relies on
diverse organisms to sustain the environment.
10. Ozone Depletion

The ozone layer is renowned for its ability to absorb harmful UV rays that
would otherwise be detrimental to the health of all walks of life. Without an
ozone layer, walking outside would be unbearable.

Ozone is made up of three bonded oxygen's that float up to the

stratosphere where they absorb a substantial amount of UV radiation,
protecting all life down below. However "ozone-depleting substances" (or
ODS) primarily made up of chlorine and bromine find their way up to the
stratosphere where they strip the O3 of an oxygen, destroying its
capabilities of absorbing UV light.

The human impact is devastating for plants that are extremely sensitive to
UV light including wheat and barley, two indispensable crops to humans.
Although most chemicals that deplete the ozone layer have been banned,
the chemicals that have already been released can take upwards of 80
years to reach the upper atmosphere, so it will be some time before our
protective boundary will be fully functional again. Until then, slap on that
sunscreen and be safe out there.
Environmental impact assessment :
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a tool that seeks to ensure sustainable
development through the evaluation of those impacts arising from a major activity
(policy, plan, program, or project) that are likely to have significant environmental
effects. It is anticipatory, participatory, and systematic in nature and relies on
multidisciplinary input (Glasson et al. 1994).

The phrase Environmental Impact Assessment comes from Sec. 102 (2) of the
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 1969, USA. Some rudiments of EIA are
implicit even in early examples of environmental legislation.

Napoleon in 1910 issued a decree which divided noxious occupations into

categories: those which must be far removed from habitations, those which may be
permitted on the outskirts of towns, and those which can be tolerated even close to
habitations, having regard to the importance of the work and the importance of the
surrounding dwellings.

Now the EIA has become a requirement in more than 100 countries (Canter 1996).
In many European countries, it came into vogue with the introduction of the concept
of sustainable development after the World Commission of Environment in 1987. In
India, though EIA came into existence around 1978-79 , it was made mandatory only
in 1994.
EIA PROCESS IN INDIA:
EIA PROCESS AS SUGGESTED BY UNEP
EIA PROCESS IN INDIA:
• The environmental impact assessment in India was started in 1976-77 when
the Planning Commission asked the then Department of Science and Technology
to examine the river valley projects from environmental angle.
• This was subsequently extended to cover those projects, which required
approval of the Public Investment Board.
• These were administrative decisions, and lacked the legislative support.
• The Government of India enacted the Environment (Protection) Act on 23rd May
1986.
• To achieve the objectives of the Act, one of the decisions that were taken is to
make environmental impact assessment statutory.
• After following the legal procedure, a notification was issued on 27th January
1994 and subsequently amended on 4th May 1994, 10th April 1997 and 27th
January 2000 (Annex 1) making environmental impact assessment statutory for
30 activities.
• This is the principal piece of legislation governing environmental impact
assessment.
• Besides this the Government of India under Environment (Protection) Act 1986
issued a number of other notifications, which are related to environmental
impact assessment. These are limited to specific geographical areas
The EIA process in India is made up of the following phases:
 SCREENING: Screening is done to see whether a project requires
environmental clearance as per the statutory notifications.
Screening Criteria are based upon:
Scales of investment; Type of development; and Location of development.
A Project requires statutory environmental clearance only if the provisions of
EIA notification and/or one or more statutory notification mentioned in
legislation.

 SCOPING AND CONSIDERATION OF ALTERNATIVES:

Scoping is a process of detailing the terms of reference of EIA.
It has to be done by the consultant in consultation with the project proponent
and guidance, if need be, from Impact Assessment Agency.
The Ministry of Environment and Forests has published guidelines for different
sectors, which outline the significant issues to be addressed in the EIA studies.
Quantifiable impacts are to be assessed on the basis of magnitude, prevalence,
frequency and duration and non-quantifiable impacts (such as aesthetic or
recreational value), significance is commonly determined through the
socioeconomic criteria
 BASELINE DATA COLLECTION:
Baseline data describes the existing environmental status of the identified
study area. The site-specific primary data should be monitored for the identified
parameters and supplemented by secondary data if available.

 IMPACT PREDICTION:
Impact prediction is a way of mapping the environmental consequences
of the significant aspects of the project and its alternatives.
Environmental impact can never be predicted with absolute certainty and this is
all the more reason to consider all possible factors and take all possible
precautions for reducing the degree of uncertainty.

The following impacts of the project should be assessed:

Air changes in ambient levels and ground level concentrations due to total
emissions from point, line and area sources & effects on soils, materials,
vegetation, and human health.
Noise changes
• In ambient levels due to noise generated from equipment and movement of
vehicles effect on fauna and human health
• Water availability to competing users changes in quality, sediment transport,
ingress of saline water
Land changes in land use and drainage pattern, changes in land quality including
effects of waste disposal, changes in shoreline/riverbank and their stability

Biological changes deforestation/tree-cutting and shrinkage of animal habitat.

• Impact on fauna and flora (including aquatic species if any) due to
contaminants/pollutants
• Impact on rare and endangered species, endemic species, and migratory
path/route of animals.
• Impact on breeding and nesting grounds

Socio-Economic
• Impact on the local community including demographic changes.
• Impact on economic status
• impact on human health.
• impact of increased traffic
 ASSESSMENT OF ALTERNATIVES, DELINEATION OF MITIGATION
MEASURES AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT:

For every project, possible alternatives should be identified and environmental

attributes compared.
Alternatives should cover both project location and process technologies.

• Alternatives should consider no project option also. Alternatives should

then be ranked for selection of the best environmental option for optimum
economic benefits to the community at large.
• Once alternatives have been reviewed, a mitigation plan should be drawn
up
• for the selected option and is supplemented with an Environmental
Management Plan (EMP) to guide the proponent towards environmental
improvements.
• The EMP is a crucial input to monitoring the clearance conditions and
therefore details of monitoring should be included in the EMP.
• An EIA report should provide clear information to the decision-maker on
the different environmental scenarios without the project, with the project
and with project alternatives.
• Uncertainties should be clearly reflected in the EIA report.
 PUBLIC HEARING:
• Law requires that the public must be informed and consulted on a proposed
development after the completion of EIA report.
• Any one likely to be affected by the proposed project is entitled to have
access to the Executive Summary of the EIA. The affected persons may
include:
 bonafide local residents;
 local associations;
 environmental groups: active in the area
 any other person located at the project site / sites of displacement

They are to be given an opportunity to make oral/written suggestions to the

State Pollution Control Board as per Schedule IV of Annex I.

PREPARATION OF FINAL DOCUMENT – two objectives

• A complete and detailed account of the EIA has to be prepared (reference
document) – can be used for future projects in the area
• Brief summarized account should be drafted for the decision-maker who
may not be a technical person (working document). Findings conveyed
clearly without using technical language.
 DECISION MAKING
• Decision making process involve consultation between the project proponent
(assisted by a consultant) and the impact assessment authority (assisted by an
expert group if necessary).
• The decision on environmental clearance is arrived at through a number of steps
including evaluation of EIA and EMP.
• A decision maker has three choices.
 Accepting one of the project alternatives
 Returning the EIA with a request for further study in certain specific areas
 Totally rejecting the proposed project along with its alternative versions.

 MONITORING THE CLEARANCE CONDITIONS:

• Monitoring should be done during both construction and operation phases of a
project.
• This is not only to ensure that the commitments made are complied with but also
to observe whether the predictions made in the EIA reports were correct or not.
• Where the impacts exceed the predicted levels, corrective action should be
taken.
• Monitoring will enable the regulatory agency to review the validity of predictions
and the conditions of implementation of the Environmental Management Plan
(EMP).
ROLES IN THE EIA PROCESS

EIA involves many parties, grouped by their role definition within the process.
The following section outlines the basic responsibilities of various bodies:
• The Project Proponent
• The Environmental Consultants
• The State Pollution Control Board / Pollution Control Committees (PCCs)
• The Public
• The Impact Assessment Agency

The Project Proponent:

1. The project proponent during the project planning stage decides the
type of projects i.e. new establishment, expansion or modernisation.
2. Later the project proponent needs to prepare the Detailed Project
Report/Feasibility Report and submits the Executive Summary, which shall
incorporate the project details, and findings of EIA study, which is to be
made available to concerned public.
3. The proponent has to approach the concerned SPCB for NOC and
holding the public hearing. After the public hearing the proponent submits
application to IAA for environmental clearance.
Role of Environment Consultant:
1. Environmental consultant should be conversant with the existing legal and
procedural requirements of obtaining environmental clearance for proposed
project.
2. The consultant should guide the proponent through initial screening of the
project and establish whether EIA studies are required to be conducted and
if so finalise the scope of such study.
3. The consultant should also be fully equipped with required instruments and
infrastructure for conducting EIA studies.
4. The environmental consultant is responsible for supplying all the environment-
related information required by the SPCB and IAA through the proponent.
5. The consultant is also required to justify the findings in the EIA and EMP
during the meeting with the expert groups at IAA.

The Role of the State Pollution Control Board (PCB) /Pollution Control Committee
(PCC)
1. The State PCBs/PCCs are responsible for assessing the compatibility of a
proposed development with current operational and prescribed standards.
2. If the development is in compliance, the PCB will then issue its NOC.
3. They shall also hold the public hearing as per the provisions of EIA
notification. The details of public hearing shall be forwarded to IAA.
The Role of the Public
1. The public also has an important role to play in EIA. The concerned persons
will be invited through press advertisement to review information and
provide their views on the proposed development requiring environmental
clearance.

The Role of the Impact Assessment Agency (IAA)

1. Where a proponent is required to obtain environmental clearance, the IAA
will evaluate and assess the EIA report. In this process the project
proponent will be given a chance to present his proposal.
2. If a project is accepted the IAA will also prepare a set of recommendations
and conditions for its implementation based on this assessment.
3. Environmental clearance conditions and recommendations of IAA are made
available to the public on request through SPCB and through web site at
http://envfor.nic.in.
4. During the implementation and operation of the project, the IAA will also be
responsible for the environmental monitoring process.
Restoration and reclamation of derelict lands :
Land Reclamation
An important way to increase our land supply.
Definition:
To recover land that has lost its productivity and to make it usable again.
Land reclamation is also (commonly) used to refer to creating dry land from an area
covered by water (sea, lake,swamp)
Why do we need to reclaim land?
•Land may be damaged due to natural hazards eg. Fires
•Human activities can also damage the land eg. Poor farming methods.
•Cases of waterlogged land eg. Swamps and marshes
•Problem of land scarcity, where it may be difficult to find new land to restore or
improve.

What are the benefits?

Increases the availability of arable land.

Expanding the carrying capacity of land.
A feasible solution to the problem of overcrowding.
It allows for further growth of a country’s industries.
Reclaimed land can be used for a multitude of purposes.
Types of land that can be reclaimed – Derelict Land
Derelict land: Land that is damaged or abandoned and cannot be put to any use until
the damage is repaired.
What causes derelict land?
More commonly a result of human activities, although Sometimes it can be caused by
natural disasters.
Poor farming methods and mining are two human activities that can damage the land.
What causes derelict land?
Farming:
•Fertility of arable land can be lost through poor farming.
•Over-intensive use of land does not allow it to replenish its lost nutrients in time.
•Fertility of land decreases over time.
•Land would then not be suitable for cultivation.

Mining:
Vegetation and rocks are usually removed at the mining site to obtain the mineral
ores found underground.
Large holes dug into the ground become filled with rainwater and form dangerous
deep mining pools.
Water is polluted.
Mining wastes left behind may also contain toxic substances that contaminate the
soil and water in the mining pools.
Land becomes useless and is an eyesore.
How do we restore derelict land?
•Using fertilisers and irrigation – for land spoilt by farming practices.
•Restoring derelict land needs a little more work.
•Waste heaps need to be levelled and mining pools filled.
•Chemicals can be used to treat contaminated soils.
•New vegetation can be planted to provide cover for the soil to prevent topsoil
erosion during the recovery period.
Uses of reclaimed derelict land:
•Agriculture
•Industry
•Housing
Recreational facilities (parks)
Creating New Lands – Reclaiming Wetlands
Wetlands: Areas that are flooded for all or part of the year with fresh or salt water.

Types of wetlands:
Swamps
Marshes- Identified by their vegetation.
Bogs

A) Coastal wetlands:
Influenced by tides of the sea.
Usually flooded with salt water.
Eg. Mangrove swamps found in tropical areas.
 - They are found along coasts and are subject to flooding by sea water.
B) Inland wetlands:
•Found beside rivers and lakes and are covered with freshwater.
• They are flooded when rivers overflow.

Why a desire to reclaim wetlands?

They are highly fertile as the wet conditions encourage the growth of bacteria which
decompose organic matter.
They can be converted to dry land to provide more land for farming.
Wetlands can be reclaimed by draining out the excess water.
Building of dikes.
Constructing drainage canals.
An area that has been drained is usually lower than the surrounding areas.
it is prone to flooding.
it has to be filled with materials like sand and rocks/gravel.
they can be obtained from nearby hills and the seabed.

Uses of reclaimed wetlands:

Recreation.
Housing.
Industry.
Agriculture.