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SLB GeoPhyscis

Distionary Tentang Perminyakan

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

335 views214 pages

SLB GeoPhyscis

Distionary Tentang Perminyakan

Uploaded by

Salsabila Putri

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

1D seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
A check-shot survey of a well, which can be used to correct the sonic log and generate a synthetic
seismogram that displays changes in amplitude versus traveltime.
See: check-shot survey, sonic log, synthetic seismogram
2. n. [Geophysics]
A single seismic trace.
See: trace

1-D seismic data

2D seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
A vertical section of seismic data consisting of numerous adjacent traces acquired sequentially.
See: trace
2. n. [Geophysics]
A group of 2D seismic lines acquired individually, as opposed to the multiple closely spaced lines
acquired together that constitute 3D seismic data.
See: acquisition, three-dimensional seismic data, trace

2D survey
1. n. [Geophysics]
Seismic data or a group of seismic lines acquired individually such that there typically are significant gaps
(commonly 1 km or more) between adjacent lines. A 2D survey typically contains numerous lines
acquired orthogonally to the strike of geological structures (such as faults and folds) with a minimum of
lines acquired parallel to geological structures to allow line-to-line tying of the seismic data and
interpretation and mapping of structures.
See: acquisition, correlate, correlation, fault, fold, strike

3C seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of multicomponent seismic data acquired in a land, marine, or borehole environment by using
three orthogonally oriented geophones or accelerometers. 3C is particularly appropriate when the addition
of a hydrophone (the basis for 4C seismic data) adds no value to the measurement, as for example, on
land. This technique allows determination of both the type of wave and its direction of propagation.
See: accelerometer, geophone, hydrophone, multicomponent seismic data

3D seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
A set of numerous closely-spaced seismic lines that provide a high spatially sampled measure of subsurface
reflectivity. Typical receiver line spacing can range from 300 m [1000 ft] to over 600 m [2000 ft], and typical
distances between shotpoints and receiver groups is 25 m [82 ft] (offshore and internationally) and 110 ft or 220 ft
[34 to 67 m] (onshore USA, using values that are even factors of the 5280 feet in a mile). Bin sizes are commonly 25
m, 110 ft or 220 ft. The resultant data set can be "cut" in any direction but still display a well sampled seismic
section. The original seismic lines are called in-lines. Lines displayed perpendicular to in-lines are called crosslines.
In a properly migrated 3D seismic data set, events are placed in their proper vertical and horizontal positions,
providing more accurate subsurface maps than can be constructed on the basis of more widely spaced 2D seismic
lines, between which significant interpolation might be necessary. In particular, 3D seismic data provide detailed
information about fault distribution and subsurface structures. Computer-based interpretation and display of 3D
seismic data allow for more thorough analysis than 2D seismic data.
See: acquisition, bin, crossline, in-line, migration, two-dimensional seismic data
More Details:
 Seismic Tools for Reservoir Management

1. n. [Geophysics]
The acquisition of seismic data as closely spaced receiver and shot lines such that there typically are no significant
gaps in the subsurface coverage. A 2D survey commonly contains numerous widely spaced lines acquired
orthogonally to the strike of geological structures and a minimum of lines acquired parallel to geological structures
to allow line-to-line correlation of the seismic data and interpretation and mapping of structures.
See: acquisition, processing

4C seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
Four-component (4C) borehole or marine seismic data are typically acquired using three orthogonally-oriented
geophones and a hydrophone within an ocean-bottom sensor (deployed in node-type systems as well as cables).
Provided the system is in contact with the seabed or the borehole wall, the addition of geophones allows
measurement of shear (S) waves, whereas the hydrophone measures compressional (P) waves.
See: borehole seismic data, compressional wave, geophone, multicomponent seismic data, ocean-bottom cable, P-
wave, shear wave

4D seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
Three-dimensional (3D) seismic data acquired at different times over the same area to assess changes in a
producing hydrocarbon reservoir with time. Changes may be observed in fluid location and saturation, pressure
and temperature. 4D seismic data is one of several forms of time-lapse seismic data. Such data can be acquired on
the surface or in a borehole.
See: acquisition, time-lapse seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
A term to indicate features in seismic data other than reflections, including events such as diffractions, multiples,
refractions and surface waves. Although the term suggests that such events are not common, they often occur in
seismic data.
See: diffraction, event, multiple reflection, reflection, refraction, surface wave

absorbing boundary conditions

1. n. [Geophysics]
An algorithm used in numerical simulation along the boundary of a computational domain to absorb all energy
incident upon that boundary and to suppress reflection artifacts.
See: domain

absorptance

1. n. [Geophysics]
The ratio of absorbed incident energy to the total energy to which a body is exposed.

absorption

1. n. [Geophysics]
The conversion of one form of energy into another as the energy passes through a medium. For example, seismic
waves are partially converted to heat as they pass through rock.
See: absorption band, attenuation, Q, wave
2. n. [Production Facilities]
The property of some liquids or solids to soak up water or other fluids. The natural gas dehydration process uses
glycols (liquids) that absorb the water vapor to finally obtain dehydrated gas. In the same way, light oil, also called
absorption oil, is used to remove the heavier liquid hydrocarbons from a wet gas stream to obtain dry gas.
See: adsorption, dehydrate, desiccant, glycol, glycol dehydrator, natural gas
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absorption band

1. n. [Geophysics]
The range of wavelengths of energy that can be absorbed by a given substance.
See: absorption, band, wavelength

accelerometer

1. n. [Geophysics]
A device used during surveying to measure the acceleration of a ship or aircraft, or to detect ground acceleration in
boreholes or on the Earth's surface produced by acoustic vibrations.
See: geophone, multicomponent seismic data, receiver, seismometer, survey, three-component seismic data

acoustic

1. adj. [Geophysics]
Pertaining to sound. Generally, acoustic describes sound or vibrational events, regardless of frequency. The term
sonic is limited to frequencies and tools operated in the frequency range of 1 to 25 kilohertz.
See: acoustic coupler, acoustic log, bel, decibel, elastic wave, hertz, side-scan sonar, synthetic seismogram, transit
time, velocity
2. adj. [Geophysics]
In geophysics, acoustic refers specifically to P-waves in the absence of S-waves (i.e., in fluids, which do not support
S-waves, or in cases in which S-waves in solids are ignored).
See: P-wave, S-wave

acoustic coupler

1. n. [Geophysics]
An obsolete piece of equipment that converts acoustic signals from analog to electrical form and back. A common
use of an acoustic coupler was to provide an interface between a telephone and an early type of computer
modem.
See: signal

acoustic emission

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of elastic wave produced by deformation or brittle failure of material and characterized by relatively high
frequency.
See: wave

acoustic impedance

1. n. [Geophysics]
The product of density and seismic velocity, which varies among different rock layers, commonly symbolized by Z.
The difference in acoustic impedance between rock layers affects the reflection coefficient.
See: acoustic impedance section, acoustic transparency, amplitude anomaly, bright spot, density contrast, dim
spot, polarity standard, reflector

acoustic impedance section

1. n. [Geophysics]
A seismic reflectivity section, or a 2D or 3D seismic section, that has been inverted for acoustic impedance. Sonic
and density logs can be used to calibrate acoustic impedance sections.
See: reflection coefficient, sonic log, three-dimensional seismic data, two-dimensional seismic data

acoustic log
1. n. [Geophysics]
A display of traveltime of acoustic waves versus depth in a well. The term is commonly used as a synonym for a
sonic log. Some acoustic logs display velocity.
Synonyms: acoustic velocity log
See: acoustic wave, depth conversion, interval transit time, interval velocity, velocity survey
2. n. [Formation Evaluation]
A record of some acoustic property of the formation or borehole. The term is sometimes used to refer specifically
to the sonic log, in the sense of the formation compressional slowness. However, it may also refer to any other
sonic measurement, for example shear, flexural and Stoneley slownesses or amplitudes, or to ultrasonic
measurements such as the borehole televiewer and other pulse-echo devices, and even to noise logs.
See: acoustic mode, flexural mode, interval transit time, noise log, Stoneley wave

acoustic positioning

1. n. [Geophysics]
A method of calculating the position of marine seismic equipment. Range measurements are made whereby
distance is equal to acoustic signal traveltime from transmitter to hydrophone multiplied by the speed of sound in
water. When sufficient acoustic ranges with a proper geometric distribution are collected, location coordinates x, y
and z of the marine seismic equipment can be computed by the method of trilateration (measuring the lengths of
the sides of overlapping triangles). Acoustic positioning is commonly used in towed streamer and ocean-bottom
cable seismic acquisition modes.
See: acoustic traveltime, acquisition

acoustic transparency

1. n. [Geophysics]
The quality of a medium whose acoustic impedance is constant throughout, such that it contains no seismic
reflections. An example of an acoustically transparent medium is water.
See: reflection

acoustic traveltime

1. n. [Geophysics]
The duration of the passage of a signal from the source through the Earth and back to the receiver. A time seismic
section typically shows the two-way traveltime of the wave.
Synonyms: traveltime
See: acoustic log, average velocity, depth map, depth migration, isochron map, receiver, signal, sonic log, source,
two-way traveltime, wave

acoustic velocity

1. n. [Geophysics]
The rate at which a sound wave travels through a medium. Unlike the physicist's definition of velocity as a vector,
its usage in geophysics is as a property of a medium: distance divided by traveltime. Velocity can be determined
from laboratory measurements, acoustic logs, vertical seismic profiles or from velocity analysis of seismic data. It
can vary vertically, laterally and azimuthally in anisotropic media such as rocks, and tends to increase with depth in
the Earth because compaction reduces porosity. Velocity also varies as a function of how it is derived from the
data. For example, the stacking velocity derived from normal moveout measurements of common depth point
gathers differs from the average velocity measured vertically from a check-shot or vertical seismic profile (VSP).
Velocity would be the same only in a constant-velocity (homogeneous) medium.
See: acoustic, acoustic impedance, angular dispersion, anisotropy, apparent velocity, attribute, average velocity,
base of weathering, birefringence, channel wave, check-shot survey, depth conversion, depth migration,
discontinuity, dispersion, extensive dilatancy anisotropy, gas chimney, horizon, hydrocarbon indicator, interval
velocity, processing, pull-up, push-down, ray tracing, reflection coefficient, reflection tomography, refraction,
refractor, root-mean-square velocity, seismic trace, sonic log, stacking velocity, static correction, synthetic
seismogram, time migration, tomography, velocity, velocity analysis, velocity anomaly, velocity correction, velocity
layering, velocity survey, vertical seismic profile, wave, wave equation, wavelength, weathering correction

acoustic velocity log

1. n. [Geophysics]
A display of traveltime of acoustic waves versus depth in a well. The term is commonly used as a synonym for a
sonic log. Some acoustic logs display velocity.
See: acoustic wave, depth conversion, interval transit time, interval velocity, velocity survey

acoustic wave

acquisition

1 of 4
1. n. [Geophysics]
The generation and recording of seismic data. Acquisition involves many different receiver configurations,
including laying geophones or seismometers on the surface of the Earth or seafloor, towing hydrophones behind a
marine seismic vessel, suspending hydrophones vertically in the sea or placing geophones in a wellbore (as in a
vertical seismic profile) to record the seismic signal. A source, such as a vibrator unit, dynamite shot, or an air gun,
generates acoustic or elastic vibrations that travel into the Earth, pass through strata with different seismic
responses and filtering effects, and return to the surface to be recorded as seismic data. Optimal acquisition varies
according to local conditions and involves employing the appropriate source (both type and intensity), optimal
configuration of receivers, and orientation of receiver lines with respect to geological features. This ensures that
the highest signal-to-noise ratio can be recorded, resolution is appropriate, and extraneous effects such as air
waves, ground roll, multiples and diffractions can be minimized or distinguished, and removed through processing.
See: acoustic positioning, air wave, aperture, bubble effect, circle shooting, common midpoint method, crossline,
deep tow, depth controller, eel, explosive seismic data, four-dimensional seismic data, gather, geophone, header,
hydrophone, impulsive seismic data, in-line, offset vertical seismic profile, seismic modeling, seismic-while-drilling
vertical seismic profile, seismometer, shot depth, shotpoint, skid, spread, streamer feathering, suppression, tail
buoy, three-dimensional seismic data, time-lapse seismic data, transition zone, two-dimensional seismic data,
undershooting, vibratory seismic data, water gun

aerated layer

1. n. [Geology, Geophysics]
The surface or near-surface, unconsolidated sedimentary layer that has been subject to weathering and whose
pores are air-filled instead of liquid-filled. An aerated layer typically has a low seismic velocity.
See: pore, static correction, weathering, weathering correction

aeromagnetic survey
1. n. [Geophysics]
Measurements of the Earth's magnetic field gathered from aircraft. Magnetometers towed by an airplane or
helicopter can measure the intensity of the Earth's magnetic field. The differences between actual measurements
and theoretical values indicate anomalies in the magnetic field, which in turn represent changes in rock type or in
thickness of rock units.
See: anomaly, bird, magnetometer, rock, upward continuation

AGC

1. n. [Geophysics]
Abbreviation for automatic gain control. A system to automatically control the gain, or the increase in the
amplitude of an electrical signal from the original input to the amplified output. AGC is commonly used in seismic
processing to improve visibility of late-arriving events in which attenuation or wavefront divergence has caused
amplitude decay.
Alternate Form: automatic gain control

AGC time constant

1. n. [Geophysics]

The exponential rate constant (τ) that determines how quickly the output amplitude of an electrical signal
that is under automatic gain control (AGC) responds to a sudden increase or decrease in input signal
amplitude. Mathematically,
Af(t) = Ai(t) + ΔAi (1 − e−t/τ)
where Af is the output signal amplitude, Ai is the input signal amplitude (Ai), ΔAi is the change in input
signal amplitude and t is time. When t equals τ, the function (1 − e−t/τ) equals (1 − 1/e) equals 0.63.
Therefore, the AGC time constant (τ) is the amount of time that elapses for the output signal of AGC to
reflect 63% of the change in the input signal amplitude.

See: automatic gain control, AGC

air gun
1. n. [Geophysics]
A source of seismic energy used in acquisition of marine seismic data. This gun releases highly compressed air into
water. Air guns are also used in water-filled pits on land as an energy source during acquisition of vertical seismic
profiles.
See: acquisition, bubble effect, cavitation, impulsive seismic data, source, vertical seismic profile, water gun

air shooting

1. n. [Geophysics]
A method of seismic acquisition using charges detonated in the air or on poles above the ground as the source. Air
shooting is also called the Poulter method after American geophysicist Thomas Poulter.
See: dynamite, shot depth, source

air wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
A sound wave that travels through the air at approximately 330 m/s and can be generated and recorded during
seismic surveying. Air waves are a type of coherent noise.
See: acquisition, mute, random noise, wave

alias filter

1. n. [Geophysics]
A filter, or a set of limits used to eliminate unwanted portions of the spectra of the seismic data, to remove
frequencies that might cause aliasing during the process of sampling an analog signal during acquisition or when
the sample rate of digital data is being decreased during seismic processing.
See: aliasing, filter

1. n. [Geophysics]
The distortion of frequency introduced by inadequately sampling a signal, which results in ambiguity between
signal and noise. Aliasing can be avoided by sampling at least twice the highest frequency of the waveform or by
filtering frequencies above the Nyquist frequency, the highest frequency that can be defined accurately by that
sampling interval.
See: alias filter, filter, frequency, noise, signal, wave

amplitude

1. n. [Geophysics]
The difference between the maximum displacement of a wave and the point of no displacement, or the null point.
The common symbol for amplitude is a.
See: amplitude anomaly, attenuation, attribute, bright spot, dilatation, dim spot, filter, footprint, gain, peak,
polarity, rarefaction, reflection coefficient, spectral, spectrum, suppression, time slice, trough, true-amplitude
recovery, waveform, wavelet, wiggle trace

2. n. [Geophysics]
The amount of displacement of a seismic wavelet measured from peak to trough.

amplitude anomaly

1. n. [Geophysics]
An abrupt increase in seismic amplitude that can indicate the presence of hydrocarbons, although such anomalies
can also result from processing problems, geometric or velocity focusing or changes in lithology. Amplitude
anomalies that indicate the presence of hydrocarbons can result from sudden changes in acoustic impedance, such
as when a gas sand underlies a shale, and in that case, the term is used synonymously with hydrocarbon indicator.
Synonyms: bright spot
See: amplitude, anomaly, processing, reflection

1. n. [Geophysics]
The inability of a system to exactly match input and output amplitude, a general example being an electronic
amplifier and the classic example being a home stereophonic amplifier.
See: bias, dispersion, distortion, dynamic range, harmonic distortion, zero-phase
2. n. [Geophysics]
A change in the amplitude of aÂ waveformÂ that is generally undesirable, such as inÂ seismicÂ waves.
See: distortion, seismic wave

amplitude variation with offset

1. n. [Geophysics]
Variation in seismic reflection amplitude with change in distance between shotpoint and receiver that
indicates differences in lithology and fluid content in rocks above and below the reflector. AVO analysis
is a technique by which geophysicists attempt to determine thickness, porosity, density, velocity,
lithology and fluid content of rocks. Successful AVO analysis requires special processing of seismic data
and seismic modeling to determine rock properties with a known fluid content. With that knowledge, it is
possible to model other types of fluid content. A gas-filled sandstone might show increasing amplitude
with offset, whereas a coal might show decreasing amplitude with offset. A limitation of AVO analysis
using only P-energy is its failure to yield a unique solution, so AVO results are prone to misinterpretation.
One common misinterpretation is the failure to distinguish a gas-filled reservoir from a reservoir having
only partial gas saturation ("fizz water"). However, AVO analysis using source-generated or mode-
converted shear wave energy allows differentiation of degrees of gas saturation. AVO analysis is more
successful in young, poorly consolidated rocks, such as those in the Gulf of Mexico, than in older, well-
cemented sediments.
Alternate Form: AVO
See: attribute, cementation, converted wave, hydrocarbon indicator, lithostratigraphic inversion, P-wave,
processing, seismic modeling
More Details:
 Hydrocarbon Detection With AVO
 Seismic Inversion: Reading Between the Lines

amplitude variation with offset and azimuth

1. n. [Geophysics]
The azimuthal variation of the AVO response.
Alternate Form: AVOAZ
See: amplitude variation with offset, AVO
More Details:
 Seismic Inversion: Reading Between the Lines

angle of approach

1. n. [Geophysics]
The acute angle at which a wavefront impinges upon an interface, such as a seismic wave impinging upon strata.
Normal incidence is the case in which the angle of incidence is zero, the wavefront is parallel to the surface and its
raypath is perpendicular, or normal, to the interface. Snell's law describes the relationship between the angle of
incidence and the angle of refraction of a wave.
See: refraction

angle of incidence

1. n. [Geophysics]
The acute angle at which a raypath impinges upon a line normal to an interface, such as a seismic wave impinging
upon strata. Normal incidence is the case in which the angle of incidence is zero, the wavefront is parallel to the
surface and its raypath is perpendicular, or normal, to the interface. Snell's law describes the relationship between
the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction of a wave.
See: angle of approach, critical reflection, head wave, raypath, refraction, refractive index, refractor, Zoeppritz
equations

angular dispersion

anisotropic

1. adj. [Geophysics, Geology, Shale Gas]

Having directionally dependent properties. For a crystal of aÂ mineral, variation in physical properties
observed in different directions is anisotropy. In rocks, variation in seismic velocity measured parallel or
perpendicular to bedding surfaces is a form of anisotropy. Often found where platy minerals such as
micas and clays align parallel to depositional bedding as sediments are compacted, anisotropy is common
in shales.
Antonyms: isotropic
See: aeolotropy, anisotropic formation, anisotropy, birefringence, extensive dilatancy anisotropy,
heterogeneous formation, raypath, seismic velocity, velocity
More Details:
 Measuring Permeability Anisotropy: The Latest Approach
 The Promise of Elastic Anisotropy
 Oilfield Anisotropy: Its Origins and Electrical Characteristics

anisotropy

1. n. [Geophysics, Shale Gas, Geology]

Predictable variation of a property of a material with the direction in which it is measured, which can
occur at all scales. For a crystal of a mineral, variation in physical properties observed in different
directions is anisotropy. In rocks, variation in seismic velocity measured parallel or perpendicular to
bedding surfaces is a form of anisotropy. Often found where platy minerals such as micas and clays align
parallel to depositional bedding as sediments are compacted, anisotropy is common in shales.
Synonyms: aeolotropy
Antonyms: isotropy
See: anisotropic, anisotropic formation, birefringence, extensive dilatancy anisotropy, heterogeneous
formation, raypath, seismic velocity, velocity
More Details:
 Oilfield Anisotropy: Its Origins and Electrical Characteristics
 The Promise of Elastic Anisotropy
 Measuring Permeability Anisotropy: The Latest Approach

aperture

1. n. [Geophysics]
A portion of a data set, such as seismic data, to which functions or filters are applied. Aperture time, for example,
can be specified, such as a window from 1.2 to 2.8 seconds.
Synonyms: window
See: filter, sinc x
2. n. [Geophysics]
A mechanism to limit the affects of measurements on a device or system. In seismic data acquisition, the length of
the spread has the effect of an aperture.
Synonyms: window
See: acquisition, spread

apparent anisotropy

1. n. [Geophysics]
In seismic data, the ratio of the velocity determined from normal moveout (i.e., primarily a horizontal
measurement) to velocity measured vertically in a vertical seismic profile or similar survey. Apparent
anisotropy is of particular importance when migrating long-offset seismic data and analyzing AVO data
accurately. The normal moveout velocity involves the horizontal component of the velocity field, which
affects sources and receivers that are offset, but the horizontal velocity field is not involved in velocity
calculations from vertically measured time-depth pairs.
See: amplitude variation with offset
More Details:
 The Promise of Elastic Anisotropy
 Oilfield Anisotropy: Its Origins and Electrical Characteristics

1. n. [Geophysics]

In geophysics, the velocity of a wavefront in a certain direction, typically measured along a line of
receivers and symbolized by va. Apparent velocity and velocity are related by the cosine of the angle at
which the wavefront approaches the receivers:
va = v cos θ,
whereva = apparent velocityv = velocity of wavefrontθ = angle at which a wavefront approaches the
geophone array.

See: receiver, velocity, wave

apparent wavelength

1. n. [Geophysics]

The wavelength measured by receivers when a wave approaches at an angle. The relationship between
true and apparent wavelength can be shown mathematically as follows:
λ = λa sin θ,
whereλ = wavelengthλa = apparent wavelengthθ = angle at which a wavefront approaches the geophone
array.

See: receiver, wavelength

applied-potential method

1. n. [Geophysics]
A technique to map a potential field generated by stationary electrodes by moving an electrode around the survey
area.
Synonyms: equipotential method

array
1. n. [Geophysics]
Generally, a geometrical configuration of transducers (sources or receivers) used to generate or record a physical
field, such as an acoustic or electromagnetic wavefield or the Earth's gravity field.
Synonyms: nest
Alternate Form: geophone array, geophone pattern, source pattern
See: fan shooting, footprint, ground roll, radial array, receiver, seismic trace, source, spread

2. n. [Geophysics]
A geometrical arrangement of seismic sources (a source array, with each individual source being activated in some
fixed sequence in time) or receivers (a hydrophone or geophone array) that is recorded by one channel.
See: geophone, hydrophone, receiver, source
3. n. [Geophysics]
An arrangement or configuration of electrodes or antennas used for resistivity, induced polarization (IP), or other
types of electromagnetic surveying. Resistivity arrays typically consist of two current electrodes and two potential
electrodes and are distinguished by the relative separations between the electrodes. Examples are the dipole-
dipole, Schlumberger and Wenner arrays.
See: dipole, electromagnetic method
4. n. [Geophysics]
In computing, code written to access data in more than one dimension according to a name and subscripts that
correspond to each dimension.

arrival time

1. n. [Geophysics]
The elapsed time between the release of seismic energy from a source and its arrival at the receiver.
See: arrival, event, normal moveout, receiver

attenuate

1. vb. [Geophysics]
The removal of undesirable features, such as multiple events, from seismic data.
Alternate Form: attenuation
See: event, multiple reflection

1. n. [Geophysics]
The loss of energy or amplitude of waves as they pass through media. Seismic waves lose energy through
absorption, reflection and refraction at interfaces, mode conversion and spherical divergence, or spreading of the
wave.
Alternate Form: attenuate
See: amplitude, converted wave, Fresnel zone, Q, suppression, true-amplitude recovery, wave
2. n. [Formation Evaluation]
The reduction in amplitude of an electromagnetic wave passing through the formation, usually measured in
decibels/meter, dB/m. The term is used in particular with reference to the propagation resistivity log and the
electromagnetic propagation log.
See: attenuation resistivity, decibel, electromagnetic propagation measurement, propagation resistivity
measurement

attribute

1. n. [Geophysics]
A measurable property of seismic data, such as amplitude, dip, frequency, phase and polarity. Attributes can be
measured at one instant in time or over a time window, and may be measured on a single trace, on a set of traces
or on a surface interpreted from seismic data. Attribute analysis includes assessment of various reservoir
parameters, including ahydrocarbon indicator, by techniques such as amplitude variation with offset (AVO)
analysis.
See: complex-trace analysis, horizon slice, time-lapse seismic data, velocity

autocorrelation

1. n. [Geophysics]
The comparison of a waveform to itself. Autocorrelation is useful in the identification of multiples or other
regularly repeating signals, and in designing deconvolution filters to suppress them.
See: correlation, crosscorrelation, deconvolution, multiple reflection, signal

1. n. [Geophysics]
A system to control the gain, or the increase in the amplitude of an electrical signal from the original input to the
amplified output, automatically. AGC is commonly used in seismic processing to improve visibility of late-arriving
events in which attenuation or wavefront divergence has caused amplitude decay.
Alternate Form: AGC, AGC time constant
See: event, processing, Q

autotrack

1. vb. [Geophysics]
To use computer software to pick a particular reflection or attribute in seismic data automatically. Autotracking
can speed interpretation of three-dimensional seismic data, but must be checked for errors, especially in areas of
faulting and stratigraphic changes.
See: interpretation

autotracking

1. n. [Geophysics]
Use of computer software to pick a particularÂ reflectionÂ orÂ attributeÂ inÂ seismicÂ data automatically.
Autotracking can speed interpretation ofÂ three-dimensional seismic data, but must be checked for errors,
especially in areas of faulting and stratigraphic changes.
See: interpretation

AVA

1. n. [Geophysics]
Abbreviation for amplitude variation with angle of incidence.
See: angle of incidence, AVO, AVOAZ

1. n. [Geophysics]
Abbreviation for amplitude variation with azimuth.
See: anisotropy, AVA, AVO, AVOAZ, azimuth, fault, fracture, stress

average velocity

1. n. [Geophysics]
In geophysics, the depth divided by the traveltime of a wave to that depth. Average velocity is commonly
calculated by assuming a vertical path, parallel layers and straight raypaths, conditions that are quite idealized
compared to those actually found in the Earth.
See: raypath, velocity

AVO

1. n. [Geophysics]
Abbreviation for amplitude variation with offset. Variation in seismic reflection amplitude with change in
distance between shotpoint and receiver that indicates differences in lithology and fluid content in rocks
above and below the reflector. AVO analysis is a technique by which geophysicists attempt to determine
thickness, porosity, density, velocity, lithology and fluid content of rocks. Successful AVO analysis
requires special processing of seismic data and seismic modeling to determine rock properties with a
known fluid content. With that knowledge, it is possible to model other types of fluid content. A gas-
filled sandstone might show increasing amplitude with offset, whereas a coal might show decreasing
amplitude with offset. A limitation of AVO analysis using only P-energy is its failure to yield a unique
solution, so AVO results are prone to misinterpretation. One common misinterpretation is the failure to
distinguish a gas-filled reservoir from a reservoir having only partial gas saturation ("fizz water").
However, AVO analysis using source-generated or mode-converted shear wave energy allows
differentiation of degrees of gas saturation. AVO analysis is more successful in young, poorly
consolidated rocks, such as those in the Gulf of Mexico, than in older, well-cemented sediments.
Alternate Form: amplitude variation with offset
More Details:
 Hydrocarbon Detection With AVO
 Seismic Inversion: Reading Between the Lines
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AVOAZ

1. n. [Geophysics]
Abbreviation for amplitude variation with offset and azimuth. The azimuthal variation of the AVO
response.
Alternate Form: amplitude variation with offset and azimuth
See: amplitude variation with offset, AVO
More Details:
 Seismic Inversion: Reading Between the Lines

axis of rotational symmetry

1. n. [Geophysics]

An axis of rotational invariance. A material whose properties exhibit cylindrical, or invariant rotational,
symmetry may be rotated about this axis by any amount and its properties will be indistinguishable from
what they were before the rotation.

back propagation

1. n. [Geophysics]
A method for reconstructing the location and shape of the wave at an earlier time using the wave equation.
Alternate Form: back-propagation

back stripping

1. n. [Geophysics]
A modeling technique to assess the geologic history of rock layers through the use of geologic cross sections or
seismic sections. Removal of the youngest layers of rock at the top of the section allows restoration of the
underlying layers to their initial, undisturbed configurations. Successively older layers can be removed sequentially
to further assess the effects of compaction, development of geologic structures and other processes on an area.
Alternate Form: back-stripping

back-propagation

1. n. [Geophysics]
A method for reconstructing the location and shape of the wave at an earlier time using the wave equation.

backscatter

1. n. [Geophysics]
A reflection phenomenon of energy in which a nonreflective surface, which is a surface that does not reflect
energy coherently, randomly scatters energy. No coherent reflected energy can be identified and the energy is
scattered in all directions, including back in the direction from which it came. For example, light can be scattered
or redistributed by rough, nonreflective surfaces.
See: deconvolution, filter, wave

back-stripping

band

1. n. [Geophysics]
A range of frequencies or wavelengths. Audible frequencies of sound and visible wavelengths of light are examples
of bands. In seismic data, band-pass frequencies are within the limits of a specific filter, while band-reject
frequencies exceed the acceptable range of frequencies.
See: absorption band, band-limited function, filter, frequency, resolution, wavelength

band limited function

1. n. [Geophysics]
A function or time series whose Fourier transform is restricted to a finite range of frequencies or wavelengths.
See: band-limited function

band pass

1. n. [Geophysics]
Frequencies within the acceptable limits of a filter. The term is commonly used as an adjective, as in "band-pass
filter," to denote a filter that passes a range of frequencies unaltered while rejecting frequencies outside the
range.
Alternate Form: band-pass

band reject

1. n. [Geophysics]
Frequencies beyond the limits of a filter.
Alternate Form: band-reject

band-limited function

band-pass

band-reject

1. n. [Geophysics]
Frequencies beyond the limits of a filter.
Antonyms: band-pass
See: band, frequency

base of weathering

1. n. [Geophysics]
The lower boundary of the near-surface, low-velocity zone in which rocks are physically, chemically or biologically
broken down, in some cases coincident with a water table. Static corrections to seismic data can compensate for
the low velocity of the weathered layer in comparison with the higher-velocity strata below.
See: first break, ghost, static correction, velocity, weathering

base station

1. n. [Geophysics]
A reference location for a survey, or a survey point whose measured values of a given parameter of interest are
understood and can be used to normalize other survey points. Accurate knowledge of base stations is critical in
gravity and magnetic surveying.
See: baseline, drift, survey, telluric-current method

baseline

1. n. [Geophysics]
A line joining base stations whose transmissions are synchronized during surveying.
See: base station, survey
2. n. [Geophysics]
A reference line, such as a "shale baseline," a line representing the typical value of a given measurement for a
shale on a well log, or the zero-amplitude line of a seismic trace.
See: bias
3. n. [Geophysics]
The original survey of a set of surveys covering the same area but acquired over a period of time. In four-
dimensional seismic data, it is the first seismic survey, which is then compared to subsequent surveys.

basic wavelet

1. n. [Geophysics]
The shape of a wavelet produced by reflection of an actual wave train at one interface with a positive reflection
coefficient. The embedded wavelet is useful for generating a convolutional model, or the convolution of an
embedded wavelet with a reflectivity function and random noise, during seismic processing or interpretation.
Synonyms: embedded wavelet
See: reflection coefficient, seismic processing

Beaufort scale

1. n. [Geophysics]
The 0 to 12 scale for measurement of wind strength according to its effect on objects such as trees, flags and water
established by Admiral Francis Beaufort (1774 to 1857). According to the Beaufort scale, at wind speeds below 1
knot or 1 km/hr, seas are calm. Whitecaps on water and blowing dust and leaves correspond to a Beaufort number
of 4, with winds of 11 to 16 knots [20 to 28 km/hr]. Hurricane-force winds, greater than 64 knots [> 118 km/hr],
have a Beaufort number of 12.
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bel

1. n. [Geophysics]
The unit of measurement to describe or compare the intensity of acoustic or electrical signal, named for American
inventor Alexander Graham Bell (1847 to 1922). Measurements are typically given in tenths of a bel, or decibels.
The logarithm of the ratio of the sound or signal to a standard provides the decibel measurement. Sounds on the
order of one decibel are barely audible to humans but can cause pain when on the order of 10 12 decibels. The
symbol for the unit is B, but dB is the standard unit.
See: acoustic, decibel, signal

benchmark

1. n. [Geophysics]
A permanently fixed marker cited in surveying, such as a concrete block or steel plate, with an inscription of
location and elevation.
Alternate Form: BM
See: datum, monument, survey
2. n. [Geophysics]
A standard against which the performance of processes are measured.
Alternate Form: BM

bias

1. n. [Geophysics]
An adjustment of the relative positive and negative excursions of reflections during seismic processing by bulk
shifting the null point, or baseline, of the data to emphasize peaks at the expense of troughs or vice versa. Some
authors describe bias as a systematic distortion of seismic data to achieve greater continuity.
See: baseline, distortion, processing, trough, zero crossing

bin
1. n. [Geophysics]
A subdivision of a seismic survey. The area of a three-dimensional survey is divided into bins, which are commonly
on the order of 25 m [82 ft] long and 25 m wide; traces are assigned to specific bins according to the midpoint
between the source and the receiver, reflection point or conversion point. Bins are commonly assigned according
to common midpoint (CMP), but more sophisticated seismic processing allows for other types of binning. Traces
within a bin are stacked to generate the output trace for that bin. Data quality depends in part on the number of
traces per bin, or the fold.
See: fold, stack, three-dimensional seismic data, trace
2. vb. [Geophysics]
To sort seismic data into small areas according to the midpoint between the source and the receiver, reflection
point or conversion point prior to stacking.
See: stack

bird

1. n. [Geophysics]
A device containing a magnetometer and possibly other instruments that can be towed by an aircraft during
aeromagnetic surveying or in a marine seismic streamer to provide dynamic information about the streamer
position.
See: aeromagnetic survey

birefringence

1. n. [Geophysics]
The splitting of an incident wave into two waves of different velocities and orthogonal polarizations. Birefringence
occurs in optical mineralogy (see petrography) when plane-polarized light passes through an anisotropic mineral
and emerges as two rays traveling at different speeds, the difference between which is characteristic of a mineral.
In seismology, incident S-waves can exhibit birefringence as they split into a quasi-shear and a pure-shear wave.
Although birefringence was first described by Danish physician Erasmus Bartholin (1625 to 1698) in crystals in
1669, the phenomenon was not fully understood until French physicist Etienne-Louis Malus (1775 to 1812)
described polarized light in 1808.
Synonyms: double refraction
See: anisotropy, S-wave, seismology, velocity

blasting cap
1. n. [Well Completions, Geophysics]
A small, electrically activated explosive charge that explodes a larger charge. Detonators, also called
caps,Â seismicÂ caps or blasting caps, are used for seismicÂ acquisitionÂ with an explosiveÂ sourceÂ to achieve
consistent timing of detonation.
See: cap, detonator
2. n. [Well Completions, Geophysics]
A device containing primary high-explosive material that is used to initiate an explosive sequence. The two
common types of detonators are electrical detonators (also known as blasting caps) and percussion detonators.
Electrical detonators have a fuse material that burns when high voltage is applied to initiate the primaryÂ high
explosive. Percussion detonators contain abrasive grit and primary high explosive in a sealed container that is
activated by a firing pin. The impact force of the firing pin is sufficient to initiate the ballistic sequence that is then
transmitted to the detonating cord. Several safety systems are used in conjunction with detonators to avoid
accidental firing duringÂ rig-up or rig-down. Safety systems also are used to disarm the gun or ballistic assembly if
downhole conditions are unsafe for firing.

blind zone

1. n. [Geophysics]
A layer or body of rock that cannot be detected by seismic refraction, typically because its velocity is lower than
that of the overlying rocks; also known as a hidden layer.
See: refraction
2. n. [Geophysics]
A shadow zone, or a zone through which waves do not pass, or cannot be recorded, or in which reflections do not
occur.
See: shadow zone

1. n. [Geophysics]
A permanently fixed marker cited in surveying, such as a concrete block or steel plate, with an inscription of
location and elevation.
Alternate Form: benchmark

body wave
1. n. [Geophysics]
A wave that propagates through a medium rather than along an interface. P-waves and S-waves are examples of
body waves.
See: dispersion, P-wave, S-wave, surface wave

borehole seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
Seismic data measured with receivers, sources or both in a well, such as a check-shot survey, vertical seismic
profile (VSP), crosswell seismic data or single-well imaging. By directly measuring the acoustic velocity of each
formation encountered in a well, the well logs and borehole seismic data can be correlated to surface seismic data
more easily. Borehole seismic data, including both S- and P-waves, can be gathered in a cased or openhole. This
term is commonly used to distinguish between borehole sonic data (with frequencies typically greater than 1000
Hz) and borehole seismic data (with frequencies typically less than 1000 Hz).
See: hodogram, log, P-wave, quicklook, radial refraction, S-wave

Bouguer anomaly

1. n. [Geophysics]
The remaining value of gravitational attraction after accounting for the theoretical gravitational attraction at the
point of measurement, latitude, elevation, the Bouguer correction and the free-air correction (which compensates
for height above sea level assuming there is only air between the measurement station and sea level). This
anomaly is named for Pierre Bouguer, a French mathematician (1698 to 1758) who demonstrated that
gravitational attraction decreases with altitude.
See: gravity, gravity survey

Bouguer correction

1. n. [Geophysics]

The adjustment to a measurement of gravitational acceleration to account for elevation and the density of
rock between the measurement station and a reference level. It can be expressed mathematically as the
product of the density of the rock, the height relative to sea level or another reference, and a constant, in
units of mGal:
δgB = 2 π G ρ h = 0.4193 ρ h
whereδgB = Bouguer correctionρ = rock density in kg/m3h = height difference between two locations in
mG = gravitational constant = 6.67384 × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2
Strictly interpreted, the Bouguer correction is added to the known value of gravity at the reference station
to predict the value of gravity at the measurement level. The difference between the actual value and the
predicted value is the gravity anomaly, which results from differences in density between the actual Earth
and reference model anywhere below the measurement station.

See: Bouguer anomaly, elevation correction, gravity anomaly

bow tie

1. n. [Geophysics]
A concave-upward event in seismic data produced by a buried focus and corrected by proper migration of seismic
data. The focusing of the seismic wave produces three reflection points on the event per surface location. The
name was coined for the appearance of the event in unmigrated seismic data. Synclines, or sags, commonly
generate bow ties.
See: sag, seismic wave, syncline

break

1. n. [Geophysics]
AnÂ arrivalÂ of energy propagated from the energyÂ sourceÂ at the surface to theÂ geophoneÂ in the wellbore in
verticalÂ seismicÂ profiles and check-shot surveys, or an indication of seismic energy on a trace.
See: check-shot survey, first arrival, first break, suppression, vertical seismic profile

bright spot

1. n. [Geophysics]
A seismic amplitude anomaly or high amplitude that can indicate the presence of hydrocarbons. Bright spots result
from large changes in acoustic impedance and tuning effect, such as when a gas sand underlies a shale, but can
also be caused by phenomena other than the presence of hydrocarbons, such as a change in lithology. The term is
often used synonymously with hydrocarbon indicator.
Antonyms: dim spot
See: polarity standard

brute stack

1. n. [Geophysics]
A processed seismic record that contains traces from a common midpoint that have been added together but has
undergone only cursory velocity analysis, so the normal-moveout correction is a first attempt. Typically, no static
corrections are made before the brute stack.
See: processing, static correction, trace

bubble effect

1. n. [Geophysics]
Bubble pulses or bubble noise that affect data quality. In marine seismic acquisition, the gas bubble produced by
an air gun oscillates and generates subsequent pulses that cause source-generated noise. Careful use of multiple
air guns can cause destructive interference of bubble pulses and alleviate the bubble effect. A cage, or a steel
enclosure surrounding a seismic source, can be used to dissipate energy and reduce the bubble effect.
See: cavitation

buggy vibro

1. n. [Geophysics]
A vibrator truck equipped with wide tires to allow access to rugged or soggy terrain while causing less damage to
the environment.

bulk modulus
1. n. [Geophysics]

The ratio of stress to strain, abbreviated as K. The bulk modulus is an elastic constant equal to the change
in applied pressure (∂P) divided by the ratio of the change in volume to the original volume of a body
(∂V/V).
K = −V (∂P / ∂V),

whereK = bulk modulusV = volume∂P = partial derivative of pressure∂V = partial derivative of volume.
Alternate Form: modulus of compression
See: elastic constants, Lamé constant

cable

1. n. [Geophysics]
A bundle of electrical wires that connects geophones, or the entire carrier system for marine hydrophones,
which includes the hydrophones, the electrical wires, the stress member, spacers, the outer skin of the
cable, and the streamer filler, which is typically kerosene or a buoyant plastic. The cable relays data to the
seismic recording truck or seismic vessel.
See: channel, eel, geophone, geophone cable, hydrophone, jug hustler, ocean-bottom cable, spacer,
streamer
More Details:
 Cables and Skatesâ€”Improving the Weakest Links

2. n. [Formation Evaluation]
The cable on which wireline logging tools are lowered into the well and through which signals from the
measurements are passed. The cable consists of a central section with conductors surrounded by a metal,
load-bearing armor.
See: bridle, head, logging tool, torpedo
More Details:
 Cables and Skatesâ€”Improving the Weakest Links

calibration

1. n. [Geophysics]
A method of adjusting a data set against a control that has properties to which the data set should conform.
See: fan shooting
2. n. [Formation Evaluation]
The process of adjusting a measurement to a standard, so that copies of the same type of logging tool or
laboratory instrument will read the same. The tool or instrument is placed in the presence of a calibrator or
calibrating environment, for example, a source of gamma rays for a gamma ray tool, or the air, far from the
ground, for an induction tool. Calibration coefficients, typically a gain and an offset, are calculated so that the tool
or instrument reads correctly in the calibrator. The coefficients are then applied during subsequent measurements.
The term master calibration is used for the regular, as for example quarterly, calibration of a logging tool in the
workshop. For most wireline tools, a secondary calibrator is adjusted during the master calibration and taken to
the wellsite so that a wellsite calibration can be done just prior to the logging job. Some tools, such as the gamma
ray, are calibrated only at the wellsite. For most measurements-while-drilling tools, the environment requires that
the calibration be performed at the workshop and only a verification made at the wellsite. For some
measurements, there is a primary worldwide standard against which calibrators are calibrated, as for example, the
radioactive formations at the University of Houston used to define gamma ray API units.

cap

1. n. [Geophysics]
A small, electrically activated explosive charge that detonates a larger charge. Caps, also called seismic caps or
blasting caps, are used for seismic acquisition with an explosive source to achieve consistent timing of detonation.
Alternate Form: blasting cap
See: detonator

caprock effect

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of positive gravity anomaly that results from the presence of a dense cap rock overlying a relatively low-
density salt dome.
See: cap rock

cavitation

1. n. [Geophysics]
An implosion produced by locally low pressure, such as the collapse of a gas bubble in liquid (the energy of which is
used as the source of seismic energy from air guns).
See: air gun, bubble effect, water gun
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CDP

1. n. [Geophysics]
In multichannel seismic acquisition where beds do not dip, the common reflection point at depth on a reflector, or
the halfway point when a wave travels from a source to a reflector to a receiver. In the case of flat layers, the
common depth point is vertically below the common midpoint. In the case of dipping beds, there is no common
depth point shared by multiple sources and receivers, so dip moveout processing is necessary to reduce smearing,
or inappropriate mixing, of the data.
Alternate Form: common depth point

channel

1. n. [Geology]
A linear, commonly concave-based depression through which water and sediment flow and into which sediment
can be deposited in distinctive, often elongated bodies. Channels can occur in a variety of morphologies, e.g.,
straight, meandering or braided. In some areas, coarse sediments can fill channels of streams or rivers that cut
through finer grained sediments or rocks. The close proximity of coarse-grained and fine-grained sediments can
ultimately lead to the formation of stratigraphic hydrocarbon traps.
See: depositional environment, point bar, sediment, stratigraphic trap, trap, turbidity current
2. n. [Geophysics]
A device to carry data from a receiver to a recorder, such as from a group of geophones. Simultaneous recording of
500 to 2000 channels is common during 3D seismic acquisition, and 120 to 240 channels during onshore 2D seismic
acquisition.
See: array, cable, coherence filtering, common depth point, common midpoint, common reflection point, dropout,
geophone, seismic trace, semblance, trace

channel wave
1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of elastic wave propagated and confined in a layer whose velocity is lower than that of the surrounding
layers, such as a layer of coal.
See: surface wave

character

1. n. [Geophysics]
A distinguishing feature of a waveform in a seismic event, such as shape, frequency, phase or continuity.
Alternate Form: signature
See: frequency, wave

check shot survey

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of borehole seismic data designed to measure the seismic traveltime from the surface to a known depth. P-
wave velocity of the formations encountered in a wellbore can be measured directly by lowering a geophone to
each formation of interest, sending out a source of energy from the surface of the Earth, and recording the
resultant signal. The data can then be correlated to surface seismic data by correcting the sonic log and generating
a synthetic seismogram to confirm or modify seismic interpretations. It differs from a vertical seismic profile in the
number and density of receiver depths recorded; geophone positions may be widely and irregularly located in the
wellbore, whereas a vertical seismic profile usually has numerous geophones positioned at closely and regularly
spaced intervals in the wellbore.
Synonyms: velocity survey
Alternate Form: check-shot survey
See: drift, first break, one-dimensional seismic data, one-way time

check-shot survey

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of borehole seismic data designed to measure the seismic traveltime from the surface to a known depth. P-
wave velocity of the formations encountered in a wellbore can be measured directly by lowering a geophone to
each formation of interest, sending out a source of energy from the surface of the Earth, and recording the
resultant signal. The data can then be correlated to surface seismic data by correcting the sonic log and generating
a synthetic seismogram to confirm or modify seismic interpretations. It differs from a vertical seismic profile in the
number and density of receiver depths recorded; geophone positions may be widely and irregularly located in the
wellbore, whereas a vertical seismic profile usually has numerous geophones positioned at closely and regularly
spaced intervals in the wellbore.
Synonyms: velocity survey, well shoot
See: correlate, correlation, depth conversion, drift, first break, interpretation, one-dimensional seismic data, one-
way time

circle shooting

1. n. [Geophysics]
A technique for acquiring full-azimuth marine seismic data. This technique uses a vessel equipped with
source arrays and streamers to shoot and record seismic data; however, unlike conventional surveys
acquired in a series of parallel straight lines, circle shooting surveys are acquired as the vessel steams in a
series of overlapping, continuously linked circles, or coils. The circular shooting geometry acquires a full
range of offset data across every azimuth to sample the subsurface geology in all directions. The resulting
full azimuth (FAZ) data are used to image complex geology, such as highly faulted strata, basalt,
carbonate reefs and subsalt formations.
See: acquisition, salt dome
More Details:
 Shooting Seismic Surveys in Circles
 Developments in Full Azimuth Marine Seismic Imaging

CMP

1. n. [Geophysics]
In multichannel seismic acquisition, the point on the surface halfway between the source and receiver that is
shared by numerous source-receiver pairs. Such redundancy among source-receiver pairs enhances the quality of
seismic data when the data are stacked. The common midpoint is vertically above the common depth point, or
common reflection point. Common midpoint is not the same as common depth point, but the terms are often
incorrectly used as synonyms.
Alternate Form: common midpoint

1. n. [Geophysics]
A measure of the similarity of two seismic traces.
See: correlation, phantom, seismic trace, semblance
2. n. [Geophysics]
The quality of two wave trains, or waves consisting of several cycles, being in phase.
See: wave
3. n. [Geophysics]
The similarity of two mathematical functions as evaluated in the frequency domain.
See: correlation
4. n. [Geophysics]
A quantitative assessment of the similarity of three or more functions, also called semblance.

coherence filtering

1. n. [Geophysics]
A technique for removing noise and emphasizing coherent events from multiple channels of seismic data.
Alternate Form: coherent detection
See: channel, event, filter

coherent

1. adj. [Geophysics]
Pertaining to seismic events that show continuity from trace to trace. Seismic processing to enhance recognition of
coherent events and emphasize discontinuities such as faults and stratigraphic changes has gained popularity since
the mid-1990s.
See: coherence filtering, discontinuity, event, fault, random noise, stratigraphy

coherent detection

1. n. [Geophysics]
A technique for removing noise and emphasizing coherent events from multiple channels of seismic data.
Synonyms: coherence filtering
See: channel, event, filter

coherent noise

1. n. [Geophysics]
Undesirable seismic energy that shows consistent phase from trace to trace, such as ground roll and multiples.
See: air wave, multiple reflection, noise, phase, random noise

common depth point

common midpoint method

1. n. [Geophysics]
Method of seismic reflection surveying and processing that exploits the redundancy of multiple fold to enhance
data quality by reducing noise. During acquisition, an energy source is supplied to a number of shotpoints
simultaneously. Once data have been recorded, the energy source is moved farther down the line of acquisition,
but enough overlap is left that some of the reflection points are re-recorded with a different source-to-receiver
offset. Multiple shotpoints that share a source-receiver midpoint are stacked. The number of times that a common
midpoint is recorded is the fold of the data.
See: processing, shotpoint, stack
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common offset

1. adj. [Geophysics]
Pertaining to traces that have the same offset, or distance between source and receiver.
See: trace

common receiver

1. adj. [Geophysics]
Pertaining to traces that have a different source but share a receiver.
See: trace

common receiver gather

1. n. [Geophysics]
A display of seismicÂ traces that share a receiver.
Alternate Form: CRG
See: seismic trace, trace

common reflection point

1. n. [Geophysics]
In multichannel seismic acquisition, the common midpoint on a reflector, or the halfway point when a wave travels
from a source to a reflector to a receiver that is shared by numerous locations if the reflector is flat-lying. Like
common depth point, this term is commonly misused, because in the case of dipping layers, common reflection
points do not exist.
See: channel, dipping bed, fold

1. adj. [Geophysics]
Pertaining to traces that have a differentÂ receiver but share a source.
See: trace

common source gather

1. n. [Geophysics]
A display of seismicÂ traces that share a source.
Alternate Form: CSG
See: seismic trace, trace

common-offset

1. adj. [Geophysics]
Pertaining to traces that have the same offset, or distance between source and receiver.
See: trace

common-receiver

1. adj. [Geophysics]
Pertaining to traces that have a different source but share a receiver.
See: trace

common-receiver gather
1. n. [Geophysics]
A display of seismicÂ traces that share a receiver.
Alternate Form: CRG
See: seismic trace, trace

common-source

1. adj. [Geophysics]
Pertaining to traces that have a differentÂ receiver but share a source.
See: trace

common-source gather

1. n. [Geophysics]
A display of seismicÂ traces that share a source.
Alternate Form: CSG
See: seismic trace, trace

compaction correction

1. n. [Geophysics]
A change made to porosity measurements, such as those from sonic logs, to compensate for the lack of
compaction, or the predicted loss of pore space as sediments are buried by overburden. Compaction
corrections are commonly performed in uncompacted sediments.
See: compaction, porosity, sonic log
More Details:
 Compaction and Subsidence

complex trace analysis

1. n. [Geophysics]

A mathematical method to determine seismic attributes, including reflection strength and instantaneous
frequency, by using the Hilbert transform, a special form of the Fourier transform, and the quadrature
trace, or the component of the signal that is 90 degrees out of phase.
The Fourier transform
a(t) = h(t) + jx(t),
whereh(t) = seismic tracex(t) = quadrature trace
can be used to determine reflection strength by combining h and x:
r(t) = [h(t)2 + x(t)2]1/2,
and to determine instantaneous phase:
θ(t) = tan−1[x(t)/h(t)].

See: attribute

complex-trace analysis

1. n. [Geophysics]

See: attribute

compressional wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
An elastic body wave or sound wave in which particles oscillate in the direction the wave propagates. P-waves are
the waves studied in conventional seismic data. P-waves incident on an interface at other than normal incidence
can produce reflected and transmitted S-waves, in that case known as converted waves.
Synonyms: acoustic wave, dilatational wave, P-wave
See: amplitude variation with offset, body wave, dilatation, four-component seismic data, Poisson's ratio,
rarefaction, S-wave, shadow zone

conductance

1. n. [Geophysics]
The product of conductivity and thickness, typically measured in units of siemens (S). In the inversion of electrical
and electromagnetic measurements, the conductance of a layer or zone is usually much better determined than
either the conductivity or thickness individually.
2. n. [Geophysics]
The reciprocal of resistance in a direct current circuit, measured in siemens (formerly mhos). In an alternating
current circuit, conductance is the resistance divided by the square of impedance, also measured in siemens.

convergence

1. n. [Geology]
The movement of tectonic plates toward each other, generating compressional forces and ultimately resulting in
collision, and in some cases subduction, of tectonic plates. The boundary where tectonic plates converge is called a
convergent margin.
See: lithosphere, plate tectonics, transpression, turbidity current
2. n. [Geophysics]
In mathematics, the process in which a sequence of numbers approaches a fixed value called the "limit" of the
sequence. This term is often used in modeling or inversion to describe the situation in which a sequence of
calculated values approach, or converge with, measured values.
Antonyms: divergence
See: model

convergent

1. adj. [Geology]
Pertaining to the movement of tectonic plates toward each other, generating compressional forces and ultimately
resulting in collision, and in some cases subduction, of tectonic plates. The boundary where tectonic plates
converge is called a convergent margin.
See: lithosphere, plate tectonics, transpression, turbidity current
2. adj. [Geophysics]
In mathematics, pertaining to the process in which a sequence of numbers approaches a fixed value called the
"limit" of the sequence. This term is often used inÂ modelingÂ orÂ inversionÂ to describe the situation in which a
sequence of calculated values approach, or converge with, measured values.
See: model

converted wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
A seismic wave that changes from a P-wave to an S-wave, or vice versa, when it encounters an interface.
See: amplitude variation with offset, attenuation, reflection, refraction, SH-wave, SV-wave

convolution

1. n. [Geophysics]

A mathematical operation on two functions that is the most general representation of the process of linear
(invariant) filtering. Convolution can be applied to any two functions of time or space (or other variables)
to yield a third function, the output of the convolution. Although the mathematical definition is symmetric
with respect to the two input functions, it is common in signal processing to say that one of the functions
is a filter acting on the other function. The response of many physical systems can be represented
mathematically by a convolution. For example, a convolution can be used to model the filtering of
seismic energy by the various rock layers in the Earth; deconvolution is used extensively in seismic
processing to counteract that filtering.
The mathematical form of the convolution of two functions, a filter f(t) and a time-series x(t), is
y(t) = ∫ f(t−τ)x(τ)dτ,
where y(t) is the output of the convolution.
In the frequency domain, convolution is simply the product of the Fourier transforms (FT) of the two
functions:
Y(ω) = F(ω)*X(ω),
whereX(ω) = FT of the time series x(t)F(ω) = FT of the filter f(t)Y(ω) = FT of the output y(t)ω = angular
frequency.

See: embedded wavelet, synthetic seismogram, wavelet

2. n. [Well Testing]
A mathematical operation that uses downhole flow-rate measurements to transform bottomhole pressure
measurements distorted by variable rates to an interpretable transient. Convolution also can use surface rates to
transform wellhead pressures to an interpretable form. Convolution assumes a particular model for the pressure-
transient response, usually infinite-acting radial flow. This operation is similar to what is done to account for the
flow history in rigorous pressure-transient analysis.
See: transient-rate and pressure-test analysis
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convolve

1. vb. [Geophysics]
To perform a convolution, which is a mathematical operation on two functions that is the most general
representation of the process of linear (invariant) filtering. Convolution can be applied to any two functions of time
or space (or other variables) to yield a third function, the output of the convolution. Although the mathematical
definition is symmetric with respect to the two input functions, it is common in signal processing to say that one of
the functions is a filter acting on the other function. The response of many physical systems can be represented
mathematically by a convolution. For example, a convolution can be used to model the filtering of seismic energy
by the various rock layers in the Earth; deconvolution is used extensively in seismic processing to counteract that
filtering.
See: embedded wavelet, synthetic seismogram, wavelet
2. vb. [Well Testing]
To perform a convolution, which is a mathematical operation that uses downhole flow-rate measurements to
transform bottomhole pressure measurements distorted by variable rates to an interpretable transient.
Convolution also can use surface rates to transform wellhead pressures to an interpretable form. Convolution
assumes a particular model for the pressure-transient response, usually infinite-acting radial flow. This operation is
similar to what is done to account for the flow history in rigorous pressure-transient analysis.
See: transient-rate and pressure-test analysis

correlation

1. n. [Geology]
A connection of points from well to well in which the data suggest that the points were deposited at the same time
(chronostratigraphic) or have similar and related characteristics.
Alternate Form: correlate
See: chronostratigraphy, geomagnetic polarity reversal, paleontology, sequence, sequence stratigraphy
2. n. [Geophysics]
The comparison of seismic waveforms in the time domain, similar to coherence in the frequency domain.
See: autocorrelation, check-shot survey, crosscorrelation, frequency domain, pick, polarity, tie, time domain, two-
dimensional survey, waveform
3. n. [Reservoir Characterization]
A positive relationship between data samples that implies a connection or a relationship between them.

coupling
1. n. [Geophysics]
The state of being attached to another entity: A well-planted geophone has a coupling to the Earth's surface or to a
borehole wall that allows it to record ground motion during acquisition of seismic data.
See: geophone, plant, transition zone, tube wave
2. n. [Geophysics]
An electrical or mechanical device that joins parts of systems and can affect the interaction of, or energy transfer
between, parts of systems. Electrical couplings promote the passage of certain signals but prevent the passage of
others, such as an alternating current coupling that excludes direct current.
See: signal

CRG

1. n. [Geophysics]
Abbreviation for common receiver gather. A display of seismic traces that share a receiver.
Alternate Form: common receiver gather
See: seismic trace, trace

critical angle

1. n. [Geophysics]

The angle of incidence according to Snell's law at which a refracted wave travels along the interface
between two media. It can be quantified mathematically as follows:
sin θc = V1 / V2,
whereθc = the critical angleV1 = velocity of the first mediumV2 = velocity of the first medium, which is
greater than V1.

See: angle of incidence, critical reflection, head wave, refraction, refractor, Snell's law

critical damping

1. n. [Geophysics]
The minimum damping that will prevent or stop oscillation in the shortest amount of time, typically
associated with oscillatory systems like geophones. Critical damping is symbolized by μc.

See: damping, geophone

critical reflection

1. n. [Geophysics]
A reflection, typically at a large angle, that occurs when the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection of a wave
are equal to the critical angle.
See: angle of incidence, critical angle, reflection

crosscorrelate

1. vb. [Geophysics]
The comparison of different waveforms in digital form to quantify their similarity. A normalized crosscorrelation, or
a correlation coefficient, equal to unity indicates a perfect match, whereas a poor match will yield a value close to
zero.
See: autocorrelation, correlation, lag, waveform

crosscorrelation

1. n. [Geophysics]
The comparison of different waveforms in digital form to quantify their similarity. A normalized crosscorrelation, or
a correlation coefficient, equal to unity indicates a perfect match, whereas a poor match will yield a value close to
zero.
See: autocorrelation, correlation, lag, waveform

crossline
1. n. [Geophysics]
A seismic line within a 3D survey perpendicular to the direction in which the data were acquired.
See: acquisition, in-line, three-dimensional seismic data

crosswell seismic tomography

1. n. [Formation Evaluation, Geophysics]

A survey technique that measures the seismic signal transmitted from a source, located in one well, to a
receiver array in a neighboring well. The resulting data are processed to create a reflection image or to
map the acoustic velocity or other properties (velocities of P- and S-waves, for example) of the area
between wells. Placement of the source and receiver array in adjacent wells not only enables the
formation between wells to be surveyed, it also avoids seismic signal propagation through attenuative
near-surface formations. Another advantage is that it places the source and receiver near the reservoir
zone of interest, thereby obtaining better resolution than is possible with conventional surface seismic
surveys. This technique is often used for high-resolution reservoir characterization when surface seismic
or vertical seismic profile (VSP) data lack resolution, or for time-lapse monitoring of fluid movements in
the reservoir.
See: tomography
More Details:
 Looking Deep into the Reservoir

crosswell tomography

1. n. [Enhanced Oil Recovery, Formation Evaluation, Geophysics]

A technique for measuring a signal that is broadcast from a transmitter or source located in one well, to a
receiver array placed in a neighboring well. This technique is used to create a display of formation
properties such as acoustic velocity and attenuation, seismic reflectivity, or electromagnetic resistivity in
the area between wells. The reservoir-scale data acquired with this technique can be used to bridge the
gap between wellbore measurements and surface measurements.
See: tomography
More Details:
 Looking Deep into the Reservoir

crustal magnetic field

1. n. [Geophysics]
The magnetic field associated with the Earth’s crust arises from induced and remanent magnetism. The crustal
field—also referred to as the anomaly field—varies in direction and strength when measured over the Earth’s
surface. It is relatively strong in the vicinity of ferrous and magnetic materials, such as in the oceanic crust and near
concentrations of metal ores, and is a focus of geophysical mineral exploration.
See: main magnetic field, external disturbance field, local magnetic interference

CSG

1. n. [Geology]
Abbreviation for coal seam gas. Natural gas, predominantly methane [CH4], generated during coal
formation and adsorbed in coal. Natural gas adsorbs to the surfaces of matrix pores within the coal and
natural fractures, or cleats, as reservoir pressure increases.
Production of natural gas from coal requires decreasing the pore pressure below the coal’s desorption
pressure so that methane will desorb from surfaces, diffuse through the coal matrix and become free gas.
Because the diffusivity and permeability of the coal matrix are ultralow, coal must have an extensive cleat
system to ensure adequate permeability and flow of methane to wellbores at economic production rates.
Coal seams are typically saturated with water. Consequently, the coal must be dewatered for efficient gas
production. Dewatering reduces the hydrostatic pressure and promotes gas desorption from coal. As
dewatering progresses, gas production often increases at a rate governed by how quickly gas desorbs from
coal, the permeability of the cleat and the relative permeability of the gas-water system in the cleat.
Eventually, the rate and amount of gas desorption decreases as the coal seam is depleted of its gas, and
production declines.
Coal seams with no water (dry coal) have been discovered and commercially exploited. In these
reservoirs, the adsorbed gas is held in place by free gas in the cleats. Consequently, gas production
consists of both free gas from the cleat system and desorbed gas from the matrix.
Synonyms: coalbed methane, coal bed methane, coal-bed methane, CBM
Alternate Form: coal seam gas, coal-seam gas
See: unconventional resource
More Details:
 Learning to Produce Coalbed Methane
 Producing Natural Gas from Coal
 Coalbed Methane: Clean Energy for the World
2. n. [Geophysics]
Abbreviation for common source gather. A display of seismic traces that share a source.
Alternate Form: common source gather
See: seismic trace, trace

cultural anomaly

1. n. [Geophysics]
A local geophysical anomaly generated by a man-made feature, such as electrical and communications wires, steel
beams and tanks and railroad tracks.
See: cultural noise

cultural noise

1. n. [Geophysics]
Undesirable energy, or noise, generated by human activity, such as automobile traffic that interferes with seismic
surveying, or electrical power lines or the steel in pipelines that can adversely affect electromagnetic methods.
See: cultural anomaly, electromagnetic method, noise, survey

curve fitting

1. n. [Geophysics]
The generation of a theoretical equation to define a given data set. In contrast, curve matching involves the
comparison of well-understood data to a data set of interest.
See: curve matching

curve matching

1. n. [Geophysics]
The graphical comparison of well-understood data sets, called type curves, to another data set. If a certain type
curve closely corresponds to a data set, then an interpretation of similarity can be made, although, as Sheriff
(1991) points out, there might be other type curves that also match the data of interest. Curve matching differs
from curve fitting in that curve fitting involves theoretical models rather than actual examples.
See: curve fitting, type curves

cycle skip

1. n. [Geophysics]
An anomalously high transit time in a log, such as a continuous velocity log, observable as a spike on the log,
commonly caused by the presence of fractures, gas, unconsolidated formations, aerated drilling mud and enlarged
boreholes.
See: borehole, drilling mud, fracture, transit time

damping

1. n. [Geophysics]
The opposition, slowing or prevention of oscillation, or decreasing vibration amplitude, as kinetic energy
dissipates. Frictional damping can be important in the use of geophones for seismic surveys, since a vibrating
instrument is difficult to read. Eddy currents can produce electromagnetic damping. The classic example of
damping from physics is the slowing of a swinging pendulum unless it has a steady supply of energy.
See: critical damping, eddy current, geophone, seismic survey

datum

1. n. [Geophysics]
An agreed and known value, such as the elevation of a benchmark or sea level, to which other measurements are
corrected. In seismic data, the term refers to an arbitrary planar surface to which corrections are made and on
which sources and receivers are assumed to lie to minimize the effects of topography and near-surface zones of
low velocity.
See: benchmark, datum correction, elevation correction, receiver, source
2. n. [Well Completions]
A depth reference point, typically established at the time the well is completed, against which subsequent depth
measurements should be corrected or correlated.
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datum correction

1. n. [Geophysics]
A value added to reflection times of seismic data to compensate for the location of the geophone and source
relative to the seismic datum.
See: datum, geophone, reflection, source

1. n. [Geophysics]
The unit of measurement to compare the relative intensity of acoustic or electrical signal, equal to one-tenth of a
bel, named for American inventor Alexander Graham Bell (1847 to 1922). The logarithm of the ratio of the sound
or signal to a standard provides the decibel measurement. The symbol for the unit is dB. Humans typically hear
sounds in the range of 20 to 50 dB in conversation, and upwards of 90 dB when exposed to heavy machinery or
aircraft.
Alternate Form: decibel

decibel

deconvolution
1. n. [Geophysics]
A step in seismic signal processing to recover high frequencies, attenuate multiples, equalize amplitudes, produce
a zero-phase wavelet or for other purposes that generally affect the waveshape. Deconvolution, or inverse
filtering, can improve seismic data that were adversely affected by filtering, or convolution that occurs naturally as
seismic energy is filtered by the Earth. Deconvolution can also be performed on other types of data, such as
gravity, magnetic or well log data.
See: autocorrelation, backscatter, deterministic deconvolution, filter, inverse filter, processing, resolution,
signature deconvolution, zero-phase
2. n. [Formation Evaluation]
With reference to induction logging, a method of removing shoulder-bed effects from an induction log. The term
refers to early 6FF40 and deep induction logs in which the standard method of deconvolution was based on three
measurements separated by 78 in. [198 cm] in depth. The three measurements were weighted by an amount
calculated to reduce the effect of shoulder beds on the readings in a high-resistivity bed. Originally, the resistivity
of the shoulder beds could be input, but in later usage this resistivity became standardized at 1 ohm-m. The
deconvolution was not effective in high-contrast formations. In modern tools, the shoulder effect is corrected by
using an inverse filter or an automatic inversion.
See: 6FF40, bed, inverse filter, shoulder bed
3. n. [Well Testing]
A mathematical operation that uses downhole flow-rate measurements to transform bottomhole pressure
measurements distorted by variable rates to an interpretable transient. Deconvolution also can use surface rates
to transform wellhead pressures to an interpretable form. Deconvolution has the advantage over convolution that
it does not assume a particular model for the pressure-transient response. However, the simplest form of
deconvolution often gives a noisy result, and more complex approaches may be computing intensive.
See: convolution, transient-rate and pressure-test analysis

deep seismic sounding

1. n. [Geophysics]
A seismic profile recorded specifically to study the lower crust, the Mohorovicic discontinuity and the mantle of
the Earth, typically using refraction methods. Most standard seismic reflection profiles record only a small fraction
(typically, on the order of 10 km [6 miles]) of the Earth's crust, which is 5 to 75 km [3 to 45 miles] thick.
See: DSS, Mohorovicic discontinuity, reflection, refraction

deep tow

1. n. [Geophysics]
A method of marine seismic acquisition in which a boat tows a receiver well below the surface of the water to get
closer to features of interest or to reduce noise due to conditions of the sea. Deep tow devices are used for some
side-scan sonar, gravity and magnetic surveys.
See: acquisition, gravity, gravity survey, magnetics, noise, seismic acquisition, side-scan sonar
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delta

1. n. [Geology]
An area of deposition or the deposit formed by a flowing sediment-laden current as it enters an open or standing
body of water, such as a river spilling into a gulf. As a river enters a body of water, its velocity drops and its ability
to carry sediment diminishes, leading to deposition. The term has origins in Greek because the shape of deltas in
map view can be similar to the Greek letter delta. The shapes of deltas are subsequently modified by rivers, tides
and waves. There is a characteristic coarsening upward of sediments in a delta. The three main classes of deltas
are river-dominated (Mississippi River), wave-dominated (Nile River), and tide-dominated (Ganges River). Ancient
deltas contain some of the largest and most productive petroleum systems.
See: depositional environment, petroleum system, sediment
2. n. [Geophysics]

An anisotropy parameter that describes near-vertical P-wave velocity anisotropy and the difference
between the vertical and small-offset moveout velocity of P-waves.
δ = ½{[(C13 + C44)2 − (C33 − C44)2] / [C33 (C33 − C44)]}
Anisotropy parameter for near-vertical P-waves. Delta (δ) describes near-vertical P-wave velocity
anisotropy and the difference between the vertical and small-offset moveout velocity of P-waves. C33 is
the vertical P-wave modulus (parallel to the symmetry axis), C44 is the modulus for a vertically traveling
and horizontally polarized S-wave (parallel to the symmetry axis) and C13 is the modulus of dilation in the
vertical direction induced by compression in the horizontal direction.
Reference: Thomsen L: “Weak Elastic Anisotropy,” Geophysics 51, no. 10 (October 1986): 1954–1966.

See: epsilon (ε), gamma (γ), eta (η)

density contrast

1. n. [Geophysics]
The variation in the mass per unit volume of rocks, which affects the local gravitational field of the Earth. A density
contrast also contributes to an acoustic impedance contrast, which affects the reflection coefficient.
See: acoustic impedance, density, gravity, reflection coefficient

1. n. [Geophysics]
A series of gravity measurements made along a line or over an area of a locally high topographic feature to remove
or compensate for the effect of topography on deeper density readings.
See: topographic map

depth controller

1. n. [Geophysics]
A device used in acquisition of marine seismic data that keeps streamers at a certain depth in the water.
See: streamer

depth conversion

1. n. [Geophysics]
The process of transforming seismic data from a scale of time (the domain in which they are acquired) to a scale of
depth to provide a picture of the structure of the subsurface independent of velocity. Depth conversion, ideally, is
an iterative process that begins with proper seismic processing, seismic velocity analysis and study of well data to
refine the conversion. Acoustic logs, check-shot surveys and vertical seismic profiles can aid depth conversion
efforts and improve correlation of well logs and drilling data with surface seismic data.
See: acoustic log, check-shot survey, depth map, depth section, pull-up, push-down, seismic processing, seismic
section, velocity, vertical seismic profile

depth map

1. n. [Geophysics]
A two-dimensional representation of subsurface structure with contours in depth that have been converted from
seismic traveltimes.
See: depth conversion, structure map, traveltime

1. n. [Geophysics]
A step in seismic processing in which reflections in seismic data are moved to their correct locations in
space, including position relative to shotpoints, in areas where there are significant and rapid lateral or
vertical changes in velocity that distort the time image. This requires an accurate knowledge of vertical
and horizontal seismic velocity variations.
See: depth section, migration, processing, shotpoint, time migration, traveltime, velocity
More Details:
 The Time for Depth Imaging

depth point

1. n. [Geophysics]
A point on the surface for which the depth to a horizon has been calculated in a refraction seismic survey. The
term is commonly misused as a synonym for common depth point.
See: common depth point, displacement

depth section

1. n. [Geophysics]
A display of seismic data with a scale of units of depth rather than time along the vertical axis. Careful migration
and depth conversion are essential for creating depth sections.
See: depth conversion, depth migration

detectable limit

1. n. [Geophysics]
The minimum thickness necessary for a layer of rock to be visible or distinct in reflection seismic data. Generally,
the detectable limit is at least 1/30 of the wavelength. Acquisition of higher frequency seismic data generally
results in better detection or vertical resolution of thinner layers.
See: vertical resolution, wavelength
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detector

1. n. [Geophysics]
A sensor or receiver, such as a geophone or hydrophone, gravimeter or magnetometer.

deterministic deconvolution

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of inverse filtering, or deconvolution, in which the effects of the filter are known by observation or
assumed, as opposed to statistical deconvolution.
See: inverse filter

detonate

1. vb. [Perforating, Geophysics]

To set off an explosive material. Explosive sources are used in seismic acquisition and explosive charges are used to
perforate wells in preparation for production or injection.
See: blasting cap, cap, detonating cord

detonator

1. n. [Geophysics]
A small, electrically activated explosive charge that explodes a larger charge. Detonators, also called caps, seismic
caps or blasting caps, are used for seismic acquisition with an explosive source to achieve consistent timing of
detonation.
Alternate Form: blasting cap
See: cap, detonate, seismic acquisition
2. n. [Perforating]
A device containing primary high-explosive material that is used to initiate an explosive sequence. The two
common types of detonators are electrical detonators (also known as blasting caps) and percussion detonators.
Electrical detonators have a fuse material that burns when high voltage is applied to initiate the primary high
explosive. Percussion detonators contain abrasive grit and primary high explosive in a sealed container that is
activated by a firing pin. The impact force of the firing pin is sufficient to initiate the ballistic sequence that is then
transmitted to the detonating cord. Several safety systems are used in conjunction with detonators to avoid
accidental firing during rig-up or rig-down. Safety systems also are used to disarm the gun or ballistic assembly if
downhole conditions are unsafe for firing.
Alternate Form: blasting cap
See: cap, detonating cord, rig down, rig up

dielectric

1. n. [Geophysics]
A material used in a capacitor to store a charge from an applied electrical field. A pure dielectric does not conduct
electricity.
See: electrical permittivity

difference map

1. n. [Geophysics]
A map that represents the change from one map to another, such as a reservoir map of an area made from two
different seismic surveys separated in production history (one possible product of 4D seismic data), or an isochron
map that displays the variation in time between two seismic events or reflections.
See: four-dimensional seismic data, isochron map, seismic survey

differential weathering correction

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of static correction that compensates for delays in seismic reflection or refraction times from one point to
another, such as among geophone groups in a survey. These delays can be induced by low-velocity layers such as
the weathered layer near the Earth's surface.
See: static correction, weathered layer

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of event produced by the radial scattering of a wave into new wavefronts after the wave meets a
discontinuity such as a fault surface, an unconformity or an abrupt change in rock type. Diffractions appear as
hyperbolic or umbrella-shaped events on a seismic profile. Proper migration of seismic data makes use of
diffracted energy to properly position reflections.
See: abnormal events, acquisition, arrival, hydrocarbon indicator, Kirchhoff migration, raypath, reflection, time
migration, wavefront

diffraction stack

1. n. [Geophysics]
Also known as Kirchhoff migration, a method of seismic migration that uses the integral form (Kirchhoff equation)
of the wave equation. All methods of seismic migration involve the backpropagation (or continuation) of the
seismic wavefield from the region where it was measured (Earth's surface or along a borehole) into the region to
be imaged. In Kirchhoff migration, this is done by using the Kirchhoff integral representation of a field at a given
point as a (weighted) superposition of waves propagating from adjacent points and times. Continuation of the
wavefield requires a background model of seismic velocity, which is usually a model of constant or smoothly
varying velocity. Because of the integral form of Kirchhoff migration, its implementation reduces to stacking the
data along curves that trace the arrival time of energy scattered by image points in the earth.
Synonyms: Kirchhoff migration
See: diffraction, Kirchhoff equation, migration, ray tracing

diffusion

1. n. [Geophysics]
The movement of ions or molecules from regions of high concentration to low concentration within a solution.
See: spontaneous potential
2. n. [Geophysics]
The conduction of heat by the movement of molecules.
3. n. [Formation Evaluation, Enhanced Oil Recovery]
The process by which particles move over time within a material due to their kinetic motion. The term is most
commonly used in pulsed neutron capture logging and in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logging. In a pulsed
neutron capture log, the term refers to the spread of neutrons away from the neutron generator. In NMR logging,
diffusion refers to the movement of gas, oil or water molecules within the pore space.
See: neutron generator, neutron interactions, nuclear magnetic resonance, sigma
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diffusion equation

1. n. [Geophysics]

A partial differential equation describing the variation in space and time of a physical quantity that is
governed by diffusion. The diffusion equation provides a good mathematical model for the variation of
temperature through conduction of heat and the propagation of electromagnetic waves in a highly
conducting medium. The diffusion equation is a parabolic partial differential equation whose
characteristic form relates the first partial derivative of a field with respect to time to its second partial
derivatives with respect to spatial coordinates. It is closely related to the wave equation.
∇2E = j ω μ σ E,
whereE = electrical fieldω = angular frequencyμ = magnetic permeabilityσ = electrical conductivity∇ =
vector differential operator.

See: electromagnetic method, wave equation

2. n. [Well Testing]
A fundamental differential equation obtained by combining the continuity equation, flow law and equation of
state. Most of the mathematics of well testing were derived from solutions of this equation, which was originally
developed for the study of heat transfer. Fluid flow through porous media is directly analogous to flow of heat
through solids. Solutions used in well testing usually assume radial flow and homogenous, isotropic formations.
See: continuity equation, equation of state, fluid flow, isotropic formation

dilatancy

1. n. [Geophysics]
The increase in the volume of rocks as a result of deformation, such as when fractures develop.
See: fracture

dilatancy theory

1. n. [Geophysics]
A possible explanation for volume changes in rocks due to strain, such as microfracturing or cracking, and the
accompanying change in the ratio of P- to S-wave velocity. Support for dilatancy theory comes in the form of
porosity increases from 20 to 40% that have been measured in laboratory experiments using rock samples.
See: P-wave, S-wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
The process of changing volume as stress is applied to a body.
2. n. [Geophysics]
The volumetric strain produced by applying stress to a body.
3. n. [Geophysics]
A rarefaction, or decrease in pressure and density of a medium as molecules are displaced by a P-wave. As P-waves
pass through the Earth, the Earth undergoes compression and expansion. These changes in volume contribute to
the positive and negative amplitudes of a seismic trace.
Alternate Form: rarefaction
See: amplitude, P-wave, seismic trace

dilatational wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
An elastic body wave or sound wave in which particles oscillate in the direction the wave propagates. P-waves are
the waves studied in conventional seismic data. P-waves incident on an interface at other than normal incidence
can produce reflected and transmitted S-waves, in that case known as converted waves.
Synonyms: acoustic wave, compressional wave, P-wave
See: amplitude variation with offset, dilatation, four-component seismic data, Poisson's ratio, rarefaction, S-wave,
shadow zone

dim spot

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of local seismic event that, in contrast to a bright spot, shows weak rather than strong amplitude. The weak
amplitude might correlate with hydrocarbons that reduce the contrast in acoustic impedance between the
reservoir and the overlying rock, or might be related to a stratigraphic change that reduces acoustic impedance.
Antonyms: bright spot
See: acoustic impedance, anomaly, hydrocarbon indicator, polarity standard

dip moveout
1. n. [Geophysics]
The difference in the arrival times or traveltimes of a reflected wave, measured by receivers at two different offset
locations, that is produced when reflectors dip. Seismic processing compensates for DMO.
Alternate Form: DMO
See: moveout, quicklook, receiver, reflector, traveltime
2. n. [Geophysics]
The procedure in seismic processing that compensates for the effects of a dipping reflector. DMO processing was
developed in the early 1980s.
Alternate Form: DMO
See: processing

dipole

1. n. [Geophysics]
A pair of opposite (and equal) electrical charges. The strength of the dipole is a vector quantity whose direction
points from the positive to the negative charge and whose magnitude is the product of the absolute value of the
charge times the separation. A point dipole is an idealized mathematical representation of a dipole in which the
separation of the charges goes to zero while their charge increases so that the product (dipole strength) remains
constant.
2. n. [Geophysics]
Two poles of opposite polarity that can generate a field, such as an electric or magnetic field or a dipole source and
dipole receiver used in sonic logging for excitation and detection of shear waves.
See: S-wave, shear wave
3. n. [Geophysics]
A small antenna used in electromagnetic surveying that can be represented mathematically as a dipole.
See: electromagnetic method

dipole field

1. n. [Geophysics]
The primary contribution to Earth’s main magnetic field.
See: main magnetic field, nondipole field

directivity
1. n. [Geophysics]
The property of some seismic sources whereby the amplitude, frequency, velocity or other property of the
resulting seismic waves varies with direction. A directional charge, such as a length of primer cord or a linear array
of charges, can be used when directivity is desirable. Directivity is also a property of geophone arrays, air guns,
explosives or vibrators, which can be positioned to reduce horizontal traveling noise such as ground roll. Receivers
in the form of groups in which the individual geophones or hydrophones are separated from each other in linear
(1D) or areal (2D) arrays are directional, and are designed to suppress signal arriving nearly horizontally and to pass
nearly vertical arrivals with minimum attenuation or distortion. Directivity is often present, but the difficulty in
accounting for it during seismic processing makes it undesirable in most cases.
See: air gun, geophone array, ground roll, hydrophone, primer cord, receiver, seismic processing, shaped charge,
source, vibrator, wave

discontinuity

1. n. [Geophysics]
A subsurface boundary or interface at which a physical quantity, such as the velocity of transmission of seismic
waves, changes abruptly. The velocity of P-waves increases dramatically (from about 6.5 to 8.0 km/s) at the
Mohorovicic discontinuity between the Earth's crust and mantle.
See: Mohorovicic discontinuity, P-wave, seismic wave

dispersion

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of distortion of a wave train in which the velocity of the wave varies with frequency. Surface waves and
electromagnetic body waves typically exhibit dispersion, whereas P-waves in most rocks show little change in
velocity with frequency.
See: body wave, distortion, frequency, P-wave, surface wave
2. n. [Geophysics]

The phenomenon of a wave separating into its frequency constituents as it passes through a medium. Each
frequency component travels at its phase velocity (vp), which is the product of the frequency (f) and
wavelength (λ) of that component.
Angular dispersion results from anisotropy, which causes velocity to vary with direction.
Dispersion affects all types of waves, including light, electromagnetic, sound, elastic, gravity and water
waves.

See: phase velocity, group velocity

3. n. [Drilling Fluids]
The act of breaking up large particles into smaller ones and distributing them throughout a liquid or gaseous
medium. For example, in water-base drilling mud, dispersion is the act of degrading clay materials, starches,
carboxymethylcellulose, biopolymer, synthetic polymers or oils into submicroscopic particles by applying
mechanical energy, heat or chemical means. In oil-mud emulsion terminology, dispersion is the act of forming a
fine-grained emulsion of an aqueous phase into an oil. This is usually accomplished with by mechanical shearing or
heating in the presence of surfactants. It also includes dispersing solids into an oil mud, such as barite or
organophilic clays. Mud viscosity increases as more and more platelets are dispersed. No gel structure can form as
long as mechanical shearing is in progress.
See: aggregation, clay-water interaction, colloid, colloidal solids, dispersant, hydrophilic, oil mud, water-base
drilling fluid
4. n. [Drilling Fluids]
A colloidal system, such as a drilling fluid, that has been dispersed. More generally, the term applies to any two (or
more) phase system in which one phase exists as small particles or droplets dispersed in the second phase.
See: colloid, colloidal solids, dispersant, drilling fluid, hydrophilic
5. n. [Enhanced Oil Recovery]
Spatial separation of components within a fluid. This separation is often driven by diffusion, mixing or differential
flow. In an oil field components might be separated because of heterogeneity of permeability, or simply because of
different paths taken by the fluid through the pore structure. Hydrodynamic dispersion includes both of these
mechanical effects and molecular diffusion. The comp

displacement

1. n. [Geology]
The offset of segments or points that were once continuous or adjacent. Layers of rock that have been moved by
the action of faults show displacement on either side of the fault surface.
See: fault, transform fault
2. n. [Geophysics]
The movement of a particle by wave action, such as movement of rock grains when a seismic wave shakes the
ground.
See: amplitude, seismic wave, wave
3. n. [Geophysics]
The horizontal distance between a seismic refraction depth point and the geophone where refracted energy or
refraction signal was recorded.
See: depth point, geophone, refraction
4. n. [Drilling]
The shortest distance from the surface location of a well to the vertical projection of the bottom of the well (or
other point in the well) to the Earth's surface. Horizontal wells often have total displacements of 1000 ft [305 m] or
more from the surface location, and the world record exceeds 10 km [6.2 miles] of displacement.
5. n. [Drilling]
The act of removing one fluid (usually liquid) from a wellbore and replacing it with another. This is accomplished by
pumping a spacer fluid that is benign to both the first and second fluid, followed by the new fluid, down the
drillstring and out the bottom of the drillstring or bit. While the spacer and second fluid are pumped into the top of
the wellbore, the first fluid is forced out of the annulus between the drillstring and the wellbore or casing. In some
cases, this general procedure may be reversed by pumping in the top of the annulus and taking fluid back from the
drillstring. Since this is the reverse of the normal circulation path, this is referred to as "reversing out" or "reverse
circulation."
See: annulus, casing, reverse circulation, spacer fluid
6. n. [Drilling]
The act of forcing a cement slurry that has been pumped into a casing string or drillstring to exit the bottom of the
casing or drillstring by pumping another fluid behind it. Cement displacement is similar to definition 5 above, with
the noted exception that the cement slurry would not normally be pumped out the top of the annulus, but would
instead be placed in a particular location in the annulus. This location might be the entire annulus on a short casing
string, or filling only a bottom portion of the casing on longer casing strings.
See: casing string, displacement fluid

distortion

1. n. [Geophysics]
The inability of a system to exactly match input and output, a general example being an electronic amplifier and
the classic example being a home stereophonic amplifier.
Synonyms: amplitude distortion
See: bias, dispersion, dynamic range, harmonic distortion, zero-phase
2. n. [Geophysics]
A change in a waveform that is generally undesirable, such as in seismic waves.
See: seismic wave

diurnal variation

1. n. [Geophysics]
The daily variation in properties of the Earth, such as the temperature or the local geomagnetic field, or the daily
change in sunlight. Such variations depend in part on latitude, proximity to the ocean, the effects of solar radiation
and tides and other factors.

divergence

1. n. [Geophysics]
The loss of energy from a wavefront as a consequence of geometrical spreading, observable as a decrease in wave
amplitude. Spherical divergence decreases energy with the square of the distance. Cylindrical divergence
decreases energy with the distance.
See: spherical divergence
2. n. [Geophysics]
In mathematics, a process in which a sequence of numbers does not tend to a fixed limit (the opposite of
convergence). Divergence is a mathematical property of a vector field that is a local measure of its rate of
spreading.
Antonyms: convergence
3. n. [Geophysics]

In Cartesian coordinates, divergence is the sum of the partial derivatives of each component of the vector
field with respect to the corresponding spatial coordinate:
div V = ∇·V = ∂Vx/∂x + ∂Vy/∂y + ∂Vz/∂z

Dix formula

1. n. [Geophysics]

An equation used to calculate the interval velocity within a series of flat, parallel layers, named for
American geophysicist C. Hewitt Dix (1905 to 1984). Sheriff (1991) cautions that the equation is misused
in situations that do not match Dix's assumptions. The equation is as follows:
Vint = [(t2 VRMS22 − t1 VRMS12) / (t2 − t1)]1/2,
whereVint = interval velocityt1 = traveltime to the first reflectort2 = traveltime to the second reflectorVRMS1
= root-mean-square velocity to the first reflectorVRMS2 = root-mean-square velocity to the second
reflector.
Reference: Dix CH: "Seismic Velocities from Surface Measurements," Geophysics 20, no. 1 (January
1955): 68–86.

See: interval velocity, reflector, root-mean-square velocity, traveltime

DMO

1. n. [Geophysics]
The difference in the arrival times or traveltimes of a reflected wave, measured by receivers at two different offset
locations, that is produced when reflectors dip. Seismic processing compensates for DMO.
Alternate Form: dip moveout

dog leg

1. n. [Drilling]
A particularly crooked place in a wellbore where the trajectory of the wellbore in three-dimensional space changes
rapidly. While a dogleg is sometimes created intentionally by directional drillers, the term more commonly refers
to a section of the hole that changes direction faster than anticipated or desired, usually with harmful side effects.
In surveying wellbore trajectories, a standard calculation of dogleg severity is made, usually expressed in two-
dimensional degrees per 100 feet [degrees per 30 m] of wellbore length. There are several difficulties associated
with doglegs. First, the wellbore is not located in the planned path. Second is the possibility that a planned casing
string may no longer easily fit through the curved section. Third, repeated abrasion by the drillstring in a particular
location of the dogleg results in a worn spot called a keyseat, in which the bottomhole assembly components may
become stuck as they are pulled through the section. Fourth, casing successfully cemented through the dogleg may
wear unusually quickly due to higher contact forces between the drillstring and the inner diameter (ID) of the
casing through the dogleg. Fifth, a relatively stiff bottomhole assembly may not easily fit through the dogleg
section drilled with a relatively limber BHA. Sixth, excessive doglegs increase the overall friction to the drillstring,
increasing the likelihood of getting stuck or not reaching the planned total depth. Usually these problems are
manageable. If the dogleg impairs the well, remedial action can be taken, such as reaming or underreaming
through the dogleg, or even sidetracking in extreme situations.
Alternate Form: dogleg
2. n. [Geophysics]
An abrupt turn, bend or change of direction in a survey line, a wellbore, or a piece of equipment. Dog-legs can be
described in terms of their length and severity and quantified in degrees or degrees per unit of distance.

dogleg

1. n. [Drilling]
A particularly crooked place in a wellbore where the trajectory of the wellbore in three-dimensional space changes
rapidly. While a dogleg is sometimes created intentionally by directional drillers, the term more commonly refers
to a section of the hole that changes direction faster than anticipated or desired, usually with harmful side effects.
In surveying wellbore trajectories, a standard calculation of dogleg severity is made, usually expressed in two-
dimensional degrees per 100 feet [degrees per 30 m] of wellbore length. There are several difficulties associated
with doglegs. First, the wellbore is not located in the planned path. Second is the possibility that a planned casing
string may no longer easily fit through the curved section. Third, repeated abrasion by the drillstring in a particular
location of the dogleg results in a worn spot called a keyseat, in which the bottomhole assembly components may
become stuck as they are pulled through the section. Fourth, casing successfully cemented through the dogleg may
wear unusually quickly due to higher contact forces between the drillstring and the inner diameter (ID) of the
casing through the dogleg. Fifth, a relatively stiff bottomhole assembly may not easily fit through the dogleg
section drilled with a relatively limber BHA. Sixth, excessive doglegs increase the overall friction to the drillstring,
increasing the likelihood of getting stuck or not reaching the planned total depth. Usually these problems are
manageable. If the dogleg impairs the well, remedial action can be taken, such as reaming or underreaming
through the dogleg, or even sidetracking in extreme situations.
See: bottomhole assembly, casing string, directional driller, inside diameter, ream, sidetrack, total depth,
underream
2. n. [Geophysics]
An abrupt turn, bend or change of direction in a survey line, a wellbore, or a piece of equipment. Dog-legs can be
described in terms of their length and severity and quantified in degrees or degrees per unit of distance.
See: wellbore

domain
1. n. [Geophysics]
The set of values an independent variable can take. For example, the independent variable of the time domain is
time; and for the frequency domain, it is frequency.
See: absorbing boundary conditions, f-k domain, frequency domain, time domain
2. n. [Reservoir Characterization]
A region of magnetic polarity within a ferromagnetic body. Domains collectively determine the magnetic
properties of the body by their arrangement.
3. n. [Reservoir Characterization]
A region characterized by a specific feature.
4. n. [Reservoir Characterization]
The set of values assigned to the independent variables of a function.

doodlebugger

1. n. [Geophysics]
Slang term to describe a seismologist performing seismic field work.

double refraction

1. n. [Geophysics]
The splitting of an incidentÂ waveÂ into two waves of different velocities and orthogonal polarizations. Double
refraction, or birefringence, occurs in optical mineralogy (seeÂ petrography) when plane-polarized light passes
through anÂ anisotropicÂ mineralÂ and emerges as two rays traveling at different speeds, the difference between
which is characteristic of a mineral. In seismology, incident S-waves can exhibit birefringence as they split into a
quasi-shearÂ and a pure-shear wave. Although birefringence was first described by Danish physician Erasmus
Bartholin (1625 to 1698) in crystals in 1669, the phenomenon was not fully understood until French physicist
Etienne-Louis Malus (1775 to 1812) described polarized light in 1808.
Synonyms: birefringence
See: anisotropy, S-wave, seismology, velocity

downhole receiver

1. n. [Geophysics]
A receiver located in a wellbore, as opposed to a location on the Earth's surface.
See: geophone, wellbore

downhole source

1. n. [Geophysics]
A seismic source located in a wellbore rather than at the Earth's surface.
See: source

downward continuation

1. n. [Geophysics]
A technique used to estimate the value of a potential field or seismic data at a surface beneath a measured
surface. The method is risky because it assumes continuity of the field, so anomalies affect predictions, especially if
they occur beneath the measured surface. Noise can be exaggerated and affect calculations adversely.
Antonyms: upward continuation
See: anomaly, gravity, magnetics, seismic

drained test

1. n. [Geology, Geophysics, Formation Evaluation]

A drained test is one in which the pore fluid in the sample is able to flow and equilibrate to imposed pore pressure
conditions; the fluid mass and volume will vary but its pressure will be constant. A drained test could be on a dry
sample.
See: undrained test

drift

1. n. [Drilling]
A term to describe the inclination from vertical of a wellbore.
See: deviation survey, inclination
2. vb. [Drilling]
To guarantee the inside diameter of a pipe or other cylindrical tool by pulling a cylinder or pipe (often called a
rabbit) of known outside diameter through it. The drift diameter is the inside diameter (ID) that the pipe
manufacturer guarantees per specifications. Note that the nominal inside diameter is not the same as the drift
diameter but is always slightly larger. The drift diameter is used by the well planner to determine what size tools or
casing strings can later be run through the casing, whereas the nominal inside diameter is used for fluid volume
calculations such as mud circulating times and cement slurry placement calculations.
See: casing string, inside diameter, rabbit
3. vb. [Drilling]
To pass a gauge through casing, tubulars and completion components to ensure minimum-diameter specifications
are within tolerance, as described in definition 2. This task is also performed to ensure that there is no junk, dried
cement, dirt, rocks or other debris inside the pipe.
4. n. [Geophysics]
In calibration of a check-shot survey, the difference between geometrically corrected transit time and integrated
sonic time.
See: check-shot survey, transit time
5. n. [Geophysics]
A gradual change in a measurement or recording device during surveying. Reference to or repetition of a
measurement at a base station can indicate whether drift is a problem.
See: base station, survey
6. n. [Well Completions]
An accurately machined device that is pulled through the casing, tubulars and completion components to ensure
minimum-diameter specifications are within tolerance, as described in definition 2. While this tool is usually of a
short length, the well planner may specify a special drift that either has a longer length or a nonstandard outside
diameter. The large-diameter casing drifts are frequently known as "rabbits."
Synonyms: rabbit

drill noise vertical seismic profile

1. n. [Geophysics]
A technique for acquiring a verticalÂ seismicÂ profile that uses the noise of the drill bitÂ as a source and receivers
laid out along the ground or seabed. In deep water, the receiver arrays can be deployed vertically. Acquisition
andÂ processingÂ are typically more challenging than in the more conventional types of VSPs, but the technique
can yield time-depth information and, less frequently, reflection information, while the well is being drilled. The
information from a drill-noise VSP can be used to improve time-depth conversions while drilling, decide where to
setÂ casingÂ in a well and evaluate drilling hazards, such asÂ anomalousÂ pore pressure.
See: acquisition, noise, receiver, reflection, source, vertical seismic profile

dropout
1. n. [Geophysics]
The loss of information from a magnetic tape that occurs if the tape is damaged or exposed to dirt.
See: field tape
2. n. [Geophysics]
The failure of a channel or geophone to record a shot or shots in a seismic survey, which results in a loss of data.
See: seismic survey, shotpoint

DSS

dynamic correction

1. n. [Geophysics]
A time-variant operation performed on seismic data. Normal moveout (NMO) is a dynamic correction.
See: normal moveout, processing, static correction

dynamic range

1. n. [Geophysics]
The ratio of or difference between the highest and the lowest reading, or strongest and weakest signal, that can be
recorded or reproduced by an instrument without distortion.
See: decibel, distortion, signal

dynamite
1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of explosive used as a source for seismic energy during data acquisition. Originally, dynamite referred
specifically to a nitroglycerin-based explosive formulated in 1866 by Alfred Bernhard Nobel (1833 to 1896), the
Swedish inventor who endowed the Nobel prizes. The term is incorrectly used to mean any explosive rather than
the original formulation.
See: air shooting, shot depth

EDA

1. n. [Geophysics]
A form of azimuthal anisotropy that occurs when fractures or microcracks are not horizontal. Waves that travel
parallel to the fractures have a higher velocity than waves traveling perpendicular to fractures.
Alternate Form: extensive dilatancy anisotropy

eddy current

1. n. [Geophysics]
An alternating or transient electrical current in a conductive medium in the presence of a time-varying magnetic
field. The eddy current generates its own electromagnetic field.
See: damping, electromagnetic method

eel

1. n. [Geophysics]
A hydrophone array in a cable that can be attached to a streamer for acquisition of marine seismic data. The eel
can be suspended from the streamer so that the eel is close to the seafloor but the streamer remains high enough
to avoid obstacles on the seafloor such as reefs or debris from human activity.

elastic anisotropy
1. n. [Geophysics]
The variation of elastic properties with direction. For example, elastic anisotropy occurs when seismic, or
elastic, waves travel through rock at differing velocities in various directions. Elastic anisotropy occurs if
there is a preferred alignment of a material’s fabric elements—crystals, grains, cracks, bedding planes,
joints or fractures—on a scale smaller than the length of the wave. This alignment causes waves to
propagate fastest in its direction.
Elastic anisotropy is sometimes called seismic anisotropy, velocity anisotropy, traveltime anisotropy,
acoustic anisotropy or slowness anisotropy.
More Details:
 The Promise of Elastic Anisotropy

elastic constants

1. n. [Geophysics]
A set of constants, also known as elastic moduli, that defines the properties of material that undergoes stress,
deforms, and then recovers and returns to its original shape after the stress ceases. The elastic constants include
the bulk modulus, Lame constant, Poisson's ratio, shear modulus, and Young's modulus. Elastic constants are
important in seismology because the velocity of waves depends on the elastic constants and density of the rock.
Synonyms: elastic moduli, modulus of elasticity
See: bulk modulus, elastic, Lamé constant, Poisson's ratio, shear modulus, Young's modulus

elastic deformation

1. n. [Geology]
The deformation that can be recovered when an applied stress has been removed. When the elastic limit of a
material has been exceeded, nonrecoverable, permanent deformation occurs.
See: elastic limit, plastic deformation, rheology
2. n. [Geophysics]
A temporary change in shape caused by applied stress. The change in shape is not permanent and the initial shape
is completely recovered once the stress is removed.

elastic impedance

1. n. [Geophysics]
The product of the density of a medium and its shear wave velocity.
See: acoustic impedance

elastic moduli

1. n. [Geophysics]
A set of constants that defines the properties of material that undergoes stress, deforms, and then recovers and
returns to its original shape after the stress ceases. The elastic constants include the bulk modulus, Lame constant,
Poisson's ratio,Â shearÂ modulus, and Young's modulus. Elastic constants are important inÂ seismologyÂ because
theÂ velocityÂ of waves depends on the elastic constants and density of theÂ rock.
Synonyms: elastic constants, modulus of elasticity
See: bulk modulus, elastic, Lamé constant, Poisson's ratio, shear modulus, Young's modulus

elastic wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
A seismic or acoustic wave, such as a P-wave.
See: acoustic emission, acoustic wave, channel wave, P-wave, seismic wave

electrical conductivity

1. n. [Geophysics]

The ability of a material to support the flow of an electrical current. In linear isotropic materials, the
electric current density at any point in space is proportional to the electric field; the constant of
proportionality is the electrical conductivity. Conductivity is the inverse of resistivity in isotropic
materials, and is measured in siemens per meter or the archaic units of mhos per meter. The electrical
conductivity of the Earth can be measured by electromagnetic methods.
The electrical conductivity symbol is σ.

See: electromagnetic method

1. n. [Geophysics]
The ability of a material to store a charge from an applied electrical field without conducting electricity.
Synonyms: permittivity
See: dielectric, electromagnetic method

electrical resistivity

1. n. [Geophysics]

The ability of a material to resist or inhibit the flow of an electrical current, measured in ohm-meters.
Resistivity is the reciprocal of conductivity.
The electrical resistivity symbol is ρ.

electromagnetic method

1. n. [Geophysics]
A group of techniques in which natural or artificially generated electric or magnetic fields are measured at the
Earth's surface or in boreholes in order to map variations in the Earth's electrical properties (resistivity,
permeability or permittivity). Most applications of surface electromagnetic methods today are for mineral and
groundwater exploration or for shallow environmental mapping. Electromagnetic or electrical logging is, however,
the main technique used in oil exploration to measure the amount of hydrocarbons in the pores of underground
reservoirs. Inductive electromagnetic (EM) methods include a variety of low frequency (a few Hz to several kHz)
techniques deploying large or small wire coils at or near the surface. In older usage, "electromagnetic method"
tended to refer only to inductive methods. This term is now commonly used for any method employing
electromagnetic fields, including methods that use direct current (electrical or resistivity methods) and induced
polarization (IP), methods that use microwave frequencies (ground-penetrating radar), and methods that use
natural electromagnetic fields (magnetotelluric methods).
See: array, cultural noise, diffusion equation, dipole, eddy current, electrical conductivity, electrical permittivity,
fixed-source method, geometric, induced polarization, magnetics, magnetotelluric method, Maxwell's equations,
moving-source method, Occam's inversion, parametric, perpendicular offset, probe, reflection, skin depth, survey,
transient electromagnetic method, transverse electric mode, transverse magnetic mode

1. n. [Geophysics]
Any compensating factor used to bring measurements to a common datum or reference plane. In gravity
surveying, elevation corrections include the Bouguer and free-air corrections. Seismic data undergo a static
correction to reduce the effects of topography and low-velocity zones near the Earth's surface. Well log headers
include the elevation of the drilling rig's kelly bushing and, for onshore locations, the height of the location above
sea level, so that well log depths can be corrected to sea level.
See: Bouguer correction, free-air correction, gravity survey, kelly bushing, static correction

embedded wavelet

1. n. [Geophysics]
The shape of a wavelet produced by reflection of an actual wave train at one interface with a positive reflection
coefficient. The embedded wavelet is useful for generating a convolutional model, or the convolution of an
embedded wavelet with a reflectivity function and random noise, during seismic processing or interpretation.
Alternate Form: basic wavelet
See: reflection coefficient, seismic processing

epsilon (ε)

1. n. [Geophysics]

A P-wave parameter for a medium in which the elastic properties exhibit vertical transverse isotropy.
Epsilon (ε) is the P-wave anisotropy parameter and equal to half the ratio of the difference between the
horizontal and vertical P-wave velocities squared divided by the vertical P-wave velocity squared.
ε ≡ ½ [(C11 − C33) / C33] = ½ [(VP⊥2 − VPâˆ¥2) / VPâˆ¥2]
P-wave parameter (ε) for a medium in which the elastic properties exhibit vertical transverse isotropy,
where C11 is the horizontal P-wave modulus (perpendicular to the symmetry axis), C33 is the vertical P-
wave modulus (parallel to the symmetry axis), VP⊥ is the horizontal P-wave velocity and VPâˆ¥ is the
vertical P-wave velocity.
Reference: Thomsen L: “Weak Elastic Anisotropy,” Geophysics 51, no. 10 (October 1986): 1954–1966.

See: delta, gamma (γ), eta (η)

equipotential method

1. n. [Geophysics]
A technique to map a potential field generated by stationary electrodes by moving an electrode around the survey
area.
Synonyms: applied-potential method

eta (η)

1. n. [Geophysics]

A measure of the anellipticity of the P-wave phase slowness—the inverse of P-wave phase velocity—in
rock exhibiting vertical transverse isotropy.
η = (ε − δ) / (1 + 2δ)
Anellipticity of P-wave phase slowness for a medium in which the elastic properties exhibit vertical
transverse isotropy. Eta (η) is the anellipticity and ε and δ are the P-wave anisotropy parameters. When ε
and δ are equal, η = 0 and the P-wave phase slowness is an ellipse. When ε = δ = 0, the P-wave phase
slowness is isotropic.
Reference: Alkhalifah T and Tsvankin I: “Velocity Analysis for Transversely Isotropic Media,”
Geophysics 60, no. 5 (September–October 1995): 1550–1566.

See: epsilon (ε), delta

event

1. n. [Geophysics]
An appearance of seismic data as a diffraction, reflection, refraction or other similar feature produced by an arrival
of seismic energy. An event can be a single wiggle within a trace, or a consistent lining up of several wiggles over
several traces. An event in a seismic section can represent a geologic interface, such as a fault, unconformity or
change in lithology.
See: abnormal events, attenuate, bow tie, character, coherence filtering, dim spot, interval time, isochron map,
lag, long-path multiple, multiple reflection, peg-leg multiple, phantom, pick, primary reflection, processing, seismic
section, short-path multiple, sideswipe, signature, smile, space-frequency domain, tuning effect
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explosive seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
Surface seismic data acquired using an explosive energy source, such as dynamite.
See: acquisition, impulsive seismic data, vibratory seismic data

extended spread

1. n. [Geophysics]
An in-line offset spread.

extensive dilatancy anisotropy

1. n. [Geophysics]
A form of azimuthal anisotropy that occurs when fractures or microcracks are not horizontal. Waves that
travel parallel to the fractures have a higher velocity than waves traveling perpendicular to fractures.
Alternate Form: EDA
See: azimuth, fracture, wave
More Details:
 The Promise of Elastic Anisotropy

external disturbance field

1. n. [Geophysics]

A magnetic disturbance field generated by electric currents flowing in the ionosphere and magnetosphere
and “mirror-currents” induced in the Earth and oceans by the external magnetic field time variations. The
disturbance field, which is associated with diurnal field variations and magnetic storms, is affected by
solar activity (solar wind), the interplanetary magnetic field and the Earth’s magnetic field.
The external magnetic field exhibits variations on several time scales, which may affect the applicability
of magnetic reference models. Very long-period variations are related to the solar cycle of about 11 years.
Short-term variations result from daily changes in solar radiation, atmospheric tides and conductivity.
Irregular time variations are influenced by the solar wind. Perturbed magnetic states, called magnetic
storms, occur and show impulsive and unpredictable rapid time variations.

See: main magnetic field, crustal magnetic field, local magnetic interference

fan shooting

1. n. [Geophysics]
A technique for acquiring seismic refraction data around local, high-velocity features such as salt domes by using a
fan or arc-shaped geophone array around a central shotpoint. The data from the fan-shaped array are calibrated
against a control profile acquired some distance from the anomalous feature.
See: anomaly, calibration, geophone array, radial refraction, salt dome

fast Fourier transform

1. n. [Geophysics]
An iterative computer algorithm to perform the Fourier transform of digitized waveforms rapidly.
See: FFT, Fourier transform, waveform

Faye correction

1. n. [Geophysics]
In gravity surveying, a correction of 0.3086 mGal/m [0.09406 mGal/ft] added to a measurement to compensate for
the change in the gravitational field with height above sea level, assuming there is only air between the
measurement station and sea level.
See: anomaly, elevation correction, gravity anomaly, gravity survey, survey

FD
1. n. [Geophysics]
In seismic surveying or processing, the use of a function of frequency rather than time to express an independent
variable or measurement. In contrast, in the time domain, variables are expressed as a function of time instead of
frequency.
Alternate Form: frequency domain

Fermat's principle

1. n. [Geophysics]
The principle that the path taken by a ray of light from one point to another is that which takes the minimum time
(or the maximum time in select cases), named for its discoverer, French mathematician Pierre de Fermat (1601 to
1665). Snell's law and the laws of reflection and refraction follow from Fermat's principle. Fermat's principle also
applies to seismic waves.
See: least-time path, seismic wave, Snell's law, tomography

FFT

1. n. [Geophysics]
An iterative computer algorithm to perform the Fourier transform of digitized waveforms rapidly.
Alternate Form: fast Fourier transform

field tape

1. n. [Geophysics]
A magnetic tape containing data recorded in the field, abbreviated FT.
Alternate Form: FT

filter
1. n. [Geophysics]
A process or algorithm using a set of limits used to eliminate unwanted portions of seismic data, commonly on the
basis of frequency or amplitude, to enhance the signal-to-noise ratio of the data or to achieve deconvolution.
See: alias filter, aliasing, aperture, backscatter, band, band-pass, band-reject, coherence filtering, deterministic
deconvolution, Fourier transform, noise, processing, random noise, signal, signal-to-noise ratio, Walsh-Hadamard
transform
2. vb. [Geophysics]
To remove undesirable portions of data during seismic processing to increase the signal-to-noise ratio of seismic
data. Filtering can eliminate certain frequencies, amplitudes or other information.
See: amplitude, band, frequency, noise, seismic processing, signal-to-noise ratio

first arrival

1. n. [Geophysics]
The earliest arrival of energy propagated from the energy source at the surface to the geophone in the wellbore in
vertical seismic profiles and check-shot surveys, or the first indication of seismic energy on a trace. On land, first
breaks commonly represent the base of weathering and are useful in making static corrections.
See: base of weathering, check-shot survey, first break, static correction, suppression, vertical seismic profile

first break

1. n. [Geophysics]
The earliest arrival of energy propagated from the energy source at the surface to the geophone in the wellbore in
vertical seismic profiles and check-shot surveys, or the first indication of seismic energy on a trace. On land, first
breaks commonly represent the base of weathering and are useful in making static corrections.
See: base of weathering, check-shot survey, static correction, suppression, vertical seismic profile

fixed source method

1. n. [Geophysics]
An acquisition technique commonly used in electromagnetic methods whereby the energy source or transmitter is
kept in the same position, and detectors or receivers are moved to different spots to compile a profile or map.
See: detector, electromagnetic method, moving-source method, receiver

f-k domain

1. n. [Geophysics]
The use of frequency (abbreviated as f) and wavenumber (k, the reciprocal of wavelength) as the reference
framework, obtained by using the Fourier transform over time and space.
See: domain, f-k plot, Fourier transform, space-frequency domain, wavelength, wavenumber

f-k plot

1. n. [Geophysics]
A graphical technique to distinguish subsets of data according to their direction and velocity by plotting and
contouring frequency and wavenumber.
See: contour, f-k domain

flattened section

1. n. [Geophysics]
A seismic section that has been redisplayed such that a reflection of interest not horizontal in the original display
appears horizontal and flat. Such displays can shed light on geological conditions at the time a given sedimentary
layer accumulated.
See: seismic section

1 of 4
1. n. [Geology]
A wave-like geologic structure that forms when rocks deform by bending instead of breaking under compressional
stress. Anticlines are arch-shaped folds in which rock layers are upwardly convex. The oldest rock layers form the
core of the fold, and outward from the core progressively younger rocks occur. A syncline is the opposite type of
fold, having downwardly convex layers with young rocks in the core. Folds typically occur in anticline-syncline
pairs. The hinge is the point of maximum curvature in a fold. The limbs occur on either side of the fold hinge. The
imaginary surface bisecting the limbs of the fold is called the axial surface. The axial surface is called the axial plane
in cases where the fold is symmetrical and the lines containing the points of maximum curvature of the folded
layers, or hinge lines, are coplanar. Concentric folding preserves the thickness of each bed as measured
perpendicular to original bedding. Similar folds have the same wave shape, but bed thickness changes throughout
each layer, with thicker hinges and thinner limbs.
See: anomaly, axial surface, collision, competent, competent, competent, competent, competent, competent,
concentric fold, crest, disharmonic, drape, flower structure, harmonic, orogeny, parallel fold, plunge, similar fold,
strain, structural trap, trend
2. n. [Geophysics]
A measure of the redundancy of common midpoint seismic data, equal to the number of offset receivers that
record a given data point or in a given bin and are added during stacking to produce a single trace. Typical values of
fold for modern seismic data range from 60 to 240 for 2D seismic data, and 10 to 120 for 3D seismic data. The fold
of 2D seismic data can be calculated by dividing the number of seismometer groups by twice the number of group
intervals between shotpoints.
See: common depth point, common midpoint, common midpoint method, common reflection point, quicklook,
receiver, shotpoint, stack, trace, two-dimensional survey

forward problem

1. n. [Geophysics]
The practice of taking a model and calculating what the observed values should be, such as predicting the gravity
anomaly around a salt dome using a gravity model or predicting the traveltime of a seismic wave from a source to
a receiver using a velocity model.
See: gravity anomaly, inverse problem, salt dome

four component seismic data

four dimensional seismic data

four-component seismic data

four-dimensional seismic data

Fourier analysis

1. n. [Geophysics]
The process of decomposing a function of time or space into a sum (or integral) of sinusoidal functions (sines or
cosines) with specific amplitudes and phases.
See: Fourier transform, frequency domain, Gibbs' phenomenon, sinusoid, time domain
2. n. [Reservoir Characterization]
A mathematical algorithm designed by geometrician and physicist Baron J.B.J. Fourier to determine the frequency
distribution within a wave pattern as a series of sine waves. Fourier analysis is also used to study any series of
repeated signals or patterns. This analysis is sometimes used to study patterns in images such as thin sections, and
in geostatistics and log analysis.

Fourier synthesis

1. n. [Geophysics]
The process of reconstructing a function of time or space from its sinusoidal components determined in Fourier
analysis.
See: Fourier analysis, Fourier transform, frequency domain, Gibbs' phenomenon, time domain

Fourier transform

1. n. [Geophysics]
A set of mathematical formulas used to convert a time function, such as a seismic trace, to a function in the
frequency domain (Fourier analysis) and back (Fourier synthesis). The function is expressed as a convergent
trigonometric series, similar to that first formulated by French mathematician Jean-Baptiste-Joseph, Baron Fourier
(1768 to 1830). The Fourier transform is used extensively in signal processing to design filters and remove
coherent noise. Many filtering operations are performed in the frequency domain. The Fourier transform has
applications in image analysis and in pattern recognition in geological systems.
See: band-limited function, fast Fourier transform, Fourier analysis, Fourier synthesis, frequency domain, FT,
seismic trace, sinc x, Walsh-Hadamard transform

free air correction

free-air correction

frequency

1. n. [Geophysics]
The rate of repetition of complete wavelengths of electrical signals, light, sound and seismic waves measured in
cycles per second, or hertz, and symbolized by f. Typical recorded seismic frequencies are in the range of 5 to 100
hertz.
See: acoustic, acoustic emission, aliasing, attribute, band, band-limited function, band-pass, band-reject, character,
complex-trace analysis, correlation, dispersion, f-k domain, f-k plot, filter, mute, natural frequency, processing,
signal, sonic, space-frequency domain, spectral, spectrum, vibratory seismic data, wave, wavelength, wavelet

1. n. [Geophysics]
In seismic surveying or processing, the use of a function of frequency rather than time to express an independent
variable or measurement. In contrast, in the time domain, variables are expressed as a function of time instead of
frequency.
Alternate Form: FD
See: Fourier analysis, Fourier synthesis, Fourier transform, seismic survey, time domain

Fresnel zone

1. n. [Geophysics]
A frequency- and range-dependent area of a reflector from which most of the energy of a reflection is returned
and arrival times differ by less than half a period from the first break, named for French physicist Augustin-Jean
Fresnel (1788 to 1827). Waves with such arrival times will interfere constructively and so be detected as a single
arrival. Subsurface features smaller than the Fresnel zone usually cannot be detected using seismic waves.
See: attenuation, first break, resolution, wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
A magnetic tape containing data recorded in the field, abbreviated FT
Alternate Form: field tape
2. n. [Geophysics]
A set of mathematical formulas used to convert a time function, such as a seismic trace, to a function in the
frequency domain (Fourier analysis) and back (Fourier synthesis). The function is expressed as a convergent
trigonometric series, similar to that first formulated by French mathematician Jean-Baptiste-Joseph, Baron Fourier
(1768 to 1830). The Fourier transform is used extensively in signal processing to design filters and remove
coherent noise. Many filtering operations are performed in the frequency domain. The Fourier transform has
applications in image analysis and in pattern recognition in geological systems.
Alternate Form: Fourier transform

1. n. [Geophysics]
A single-vessel technique of acquiring marine seismic data at a complete range of azimuths by towing
streamers in a circular path.
More Details:
 Shooting Seismic Surveys in Circles
 Developments in Full Azimuth Marine Seismic Imaging

gain

1. n. [Geophysics]
The change in the amplitude of an electrical signal from the original input to the amplified output.
See: automatic gain control, true-amplitude recovery

gamma (γ)

1. n. [Geophysics]

An S-wave parameter for a medium in which the elastic properties exhibit vertical transverse isotropy.
Gamma (γ) is the S-wave anisotropy parameter and is equal to half the ratio of the difference between the
horizontally and vertically traveling SH-wave velocities squared divided by the vertically traveling SH-
wave velocity squared; an SH-wave is a shear wave that is horizontally polarized.
γ ≡ ½ [(C66 − C44) / C44] = ½ [(VSH⊥2 − VSHâˆ¥2) / VSHâˆ¥2]
S-wave parameter (γ) for a medium in which the elastic properties exhibit vertical transverse isotropy,
where C66 is the modulus for a horizontally polarized and horizontally traveling S-wave (perpendicular to
the symmetry axis), C44 is the modulus for a horizontally polarized and vertically traveling S-wave
(parallel to the symmetry axis), VSH⊥ is the velocity for a horizontally polarized and horizontally traveling
S-wave and VSHâˆ¥ is the velocity for a horizontally polarized and vertically traveling S-wave.
Reference: Thomsen L: “Weak Elastic Anisotropy,” Geophysics 51, no. 10 (October 1986): 1954–1966.
See: epsilon (ε), delta, eta (η)

gas chimney

1. n. [Geophysics]
A subsurface leakage of gas from a poorly sealed hydrocarbon accumulation. The gas can cause overlying rocks to
have a low velocity. Gas chimneys are visible in seismic data as areas of poor data quality or push-downs.
See: hydrocarbon indicator, push-down, velocity

gather

1. n. [Geophysics]
A display of seismic traces that share an acquisition parameter, such as a common midpoint gather, which contains
traces having a common midpoint.
See: common midpoint, seismic trace, stacking velocity, trace

geomagnetic secular variation

1. n. [Geophysics]
How Earth’s magnetic field varies with time. These time variations, called secular variations, necessitate
periodic updating of magnetic field maps and models. Two types of processes in the Earth’s core produce
these variations. One process is related to variations in Earth’s main dipole field, which operate on time
scales of hundreds or thousands of years. The other process is related to variations in Earth’s nondipole
field, which operate on time scales on the order of tens of years.
See: main magnetic field, dipole field, nondipole field
More Details:
 Geomagnetic Referencingâ€”The Real-Time Compass for Directional Drillers
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geometric

1. adj. [Geophysics]
Pertaining to variation of the survey geometry while maintaining the frequency of electromagnetic surveying. In
contrast, parametric pertains to keeping frequency the same while varying the geometry.
See: electromagnetic method, parametric

geophone

1. n. [Geophysics]
A device used in surface seismic acquisition, both onshore and on the seabed offshore, that detects ground
velocity produced by seismic waves and transforms the motion into electrical impulses. Geophones detect motion
in only one direction. Conventional seismic surveys on land use one geophone per receiver location to detect
motion in the vertical direction. Three mutually orthogonal geophones are typically used in combination to collect
3C seismic data. Hydrophones, unlike geophones, detect changes in pressure rather than motion.
Synonyms: jug, receiver, seismometer
See: accelerometer, array, cable, channel, check-shot survey, coupling, damping, datum correction, detector,
displacement, downhole receiver, dropout, fan shooting, first break, four-component seismic data, geophone
interval, ground roll, group interval, hodogram, hydrophone, image, jug hustler, multicomponent seismic data,
nest, ocean-bottom cable, random noise, seismograph, spread, three-component seismic data, velocity analysis

geophone array

1. n. [Geophysics]
A geometrical arrangement ofÂ seismicÂ receivers (geophones) with signals recorded by oneÂ channel. The array
can contain numerous closely spaced geophones.
See: array, fan shooting, footprint, geophone, ground roll, hydrophone, radial array, receiver, seismic trace,
source, source pattern, spread

geophone cable
1. n. [Geophysics]
A bundle of electrical wires that connects geophones and relays data to theÂ seismicÂ recording truck or seismic
vessel.
See: cable, channel, eel, geophone, hydrophone, jug hustler, ocean-bottom cable, spacer, streamer

geophone interval

1. n. [Geophysics]
The distance between geophones or the centers of groups of geophones.
Synonyms: group interval
See: geophone, group, source

geophone offset

1. n. [Geophysics]
In surfaceÂ seismic acquisition, the horizontal distance fromÂ sourceÂ to geophone. In a vertical seismic profile,
geophone offset is the horizontal distance between the source and theÂ wellheadÂ or the surface projection of the
geophone in the case of a deviated well. Offset between seismic source and receiver creates a delay, or moveout,
in the arrival time of aÂ reflectionÂ that can be corrected before stacking and can be used to determineÂ velocity.
See: acquisition, arrival time, common-offset, extended spread, fold, lithostratigraphic inversion, moveout, mute,
normal moveout, offset, perpendicular offset, shotpoint, spread, tail mute, two-way traveltime, velocity analysis,
vertical seismic profile, walkaway vertical seismic profile, zero-offset data

geophone pattern

1. n. [Geophysics]
A scientist trained in the study of the physics of the Earth, particularly its electrical, gravitational and magnetic
fields and propagation of elastic (seismic) waves within it. In the petroleum industry, geophysicists perform a
variety of functions, chiefly the processing and interpretation of seismic data and generation of subsurface maps
on the basis of seismic data. Such interpretations enhance understanding of subsurface geology.
See: elastic wave, seismic wave

geophysics

1. n. [Geophysics]
The study of the physics of the Earth, especially its electrical, gravitational and magnetic fields and propagation of
elastic (seismic) waves within it. Geophysics plays a critical role in the petroleum industry because geophysical data
are used by exploration and development personnel to make predictions about the presence, nature and size of
subsurface hydrocarbon accumulations.
See: acoustic, gravity, magnetics, seismic, seismic wave

ghost

1. n. [Geophysics]
A short-path multiple, or a spurious reflection that occurs when seismic energy initially reverberates upward from
the shallow subsurface and then is reflected downward, such as at the base of weathering or between sources and
receivers and the sea surface.
See: base of weathering, multiple reflection, receiver, short-path multiple, source

gravimeter

1. n. [Geophysics]
A device used to measure the acceleration due to gravity, or, more specifically, variations in the gravitational field
between two or more points.
See: detector, gravimetry

gravimetry

1. n. [Geophysics]
The measurement of gravity or the study of its variations.
See: gravimeter, gravity

gravity

1. n. [Geophysics]
The Earth's gravitational field, or the attractive force produced by the mass of the Earth. Variations in the
gravitational field can be used to map changes in the density of formations in the Earth. Gravity surveys can be
used to map the extent or depth of sedimentary basins or even individual hydrocarbon prospects.
See: anomaly, Bouguer anomaly, Bouguer correction, caprock effect, deep tow, density contrast, density profile,
downward continuation, free-air correction, geophysics, gravimeter, gravimetry, gravity anomaly, isostatic
correction, potential field, remote sensing, spherical divergence, upward continuation

gravity anomaly

1. n. [Geophysics]
The difference between the actual value of gravity measured at a location and the value predicted by a particular
Earth model. Gravity anomalies are usually determined by adjusting the known value of (absolute) gravity at a
reference station by Bouguer, free-air or other corrections and subtracting the final predicted value from the
measurement. (A different description is that the various corrections are subtracted from the data to reduce it to
the reference level. Both interpretations are valid provided it is remembered that the resulting gravity anomaly can
be caused by density anomalies-i.e., differences in density between Earth and the theoretical model-that can lie
anywhere either above or below the reference level.)
See: anomaly, Bouguer correction, free-air correction, gravity

1. n. [Geophysics]
The measurement of gravitational acceleration over an area, usually presented as a map or profile of Bouguer or
free-air anomalies.
See: Bouguer anomaly, free-air correction, survey

grid

1. n. [Geophysics]
A regular spatial arrangement of points, such as x-y coordinates.
2. vb. [Geophysics]
To convert irregularly spaced points to a regular spacing by interpolation.

ground roll

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of coherent noise generated by a surface wave, typically a low-velocity, low-frequency, high-amplitude
Rayleigh wave. Ground roll can obscure signal and degrade overall data quality, but can be alleviated through
careful selection of source and geophone arrays, filters and stacking parameters.
See: acquisition, array, coherent noise, mute, random noise, Rayleigh wave, stack, surface wave, tail mute, water-
bottom roll

group

1. n. [Geophysics]
A set of seismometers whose output is sent to a common data channel to record a seismic trace. A large group is
known as a patch.
See: fold, geophone interval, group interval, patch, seismic trace, seismometer, spread

1. n. [Geophysics]
The distance between geophones or groups of geophones.
Synonyms: geophone interval
See: geophone, group, source, spacing

group velocity

1. n. [Geophysics]

The velocity that wave energyâ€”comprised of a wave group, train or packet of individual wave phases or
componentsâ€”travels through a medium. The wave energy may be grouped into an envelope that is
shrink-wrapped around it. The shape of the envelope around the wave-energy group changes with
distance because the individual wave phases move apart from one another.
vg = vp âˆ’ Î» (âˆ‚vp/âˆ‚Î») = vp + f (âˆ‚vp/âˆ‚f)
Relation of group velocity to phase velocity. As a wave travels through a medium, its energy moves at the
group velocity (vg) and its individual phases, or components, move at their phase velocity (vp). The wave
changes shape with distance as each frequency (f), or wavelength (Î»), component moves at its separate
phase velocity through the phenomenon of dispersion. Relative to the group velocity, each component
moves with faster or slower phase velocity, depending on how phase velocity changes with wavelength or
frequency.

See: phase velocity

guided wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type ofÂ elastic waveÂ propagated and confined in a layer whoseÂ velocityÂ is lower than that of the
surrounding layers, such as a layer ofÂ coal.
See: surface wave

gun
1. n. [Geophysics]
Abbreviation for air gun or water gun. An air gun is a source of seismic energy used in acquisition of marine seismic
data. This gun releases highly compressed air into water. Air guns are also used in water-filled pits on land as an
energy source during acquisition of vertical seismic profiles. A water gun is a source of energy for acquisition of
marine seismic data that shoots water from a chamber in the tool into a larger body of water, creating cavitation.
The cavity is a vacuum and implodes without creating secondary bubbles. This provides a short time signature and
higher resolution than an air-gun source.
See: acquisition, air gun, bubble effect, cavitation, impulsive seismic data, resolution, source, vertical seismic
profile, water gun

2. n. [Perforating]
Â A device used to perforate oil and gas wells in preparation for production. Containing several shaped explosive
charges, perforating guns are available in a range of sizes and configurations. The diameter of the gun used is
typically determined by the presence of wellbore restrictions or limitations imposed by the surface equipment.
See: casing gun, expendable gun, high-shot density gun

halo effect

1. n. [Geophysics]
An anomaly that occurs as a ring around a feature, such as electrical or geochemical rings around hydrocarbon
accumulations.
See: anomaly

harmonic distortion

1. n. [Geophysics]
A nonlinear change in waveform in which simple multiples of (1,2, ... n times) the input frequencies, or harmonics,
are generated.
See: distortion

1. n. [Geophysics]
A wave entering a relatively high-velocity medium whose incident and refracted angle is the critical angle.
Synonyms: refraction
See: angle of incidence, critical angle, refractor
2. n. [Formation Evaluation]
A pressure wave in the borehole fluid generated by the passage of either the acoustic compressional wave or the
shear wave in the formation. These pressure waves are recorded by logging tools using hydrophones and are the
basis for the sonic log. A head wave is generated only when the compressional or the shear speed is faster than the
fluid speed. In slow formations, where the shear speed is less than the fluid speed, no shear head wave is created.
See: acoustic mode, sonic measurement

header

1. n. [Geophysics]
The location, acquisition and processing parameters, and other pertinent information attached to a well log,
seismic record and traces.
See: parameter, seismic record, seismic section, well log
2. n. [Production Facilities]
In a gathering system, a pipe arrangement that connects flowlines from several wellheads into a single gathering
line. A header has production and testing valves to control the flow of each well, thus directing the produced fluids
to production or testing vessels. Individual gas/oil ratios and well production rates of oil, gas and water can be
assigned by opening and closing selected valves in a header and using individual metering equipment or
separators.
See: flowline, gathering lines, gathering system, separator, wellhead

hertz

1. n. [Geophysics]
The unit of measurement of frequency, equivalent to one cycle per second and symbolized by Hz. The unit is
named after German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857 to 1894), who discovered electromagnetic waves.
See: acoustic, acoustic, frequency, seismic, sonic, wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
A graph or curve that displays time versus distance of motion.
2. n. [Geophysics]
A crossplot of two components of particle motion over a time window. Hodograms are used in borehole
seismology to determine arrival directions of waves and to detect shear-wave splitting. Data recorded along two
geophone axes are displayed as a function of time.
See: borehole seismic data, S-wave, shear wave

horizon

1. n. [Geology]
An informal term used to denote a surface in or of rock, or a distinctive layer of rock that might be represented by
a reflection in seismic data. The term is often used incorrectly to describe a zone from which hydrocarbons are
produced.
See: hardground
2. n. [Geophysics]
An interface that might be represented by a seismic reflection, such as the contact between two bodies of rock
having different seismic velocity, density, porosity, fluid content or all of those.
See: fluid contact, lithologic contact, reflection

horizon slice

1. n. [Geophysics]
A map view of a particular reflection in a 3D seismic survey, as opposed to a horizontal (depth) slice or at a given
time (a time slice). Slices are convenient displays for visual inspection of seismic attributes, especially amplitude.
See: attribute, three-dimensional survey, time slice

horizontal transverse isotropy

1. n. [Geophysics]

Transverse isotropy that has a horizontal axis of rotational symmetry. In vertically fractured rocks,
properties are uniform in vertical planes parallel to the fractures, but vary in the direction perpendicular to
the fractures and across the fractures.

Alternate Form: TIH, HTI

HTI

1. n. [Geophysics]

Abbreviation for horizontal transverse isotropy. Transverse isotropy that has a horizontal axis of
rotational symmetry. In vertically fractured rocks, properties are uniform in vertical planes parallel to the
fractures, but vary in the direction perpendicular to the fractures and across the fractures.

Alternate Form: horizontal transverse isotropy, TIH

hydrocarbon indicator

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of seismic amplitude anomaly, seismic event, or characteristic of seismic data that can occur in a
hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir. Although "bright spots," as hydrocarbon indicators are loosely called, can
originate in numerous ways, they are not all indicative of the presence of hydrocarbons. Criteria to
distinguish true hydrocarbon indicators (sometimes called HCIs) from other types of amplitude anomalies
include:
 amplitude variation with offset
 bright or dim spot(s) in amplitude as a result of variations in lithology and pore fluids, sometimes
occurring in groups of stacked reservoirs
 change or reversal in polarity because of velocity changes, also called phasing
 conformity with local structures
 diffractions that emanate from fluid contacts
 flat spot that represents a fluid (gas-oil or gas-water) contact, which can also show the downdip
limit of the reservoir in some cases
 gas chimneys above leaking reservoirs
 shadow zones below the accumulation
 velocity push-down because of lower velocities of hydrocarbons than rocks
 difference in response between reflected pressure and shear energy.
Hydrocarbon indicators are most common in relatively young, unconsolidated siliciclastic sediments with
large impedance contrasts across lithologic boundaries, such as those in the Gulf of Mexico and offshore
western Africa. An ongoing issue in exploration for hydrocarbon indicators is the difficulty in
distinguishing between gas accumulations and water with a low degree of gas saturation ("fizz water").
Alternate Form: bright spot
See: amplitude anomaly, amplitude variation with offset, attribute, diffraction, dim spot, gas chimney,
phase, push-down, velocity

hydrophone

1. n. [Geophysics]
A device designed for use in detecting seismic energy in the form of pressure changes under water during marine
seismic acquisition. Hydrophones are combined to form streamers that are towed by seismic vessels or deployed
in a borehole. Geophones, unlike hydrophones, detect motion rather than pressure.
See: acoustic positioning, acquisition, array, cable, detector, eel, four-component seismic data, geophone, ocean-
bottom cable, receiver, seismometer, streamer, three-component seismic data

IIP

1. n. [Geophysics]
Inductive-source induced polarization.
See: induced polarization

image
1. n. [Geophysics]
The apparent source of a received wave. The image is the point in the subsurface that the rays would appear to
have come from if they were not reflected, but were shot up from below. A ray that travels from a source and is
reflected to a geophone has the same appearance as a ray that travels straight from the image and up to the
geophone.
See: geophone, raypath, source, wave
2. n. [Geophysics]
A representation that depicts the subsurface in two or more dimensions.
3. vb. [Geophysics]
In remote sensing, to record and interpret electromagnetic energy from the surfaces of planets or satellites using
photographic displays.
See: remote sensing

impedance

1. n. [Geophysics]
In acoustics, the product of velocity times density, also called acoustic impedance and symbolized by Z. The
reflection coefficient of an interface depends on the contrast in acoustic impedance of the rock on either side of
the interface.
See: acoustic impedance, reflection coefficient
2. n. [Geophysics]
In electromagnetics or electrical circuit theory, the ratio of voltage to current when these are represented by
phasor quantities in alternating current circuits. (A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and
phase of a quantity that varies sinusoidally in time.) Electrical impedance, also symbolized by Z, is a complex
number that has the same units (ohms) as resistivity.

impulsive seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
Seismic data whose energy source is impulsive and of short duration, as with an air gun, rather than vibratory, as
with a vibrator.
See: acquisition, air gun, explosive seismic data, vibratory seismic data

in line
1. n. [Geophysics]
A seismic line within a 3D survey parallel to the direction in which the data were acquired. In marine seismic data,
the in-line direction is that in which the recording vessel tows the streamers.
See: acquisition, crossline, extended spread, spread, streamer, three-dimensional seismic data

incident angle

inclinometer

1. n. [Geophysics]
An instrument used to measure the dip of the Earth's magnetic field.
See: magnetics

induced polarization

1. n. [Geophysics]
An electromagnetic method that uses electrodes with time-varying currents and voltages to map the variation of
electrical permittivity (dielectric constant) in the Earth at low frequencies. Induced polarization is observed when a
steady current through two electrodes in the Earth is shut off: the voltage does not return to zero instantaneously,
but rather decays slowly, indicating that charge has been stored in the rocks. This charge, which accumulates
mainly at interfaces between clay minerals, is responsible for the IP effect. This effect can be measured in either
the time domain by observing the rate of decay of voltage or in the frequency domain by measuring phase shifts
between sinusoidal currents and voltages. It is often used in exploration for minerals and can sometimes
distinguish different types of mineralization. The IP method can probe to subsurface depths of thousands of
meters.
Alternate Form: IP
See: dielectric constant, electrical permittivity, electromagnetic method, IIP, time domain

in-line

1. n. [Geophysics]
A seismic line within a 3D survey parallel to the direction in which the data were acquired. In marine seismic data,
the in-line direction is that in which the recording vessel tows the streamers.
See: acquisition, crossline, extended spread, spread, streamer, three-dimensional seismic data

interpretation

1. n. [Geophysics]
In geophysics, analysis of data to generate reasonable models and predictions about the properties and
structures of the subsurface. Interpretation of seismic data is the primary concern of geophysicists.
See: autotrack, check-shot survey, geophysicist, mis-tie, model, phantom, pick, processing, seismic
modeling, tie, work station
More Details:
 Integrated Reservoir Interpretation

interval time

interval transit time

1. n. [Geophysics]
The amount of time for a wave to travel a certain distance, proportional to the reciprocal of velocity, typically
measured in microseconds per foot by an acoustic log and symbolized by t or DT. P-wave interval transit times for
common sedimentary rock types range from 43 (dolostone) to 160 (unconsolidated shales) microseconds per foot,
and can be distinguished from measurements of steel casing, which has a consistent transit time of 57
microseconds per foot.
Synonyms: delta t, slowness, transit time
See: drift, wave

interval velocity

1. n. [Geophysics]
The velocity, typically P-wave velocity, of a specific layer or layers of rock, symbolized by vint and commonly
calculated from acoustic logs or from the change in stacking velocity between seismic events on a common
midpoint gather.
See: acoustic log, Dix formula, P-wave, velocity

interwell tomography

1. n. [Geophysics, Formation Evaluation, Enhanced Oil Recovery]

A technique for measuring a signal that is broadcast from a transmitter or source located in one well, to a
receiver array placed in a neighboring well. This technique is used to create a display of formation
properties such as acoustic velocity and attenuation, seismic reflectivity, or electromagnetic resistivity in
the area between wells. The reservoir-scale data acquired with this technique can be used to bridge the
gap between wellbore measurements and surface measurements.
See: interwell tomography, tomography
More Details:
 Looking Deep into the Reservoir

1. n. [Geophysics]
The problem of determining the value or spatial variation of a physical property or feature by comparing
measurements to the predictions of a model. For example, seismic traveltimes from a source to a receiver can be
used to build a model of seismic velocity in the Earth, or earthquake arrival times can be used to determine the
timing and focus (location) of an earthquake. A typical inverse problem in electromagnetics is to determine the
variation of electrical conductivity in the Earth from measurements of induced electric and magnetic fields. A
forward problem, in contrast, involves taking an assumed model and calculating what the observed values should
be, such as the predicting seismic traveltimes between a source and a receiver given a velocity model.
See: forward problem

inversion

1. n. [Geology]
The reversal of features, particularly structural features such as faults, by reactivation. For example, a
normal fault might move in a direction opposite to its initial movement.
See: fault, normal fault, structure
2. n. [Geology]
The atypical appearance of structural and topographic features, such as an anticline being exposed in a
valley instead of as a hill; also called inverted relief.
See: anticline, structure, topographic map

3. n. [Geophysics]
A mathematical process by which data are used to generate a model that is consistent with the data, the
process of solving the inverse problem. In seismology, surface seismic data, vertical seismic profiles and
well log data can be used to perform inversion, the result of which is a model of Earth layers and their
thickness, density and P- and S-wave velocities. Successful seismic inversion usually requires a high
signal-to-noise ratio and a large bandwidth.
See: convergence, layer stripping, lithostratigraphic inversion, noise, Occam's inversion, parametric,
processing, seismic modeling, signal, signal-to-noise ratio
More Details:
 Seismic Inversion: Reading Between the Lines

IP
1. n. [Geophysics]
An electromagnetic method that uses electrodes with time-varying currents and voltages to map the variation of
electrical permittivity (dielectric constant) in the Earth at low frequencies. Induced polarization is observed when a
steady current through two electrodes in the Earth is shut off: the voltage does not return to zero instantaneously,
but rather decays slowly, indicating that charge has been stored in the rocks. This charge, which accumulates
mainly at interfaces between clay minerals, is responsible for the IP effect. This effect can be measured in either
the time domain by observing the rate of decay of voltage or in the frequency domain by measuring phase shifts
between sinusoidal currents and voltages. It is often used in exploration for minerals and can sometimes
distinguish different types of mineralization. The IP method can probe to subsurface depths of thousands of
meters
Alternate Form: induced polarization
2. n. [Drilling Fluids]
Abbreviation for the Institute of Petroleum, a standardization body for the petroleum industry in Europe. Several
industry-standard drilling-fluid tests are adopted from IP and ASTM procedures.
See: API, aromatic content test, ASTM, flash point, ISO

isochron

1. n. [Geophysics]
A line joining points of equal time or age, such as a reflection in a seismic profile or contours in an isochron map.
See: contour, isochron map, isochron map, reflection

isochron map

1. n. [Geophysics]
A contour map that displays the variation in time between two seismic events or reflections.
See: difference map, isochron
2. n. [Geophysics]
A contour map showing the traveltimes to one particular seismic event or reflection.
See: contour map, event, isochron, reflection, traveltime

isostatic correction
1. n. [Geophysics]
A correction for variations in the density or thickness of the Earth's crust. Isostatic corrections are commonly
applied to gravity data and are made according to a specific model for isostasy.
See: gravity, isostasy

jug

1. n. [Geophysics]
Archaic slang for a geophone.
Synonyms: geophone, receiver, seismometer
See: geophone

jug hustler

1. n. [Geophysics]
Slang term for a member of a seismic acquisition crew or party who lays out cables and plants geophones for
seismic acquisition and collects them after surveying.
See: acquisition, cable, geophone, party, plant

Kirchhoff equation

1. n. [Geophysics]
A mathematical representation of the principle that a wavefield at a given point in space and time can be
considered as the superposition of waves propagating from adjacent points and earlier times. It is an integral form
of the wave equation in which the wave function at a point is represented as the sum (integral) of contributions
from a surface enclosing the given point. The Kirchhoff equation (also called the Kirchhoff integral) is the basis for
Kirchhoff migration.
See: Kirchhoff migration, wave equation

Kirchhoff migration
1. n. [Geophysics]
A method of seismic migration that uses the integral form (Kirchhoff equation) of the wave equation. All methods
of seismic migration involve the backpropagation (or continuation) of the seismic wavefield from the region where
it was measured (Earth's surface or along a borehole) into the region to be imaged. In Kirchhoff migration, this is
done by using the Kirchhoff integral representation of a field at a given point as a (weighted) superposition of
waves propagating from adjacent points and times. Continuation of the wavefield requires a background model of
seismic velocity, which is usually a model of constant or smoothly varying velocity. Because of the integral form of
Kirchhoff migration, its implementation reduces to stacking the data along curves that trace the arrival time of
energy scattered by image points in the earth.
Synonyms: diffraction stack
See: diffraction, Kirchhoff equation, migration, ray tracing

kriging

1. n. [Geophysics]
A statistical technique used with variograms, or two-point statistical functions that describe the increasing
difference or decreasing correlation between sample values as separation between them increases, to determine
the value of a point in a heterogeneous grid from known values nearby.
See: variogram

lag

1. n. [Geophysics]
The delay or difference in the arrival time of seismic events that can result from weathering of the rocks or
variations in geologic structures in the subsurface.
See: arrival, event, weathering
2. n. [Geophysics]
A term used in seismic processing to describe the interval between the zero-time of a crosscorrelation between
two traces and the point of maximum correlation.
See: crosscorrelation, trace
3. n. [Geophysics]
The time delay of the onset of one sinusoidal oscillation, or frequency component of a trace, relative to another.
Also known as a "phase-lag."
See: sinusoid
4. n. [Formation Evaluation]
The distance between the static measure point and the dynamic measure point of a logging measurement. For
nuclear logs and any others that must be recorded over a significant time period, there is a difference between the
measure point with the tool stationary and moving. If the tool is moving during this period, the effective center of
measurement will be a certain distance from the point at which the measurement started. This distance is the lag.
The lag depends on the logging speed and the sampling interval.
See: sampling interval, vertical resolution

Lamé constant

1. n. [Geophysics]

One of two elastic constants named for French mathematician Gabriel Lamé (1795 to 1870). The first
Lamé constant is λ, the bulk modulus (K) less two-thirds of the shear modulus (μ):
λ = K − (2/3)μ
The second Lamé constant is the shear modulus (μ):
μ = τ / γ = (ΔF/A) / (ΔL/L),
whereμ = Shear modulusτ = Shear stress = ΔF/AΔF = Increment of shear forceA = Area acted on by the
shear forceγ = Shear strain = ΔL/LΔL = Increment of transverse displacement parallel to AL = Original
length.
Lamé constants derived from elastic-wave velocities:
λ = ρ(VP2 − 2VS2)
μ = ρVS2
λ/μ = (VP/VS)2 − 2,
whereλ = Lamé's first constantμ = Lamé's second constant, the shear modulusVP = Compressional-wave
(P-wave) velocityVS = Shear-wave (S-wave) velocityρ = Density.

See: bulk modulus, elastic constants, shear modulus, P-wave, S-wave

Laplace equation

1. n. [Geophysics]

A partial differential equation that governs potential fields (in regions where there are no sources) and is
equivalent, in three dimensions, to the inverse square law of gravitational or electrical attraction. In
Cartesian coordinates, the Laplace equation equates the sum of the second partial (spatial) derivatives of
the field to zero. (When a source is present, this sum is equal to the strength of the source and the
resulting equation is called Poisson's equation). The differential equation is named for French
mathematician Pierre-Simon de Laplace (1749 to 1827), and applies to electrical, gravity and magnetic
fields.
∇2u = ∂2u/∂x2 + ∂2u/∂y2 + ∂2u/∂z2 = 0,
where u(x,y,z) is a potential function.

See: potential field, spherical harmonic

layer stripping

1. n. [Geophysics]
A method of seismic inversion whereby the effects of rock layers having different seismic characteristics are
removed from layers below.
See: inversion

least time path

1. n. [Geophysics]
The fastest route that a seismic ray can travel between two points, generally dictated by Fermat's principle.
See: Fermat's principle, Snell's law

least-time path

1. n. [Geophysics]
The fastest route that a seismic ray can travel between two points, generally dictated by Fermat's principle.
See: Fermat's principle, Snell's law

lithostratigraphic inversion

1. n. [Geophysics]
A seismic inversion technique that attempts to describe lithology of individual rock layers and evaluate
properties and distribution of pore fluids through analysis of variation of reflected seismic amplitude with
offset.
See: amplitude variation with offset, inversion, offset
More Details:
 Seismic Inversion: Reading Between the Lines
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local magnetic interference

1. n. [Geophysics]
Magnetic interference caused by nearby structures such as metallic rigs and wells. The magnetic permeability of
drillstrings and the remanent magnetization in drillstrings contribute to perturbations of the measured magnetic
field. Operators may use nonmagnetic drill collars to reduce these effects along with software techniques to
compensate for them.
See: main magnetic field, crustal magnetic field, external disturbance field

long path multiple

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of multiply-reflected seismic energy that appears as an event. Long-path multiples generate distinct events
because their travel path is much longer than primary reflections giving rise to them. They typically can be
removed by seismic processing.
See: event, multiple reflection, noise, peg-leg multiple, primary reflection, short-path multiple, simple multiple

long-path multiple

Love wave
1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of surface wave in which particles oscillate horizontally and perpendicularly to the direction of wave
propagation.
Synonyms: Q wave
See: wave

low velocity layer

1. n. [Geophysics, Geology]
Also known as weathered layer, a near-surface, possibly unconsolidated layer of low seismic velocity. The base of
the weathered layer commonly coincides with the water table and a sharp increase in seismic velocity. The
weathered layer typically has air-filled pores.
See: pore, static correction, weathering, weathering correction

low-velocity layer

1. n. [Geology, Geophysics]
Also known as weathered layer, a near-surface, possibly unconsolidated layer of low seismic velocity. The base of
the weathered layer commonly coincides with the water table and a sharp increase in seismic velocity. The
weathered layer typically has air-filled pores.
See: pore, static correction, weathering, weathering correction

magnetic constant

1. n. [Geophysics]
Another term for magnetic permeability, the ratio of the density of the magnetic flux, B (in units of teslas), to the
strength of the magnetic field, H (in units of amperes/meter), typically expressed in units of H/m.
See: magnetics, skin depth

magnetic field
1. n. [Geophysics]
The magnetic field measured near the Earth’s surface is the superposition of magnetic fields arising from
various time-varying physical processes that are grouped into four general components: the main
magnetic field, the crustal field, the external disturbance field and local magnetic interference. The
significance of these contributions to direction, strength and stability of the magnetic field varies with
geographic region and with magnetic survey direction.
See: main magnetic field, crustal magnetic field, external disturbance field, local magnetic interference
More Details:
 Geomagnetic Referencingâ€”The Real-Time Compass for Directional Drillers

magnetic permeability

1. n. [Geophysics]
The ratio of the density of the magnetic flux, B (in units of teslas), to the strength of the magnetic field, H (in units
of amperes/meter), typically expressed in units of henries per meter (H/m).
See: magnetics, skin depth

magnetic total field

1. n. [Geophysics]
The modulus of the magnetic field vector. The magnetic total field is the magnitude, or absolute value, of
the magnetic field vector. The magnetic total field describes the strength, or intensity, of the magnetic
field, which is measured in units of nanoTesla (nT). The symbol for the magnetic total field is often F or
Btotal.
See: magnetic field, main magnetic field
More Details:
 Geomagnetic Referencingâ€”The Real-Time Compass for Directional Drillers

1. n. [Geophysics]
The study of the Earth's magnetic field, a branch of geophysics that began with the observation by British scientist
William Gilbert (1544 to 1603) that the Earth is a magnet. Variations in the magnetic field can be used to
determine the extent of sedimentary basins and the depth to basement rocks, as well as to differentiate between
igneous rocks and certain sedimentary rocks such as salt. High-resolution magnetic surveys can also be used to
determine the locations of oil pipelines and production equipment.
See: deep tow, downward continuation, electromagnetic method, geophysics, inclinometer, permeability,
potential field, remote sensing, spherical divergence, survey, upward continuation

magnetometer

1. n. [Geophysics]
An instrument used to measure the strength or direction of the Earth's magnetic field.
See: aeromagnetic survey, bird, detector

magnetotelluric method

1. n. [Geophysics]
An electromagnetic method used to map the spatial variation of the Earth's resistivity by measuring
naturally occurring electric and magnetic fields at the Earth's surface. These natural EM fields are
generated (at all frequencies) in the Earth's atmosphere mainly by lightning strokes and by interactions
between the solar wind and the ionosphere. In the most general MT method, the horizontal components of
the electric field and all three components of the magnetic field are measured at the surface. The
measurements are used to determine specific ratios of electric to magnetic field components called tensor
impedances. The technique was introduced the French geophysicist Louis Cagniard in the 1950s and has
been popular for mineral exploration and regional geophysical mapping. It is used in oil exploration for
low-cost reconnaissance of sedimentary basins and for exploration in areas where seismic surveys are
difficult because of severe topography or the presence high-impedance volcanic rocks near the surface.
The resolution of MT surveys is limited by the diffusive nature of EM propagation in the earth; it is
usually on the order of hundreds of meters to kilometers. But the MT method can probe the Earth to
depths of several tens of kilometers.
Alternate Form: MT
See: electromagnetic method, Occam's inversion, probe
More Details:
 Electromagnetic Sounding for Hydrocarbons
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main magnetic field

1. n. [Geophysics]
Earth’s main magnetic field generated in the Earth’s fluid outer core by a self-exciting dynamo process.
Approximately 95% of the total magnetic field measured at Earth’s surface comes from this main field, a
significant portion of which may be described as the field of a dipole placed at the Earth’s center and
tilted approximately 11° from the Earth’s rotational axis. The magnitude of the main magnetic field is
nearly 60,000 nT near the Earth’s poles and about 30,000 nT near the equator. However, there are
significant nondipole contributions to the main magnetic field that complicate its mathematical and
graphical representation, including that the relative strengths of nondipole components change. As
additional complications, the main field varies slowly because of changes within the Earth’s core and the
magnetic dipole axis pole position itself wanders over time.
See: dipole field, nondipole field, crustal magnetic field, external disturbance field, local magnetic
interference
More Details:
 Geomagnetic Referencingâ€”The Real-Time Compass for Directional Drillers

marker bed

1. n. [Geophysics]
A widespread distinctive rock unit that can be correlated readily over a large area. The most useful marker beds
tend to form rapidly, such as during volcanic or geologically instantaneous depositional events, and have unusual
seismic, magnetic, electrical or other physical properties that aid geological or geophysical interpretation. Coal
beds and volcanic ash falls are examples of marker beds.
See: correlate, igneous, pick

Maxwell's equations

1. n. [Geophysics]
A group of four partial differential equations that describe all classical phenomena, involving electric and
magnetic fields. James Clerk Maxwell (1831 to 1879), a British physicist, first wrote out this complete set
of equations:
(1.) ∇·D = ρ
(2.) ∇×H = J + (∂D/∂t)
(3.) ∇·B = 0
(4.) ∇×E = −(∂B/∂t),
whereD = electric displacementρ = electric charge densityH = magnetic field strengthJ = electric current
densityB = magnetic flux densityE = electric field strength.
Equation (1) is equivalent to Coulomb's law, the inverse square attraction of static electric charges.
Equation (2) is Ampere's law relating magnetic fields and currents, which was extended by Maxwell to
include induction of a magnetic field by a time-varying electric displacement. Equation (3) is Coulomb's
law for magnetic flux, expressing the absence of isolated magnetic charges. Equation (4) is Faraday's law
of induction, relating an electric field to a time-varying magnetic flux. Maxwell's equations are the
starting point for all calculations involving surface or borehole EM methods.

See: electromagnetic method

midpoint

1. n. [Geophysics]
The halfway point between a seismic source and a receiver at the Earth's surface.
See: bin, common midpoint, receiver, source

migrate

1. vb. [Geology]
For hydrocarbons to move from theirÂ sourceÂ into reservoir rocks. The movement of newly generated
hydrocarbons out of their source rock is primary migration, also called expulsion. The further movement of the
hydrocarbons into reservoir rock in a hydrocarbon trap or other area of accumulation is secondary migration.
Migration typically occurs from a structurally low area to a higher area because of the relative buoyancy of
hydrocarbons in comparison to the surrounding rock. Migration can be local or can occur along distances of
hundreds of kilometers in large sedimentary basins, and is critical to the formation of a viable petroleum system.
See: accumulation, basin, cap rock, critical moment, generation, petroleum system, preservation, primary
migration, prospect, reservoir, seal, secondary migration, sedimentary basin, source rock, spill point, trap

2. vb. [Geophysics]
To execute a step inÂ seismic processingÂ in which reflections in seismic data are moved to their correct locations
in x-y-time space of seismic data. Migration improves seismic interpretation and mapping because the locations of
geological structures, especially faults, are more accurate in migrated seismic data. Proper migration collapses
diffractions from secondary sources such as reflector terminations against faults and corrects bow ties to form
synclines. There are numerous methods of migration, such as dip moveout (DMO), frequency domain, ray-trace
and wave-equation migration.
See: bow tie, depth migration, depth section, diffraction, dip moveout, frequency domain, Kirchhoff migration,
processing, reflection, resolution, shotpoint, sideswipe, smile, three-dimensional seismic data, time migration,
two-way traveltime, velocity analysis

migration

1. n. [Geology]
The movement of hydrocarbons from their source into reservoir rocks. The movement of newly generated
hydrocarbons out of their source rock is primary migration, also called expulsion. The further movement of the
hydrocarbons into reservoir rock in a hydrocarbon trap or other area of accumulation is secondary migration.
Migration typically occurs from a structurally low area to a higher area because of the relative buoyancy of
hydrocarbons in comparison to the surrounding rock. Migration can be local or can occur along distances of
hundreds of kilometers in large sedimentary basins, and is critical to the formation of a viable petroleum system.
See: accumulation, basin, cap rock, critical moment, generation, migrate, petroleum system, preservation, primary
migration, prospect, reservoir, seal, secondary migration, sedimentary basin, source rock, spill point, trap

2. n. [Geophysics]
A step in seismic processing in which reflections in seismic data are moved to their correct locations in the x-y-time
space of seismic data, including two-way traveltime and position relative to shotpoints. Migration improves
seismic interpretation and mapping because the locations of geological structures, especially faults, are more
accurate in migrated seismic data. Proper migration collapses diffractions from secondary sources such as reflector
terminations against faults and corrects bow ties to form synclines. There are numerous methods of migration,
such as dip moveout (DMO), frequency domain, ray-trace and wave-equation migration.
See: bow tie, depth migration, depth section, diffraction, dip moveout, frequency domain, Kirchhoff migration,
migrate, processing, reflection, resolution, shotpoint, sideswipe, smile, three-dimensional seismic data, time
migration, two-way traveltime, velocity analysis

minimum time path

1. n. [Geophysics]
The fastest route that a seismic ray can travel between two points, generally dictated by Fermat's principle.
See: Fermat's principle, least-time path, Snell's law
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minimum-time path

1. n. [Geophysics]
The fastest route that a seismic ray can travel between two points, generally dictated by Fermat's principle.
See: Fermat's principle, Snell's law

mis tie

1. n. [Geophysics]
A situation in interpretation of seismic data in which predicted and actual values differ, or when an interpreted
reflection does not close, or tie, when interpreting intersecting lines; or when interpreted seismic data do not
match results of drilling a well. Mis-ties commonly occur when data of different phases, rather than uniformly
zero-phase data, are interpreted together, or data that have different datum corrections are tied. Mis-ties are
described as static if they involve a bulk shift of data (as in the case of tying seismic sections with different datum
corrections) or dynamic if the magnitude of the mis-tie varies with time (as in the case of data that have been
migrated differently).
See: interpretation, tie

mis-tie

model
1. n. [Geophysics]
A representation of a physical property or entity that can be used to make predictions or compare observations
with assumptions. Mathematical velocity models are commonly used to predict the depth to a formation of
interest. Physical models, such as layers of clay or putty, can be used to simulate rock layers. As Sheriff (1991)
points out, agreement between data and a model does not prove that the model is correct, since there can be
numerous models that agree with a given data set.
Alternate Form: modeling
See: convergence, seismic modeling
2. vb. [Reservoir Characterization]
To produce a representation or a simulation of a problem.
3. n. [Reservoir Characterization]
A conceptual, three-dimensional construction of a reservoir or oil and gas field. The model is constructed from
incomplete data and much of the interwell space must be estimated from nearby wells or from low vertical
resolution data, such as seismic data. The construction of models can be performed by deterministic methods or
geostatistical methods, or a combination of both.
See: vertical resolution

modeling

1. n. [Reservoir Characterization, Geophysics]

The act of constructing a model.
Alternate Form: model

modulus of compression

1. n. [Geophysics]
Another term for bulk modulus, the ratio of stress to strain, abbreviated as k. The bulk modulus is an elastic
constant equal to the applied stress divided by the ratio of the change in volume to the original volume of a body.
See: elastic constants, Lamé constant

modulus of elasticity

1. n. [Geophysics]
Any one of a set of constants, also known as elastic moduli, that defines the properties of material that undergoes
stress, deforms, and then recovers and returns to its original shape after the stress ceases. The elastic constants
include the bulk modulus, Lame constant, Poisson's ratio, shear modulus, and Young's modulus. Elastic constants
are important in seismology because the velocity of waves depends on the elastic constants and density of the
rock.
Synonyms: elastic constants, elastic moduli
See: bulk modulus, elastic, elastic constants, Poisson's ratio, shear modulus, Young's modulus

modulus of rigidity

1. n. [Geophysics]

Another term for shear modulus, an elastic constant for the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. The shear
modulus is one of the Lamé constants. It can be expressed mathematically as follows:
μ = τ / γ = (ΔF/A) / (ΔL/L),
whereμ = Shear modulusτ = Shear stress = ΔF/AΔF = Increment of shear forceA = Area acted on by the
shear forceγ = Shear strain = ΔL/LΔL = Increment of transverse displacement parallel to AL = Original
length.

Alternate Form: shear modulus

See: elastic constants, Lamé constant

monument

1. n. [Geophysics]
A relatively permanent, fixed marker used in surveying, such as a concrete block or steel plate, with an inscription
of location and elevation.
Synonyms: benchmark
See: survey

moveout
1. n. [Geophysics]
The difference in the arrival times or traveltimes of a reflected wave measured by receivers at two different offset
locations. Normal moveout (NMO) is moveout caused by the separation between a source and a receiver in the
case of a flat reflector. Dip moveout (DMO) occurs as an effect in addition to NMO when reflectors dip. Problems
that require static corrections can also produce moveout.
See: arrival, common depth point, dip moveout, normal moveout, offset, receiver, reflector, source, static
correction

2. n. [Geophysics]
The procedure in seismic processing that compensates for the effects of the separation between seismic sources
and receivers.
See: processing, receiver, source

1. n. [Geophysics]
An electromagnetic method used to map the spatial variation of the Earth's resistivity by measuring naturally
occurring electric and magnetic fields at the Earth's surface. These natural EM fields are generated (at all
frequencies) in the Earth's atmosphere mainly by lightning strokes and by interactions between the solar wind and
the ionosphere. In the most general MT method, the horizontal components of the electric field and all three
components of the magnetic field are measured at the surface. The measurements are used to determine specific
ratios of electric to magnetic field components called tensor impedances. The technique was introduced the
French geophysicist Louis Cagniard in the 1950s and has been popular for mineral exploration and regional
geophysical mapping. It is used in oil exploration for low-cost reconnaissance of sedimentary basins and for
exploration in areas where seismic surveys are difficult because of severe topography or the presence high-
impedance volcanic rocks near the surface. The resolution of MT surveys is limited by the diffusive nature of EM
propagation in the earth; it is usually on the order of hundreds of meters to kilometers. But the MT method can
probe the Earth to depths of several tens of kilometers.
Alternate Form: magnetotelluric method

Multiazimuth towed-streamer acquisition

1. n. [Geophysics]
A marine seismic data acquisition method in which a conventional narrow-azimuth towed-streamer configuration
is used to acquire data over a survey area in more than one direction. The number of directions is typically three or
more. The azimuthal range for a multiazimuth survey is not continuous in azimuth, but is well sampled along the
shooting directions.
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multicomponent seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
Seismic data acquired in a land, marine, or borehole environment by using more than one geophone or
accelerometer. 3C seismic data, a type of multicomponent seismic data, uses three orthogonally oriented
geophones or accelerometers. 4C seismic data, another type of multicomponent seismic data, involves the
addition of a hydrophone to three orthogonally oriented geophones or accelerometers. 3C multicomponent
seismic data is particularly appropriate when the addition of a hydrophone (the basis for 4C seismic data) adds no
value to the measurement, for example, on land. This technique allows determination of both the type of wave
and its direction of propagation.
See: accelerometer, four-component seismic data, geophone, three-component seismic data

multiple reflection

1. n. [Geophysics]
Multiply reflected seismic energy, or any event in seismic data that has incurred more than one reflection in its
travel path. Depending on their time delay from the primary events with which they are associated, multiples are
characterized as short-path or peg-leg, implying that they interfere with the primary reflection, or long-path,
where they appear as separate events. Multiples from the water bottom (the interface of the base of water and
the rock or sediment beneath it) and the air-water interface are common in marine seismic data, and are
suppressed by seismic processing.
Synonyms: secondary reflection
See: abnormal events, acquisition, attenuate, autocorrelation, coherent noise, event, ghost, long-path multiple,
noise, peg-leg multiple, primary reflection, short-path multiple, synthetic seismogram, vertical seismic profile

mute

1. vb. [Geophysics]
To remove the contribution of selected seismic traces in a stack to minimize air waves, ground roll and other early-
arriving noise. Low-frequency traces and long-offset traces are typical targets for muting.
See: air wave, frequency, ground roll, noise, offset, stack, trace

Narrow-azimuth seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
Conventional marine seismic data acquired using a single vessel to tow one or two seismic source arrays in front of
a receiver spread. The resulting angle between the source and receivers, is about 20Â°.

natural frequency

1. n. [Geophysics]
The frequency of the normal, free oscillation or vibration of an entity or a system, such as the vibration of a tuning
fork when struck or the open string of a musical instrument when plucked. A system oscillating at its natural
frequency is said to resonate.
See: frequency

natural remanent magnetism

1. n. [Geophysics]
The magnetization retained by rocks from previous magnetic fields,abbreviated NRM. NRM is a record of the
Earth's magnetic field as it existed at the time that the rock formed, such as when magnetic crystals in igneous
rocks solidified (also known as chemical remanent magnetism, CRM) or at the time of deposition of sedimentary
rocks (known as depositional remanent magnetism, DRM). During deposition of sediments that become
sedimentary rock, magnetized particles can settle with their magnetic pole aligned with that of the Earth at that
time.
Alternate Form: NRM
See: geomagnetic polarity reversal

near surface correction

1. n. [Geophysics]
Another term for static correction, a bulk shift of a seismic trace in time during seismic processing. A common
static correction is the weathering correction, which compensates for a layer of low seismic velocity material near
the surface of the Earth. Other corrections compensate for differences in topography and differences in the
elevations of sources and receivers.
Alternate Form: static correction, statics
See: base of weathering, brute stack, differential weathering correction, dynamic correction, elevation correction,
first break, moveout, processing, receiver, source, velocity, weathered layer, weathering correction

near-surface correction

1. n. [Geophysics]
Another term for static correction, a bulk shift of a seismic trace in time during seismic processing. A common
static correction is the weathering correction, which compensates for a layer of low seismic velocity material near
the surface of the Earth. Other corrections compensate for differences in topography and differences in the
elevations of sources and receivers.
See: base of weathering, brute stack, differential weathering correction, dynamic correction, elevation correction,
first break, moveout, processing, receiver, source, velocity, weathered layer, weathering correction

nest

1. n. [Geophysics]
A geometrical arrangement ofÂ seismicÂ receivers (geophones) with signals recorded by oneÂ channel. The array
can contain numerous closely spaced geophones.
Alternate Form: geophone array
See: array, fan shooting, footprint, geophone, ground roll, hydrophone, radial array, receiver, seismic trace,
source, source pattern, spread

NMO

1. n. [Geophysics]
The effect of the separation between receiver and source on the arrival time of a reflection that does not dip,
abbreviated NMO. A reflection typically arrives first at the receiver nearest the source. The offset between the
source and other receivers induces a delay in the arrival time of a reflection from a horizontal surface at depth. A
plot of arrival times versus offset has a hyperbolic shape.
Alternate Form: normal moveout

2. n. [Geophysics]
The procedure in seismic processing that compensates for the effects of the separation between seismic sources
and receivers in the case of a horizontal reflector.
Alternate Form: normal moveout

noise

1. n. [Geophysics]
Anything other than desired signal. Noise includes disturbances in seismic data caused by any unwanted seismic
energy, such as shot generation ground roll, surface waves, multiples, effects of weather and human activity, or
random occurrences in the Earth. Noise can be minimized by using source and receiver arrays, generating minimal
noise during acquisition and by filtering and stacking data during processing.
See: aliasing, bubble effect, coherence filtering, coherent noise, common midpoint method, cultural noise, deep
tow, embedded wavelet, filter, filter, ground roll, inversion, long-path multiple, multiple reflection, mute, peg-leg
multiple, random noise, record, seismic-while-drilling vertical seismic profile, short-path multiple, signal-to-noise
ratio, smile, stack, suppression, surface wave, tail mute

nondipole field

1. n. [Geophysics]
Contribution to Earth’s main magnetic field that is not represented by the dipole field.
See: dipole field, main magnetic field

normal incidence
1. n. [Geophysics]
The case in which a wavefront is parallel to an interface and its raypath is perpendicular, or normal, to the
interface as the wave impinges upon the interface.
See: angle of incidence, raypath, reflection coefficient, Snell's law, two-way traveltime, wave

normal moveout

normal moveout correction

1. n. [Geophysics]
A function of time and offset that can be used in seismic processing to compensate for the effects of normal
moveout, or the delay in reflection arrival times when geophones and shotpoints are offset from each other.
See: geophone, normal moveout, shotpoint

normal-moveout correction
1. n. [Geophysics]
A function of time and offset that can be used in seismic processing to compensate for the effects of normal
moveout, or the delay in reflection arrival times when geophones and shotpoints are offset from each other.
See: geophone, normal moveout, shotpoint

NRM

OBC

1. n. [Geophysics]
Typically an assembly of vertically oriented geophones and hydrophones connected by electrical wires and
deployed on the seafloor to record and relay data to a seismic recording vessel. Such systems were originally
introduced to enable surveying in areas of obstructions (such as production platforms) or shallow water
inaccessible to ships towing seismic streamers (floating cables). Recent developments provide four component
(4C) seabed systems to record shear wave (S-wave) as well as P-wave energy.
See: acoustic positioning, cable, four-component seismic data, geophone, hydrophone, S-wave, streamer

observer

1. n. [Geophysics]
The director of a seismic acquisition field crew who operates the recording equipment.
See: acquisition, party

1. n. [Geophysics]
A technique for inversion, or generating a model that is consistent with the data, of electromagnetic data,
including resistivity and magnetotelluric data. The algorithm is named for William of Occam (1300 to
1349), who asserted that scientific hypotheses and reasoning should be as simple as possible. The use of
Occam's inversion produces a smooth model that fits a data set within certain tolerances, although a
smooth model might not be the best fit to the data.
See: electromagnetic method, inversion, magnetotelluric method
More Details:
 Seismic Inversion: Reading Between the Lines

ocean-bottom cable

offset

1. n. [Geology]
The horizontal displacement between points on either side of a fault, which can range from millimeters to
kilometers. Perhaps the most readily visible examples of offset are features such as fences or roads that have been
displaced by strike-slip faults, such as the San Andreas fault of California, USA.
Synonyms: offset well
See: fault, strike-slip fault
2. n. [Geophysics]
In surface seismic acquisition, the horizontal distance from source to receiver. In a vertical seismic profile, offset is
the horizontal distance between the source and the wellhead or the surface projection of the receiver in the case
of a deviated well. Offset between seismic source and receiver creates a delay, or moveout, in the arrival time of a
reflection that can be corrected before stacking and can be used to determine velocity.
See: acquisition, arrival time, common-offset, extended spread, fold, geophone offset, lithostratigraphic inversion,
moveout, mute, normal moveout, perpendicular offset, shotpoint, spread, tail mute, two-way traveltime, velocity
analysis, vertical seismic profile, walkaway vertical seismic profile, zero-offset data

offset vertical seismic profile

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of vertical seismic profile in which the source is located at an offset from the drilling rig during
acquisition. This allows imaging to some distance away from the wellbore.
See: acquisition, source, vertical seismic profile
More Details:
 Seismic Integration to Reduce Risk

offset VSP

1. n. [Geophysics]
Abbreviation for offset vertical seismic profile, a type of vertical seismic profile in which the source is
located at an offset from the drilling rig during acquisition. This allows imaging to some distance away
from the wellbore.
See: acquisition, source, vertical seismic profile
More Details:
 Seismic Integration to Reduce Risk

Ohm's law

1. n. [Geophysics]
The relationship between voltage (V), electric current (I) and resistance (R), named for German physicist Georg
Simon Ohm (1789 to 1854), commonly expressed as the formula below:
V/I = R.

one dimensional seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
A check-shot survey of a well, which can be used to correct the sonic log and generate a synthetic seismogram that
displays changes in amplitude versus traveltime.
See: check-shot survey, sonic log, synthetic seismogram
2. n. [Geophysics]
A single seismic trace.
See: trace

one way time

1. n. [Geophysics]
The time measured from a check-shot survey or vertical seismic profile (VSP), which is the time energy takes to
travel from an energy source at the surface of the Earth to a receiver at a depth of interest.
See: check-shot survey, receiver, source, vertical seismic profile

one-dimensional seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
A check-shot survey of a well, which can be used to correct the sonic log and generate a synthetic seismogram that
displays changes in amplitude versus traveltime.
See: check-shot survey, sonic log, synthetic seismogram
2. n. [Geophysics]
A single seismic trace.
See: trace

one-way time
1. n. [Geophysics]
The time measured from a check-shot survey or vertical seismic profile (VSP), which is the time energy takes to
travel from an energy source at the surface of the Earth to a receiver at a depth of interest.
See: check-shot survey, receiver, source, vertical seismic profile

p wave

parametric

1. adj. [Geophysics]
Pertaining to variation of the frequency while maintaining the geometry of electromagnetic surveying. In contrast,
geometric pertains to keeping the same geometry while varying the frequency.
See: electromagnetic method, geometric
2. adj. [Geophysics]
Pertaining to a method of seismic inversion to separate wavefields by iteratively developing a model of the data
that conforms to the recorded data. Parametric inversion is used in processing vertical seismic profile (VSP) data.
See: inversion, vertical seismic profile

party

1. n. [Geophysics]
A crew that acquires a survey or geophysical data.
See: jug hustler, observer, party chief, party manager

1. n. [Geophysics]
The ultimate leader of a survey crew.
See: party, party manager

party manager

1. n. [Geophysics]
The actual leader of a survey crew. The party manager reports to the party chief.
See: party, party chief

patch

1. n. [Geophysics]
A large set of seismometers whose output is sent to a common dataÂ channelÂ toÂ recordÂ a seismic trace.
See: fold, geophone interval, group, group interval, seismic trace, seismometer, spread

peak

1. n. [Geophysics]
The maximum positive or upward deflection, also known as the crest, of the seismic wavelet. The trough is the
maximum negative amplitude or downward deflection of the wave. Seismic interpreters commonly pick or
interpret seismic data on paper sections along the trough of a wavelet rather than the normally solid-filled peak for
ease of viewing.
Synonyms: crest
Antonyms: trough
See: amplitude, polarity, polarity standard, wave, wavelet

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of short-path multiple, or multiply-reflected seismic energy, having an asymmetric path. Short-path
multiples are added to primary reflections, tend to come from shallow subsurface phenomena and highly cyclical
deposition, and can be suppressed by seismic processing. In some cases, the period of the peg-leg multiple is so
brief that it interferes with primary reflections, and its interference causes a loss of high frequencies in the
wavelet.
See: event, long-path multiple, multiple reflection, noise, primary reflection, processing, short-path multiple

peg-leg multiple

permeability

1. n. [Geology]
The ability, or measurement of a rock's ability, to transmit fluids, typically measured in darcies or
millidarcies. The term was basically defined by Henry Darcy, who showed that the common mathematics
of heat transfer could be modified to adequately describe fluid flow in porous media. Formations that
transmit fluids readily, such as sandstones, are described as permeable and tend to have many large, well-
connected pores. Impermeable formations, such as shales and siltstones, tend to be finer grained or of a
mixed grain size, with smaller, fewer, or less interconnected pores. Absolute permeability is the
measurement of the permeability conducted when a single fluid, or phase, is present in the rock. Effective
permeability is the ability to preferentially flow or transmit a particular fluid through a rock when other
immiscible fluids are present in the reservoir (for example, effective permeability of gas in a gas-water
reservoir). The relative saturations of the fluids as well as the nature of the reservoir affect the effective
permeability. Relative permeability is the ratio of effective permeability of a particular fluid at a particular
saturation to absolute permeability of that fluid at total saturation. If a single fluid is present in a rock, its
relative permeability is 1.0. Calculation of relative permeability allows for comparison of the different
abilities of fluids to flow in the presence of each other, since the presence of more than one fluid generally
inhibits flow.
See: absolute permeability, cap rock, effective permeability, fracture, fracture porosity, impermeable,
pore, pore pressure, porosity, relative permeability, reservoir, saturation, seal
More Details:
 Characterizing Permeability with Formation Testers
 Defining Permeability: Flow Through Pores
2. n. [Geophysics]
In magnetics, the ratio of the density of the magnetic flux, B (in units of teslas), to the strength of the
magnetic field, H (in units of amperes/meter), typically in units of H/m.
μ = B / H,
whereμ = magnetic permeabilityB = magnetic flux or magnetic inductionH = magnetizing field strength.
μ = μ0 = 4π × 10−7 henries per meter (H/m) is the magnetic permeability of free space, or a vacuum. For
practical purposes, the magnetic permeability of air or water is μ0.
See:

permittivity

1. n. [Geophysics]
The ability of a material to store a charge from an applied electrical field without conducting electricity.
Synonyms: electrical permittivity
See: dielectric, electromagnetic method
2. n. [Formation Evaluation]
The degree to which a medium resists the flow of electric charge, defined as the ratio of the electric displacement
to the electric field strength. It is more common to use the relative dielectric permittivity.
Synonyms: dielectric constant, dielectric permittivity
See: dielectric propagation log, electromagnetic propagation, propagation resistivity

perpendicular offset

1. n. [Geophysics]
Generally, the distance between a receiver and a source in a survey, such as an electromagnetic survey. In seismic
surveys, perpendicular or normal offset is the component of the distance between the source and geophones at a
right angle to the spread.
See: electromagnetic method, offset, receiver, source, spread, survey

1. n. [Geophysics]
An interpretation of the presumed continuation of an event. In areas of discontinuous, divergent reflectors or
incoherent data, drawing phantoms allows the interpreter to generate a map on a discontinuous event.
See: coherence, event, interpretation

phase

1. n. [Geophysics]
A description of the motion of, or means of comparison of, periodic waves such as seismic waves. Waves that have
the same shape, symmetry and frequency and that reach maximum and minimum values simultaneously are in
phase. Waves that are not in phase are typically described by the angular difference between them, such as, "180
degrees out of phase." Zero-phase wavelets are symmetrical in shape about zero time whereas non-zero-phase
wavelets are asymmetrical. Non-zero-phase wavelets are converted to zero-phase wavelets to achieve the best
resolution of the seismic data. Known (zero) phase well synthetics and vertical seismic profiles (VSPs) can be
compared with local surface seismic data to determine the relative phase of the surface seismic wavelets. Such
knowledge allows the surface seismic data to be "corrected" to zero phase. The units of phase are degrees.
See: attribute, character, coherence, coherent noise, complex-trace analysis, footprint, hydrocarbon indicator,
resolution, spectral, spectrum, synthetic seismogram, wavefront, wavelet, zero-phase

phase velocity

1. n. [Geophysics]

The velocity at which a single frequency of a wave group or a phase—or part such as the crest or
trough—of a wave group travels through a medium. The phase velocity (vp) is defined by a wavelength
(λ) and frequency (f) and given by vp = λ × f.
vp = vg + λ (∂vp/∂λ) = vg − f (∂vp/∂f)
Relation of phase velocity to group velocity. As a wave travels through a medium, its energy moves at the
group velocity (vg) and its individual phases, or components, move at their phase velocity (vp). The wave
changes shape with distance as each frequency (f), or wavelength (λ), component moves at its separate
phase velocity through the phenomenon of dispersion. Relative to the group velocity, each component
moves with faster or slower phase velocity, depending on how phase velocity changes with wavelength or
frequency.
Slowness is the reciprocal of phase velocity.

See: group velocity, slowness

pick

1. vb. [Geophysics]
To interpret data, such as seismic sections, by selecting and tracking marker beds or other events.
See: event, marker bed
2. n. [Geophysics]
A feature interpreted or selected from data, such as a seismic event. Correlation of seismic picks to geologic picks,
such as formation tops interpreted from well logs, can improve interpretations.
See: correlate, correlation, event, interpretation

plane wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
A wave that is far enough from its source that its wavefront has no effective curvature, or is planar, over a short
distance. Seismic and electromagnetic waves are treated as plane waves even though that assumption is not
strictly correct.
See: wave, wavefront

plant

1. vb. [Geophysics]
To place seismometers on the ground. The seismometer should be firmly stuck or planted in the ground in the
proper location and orientation for optimal seismic acquisition.
See: acquisition, coupling, jug hustler, seismometer

Poisson's ratio

1. n. [Geophysics]
An elastic constant that is a measure of the compressibility of material perpendicular to applied stress, or the ratio
of latitudinal to longitudinal strain. This elastic constant is named for Simeon Poisson (1781 to 1840), a French
mathematician. Poisson's ratio (σ) can be expressed in terms of properties that can be measured in the field,
including velocities of P-waves (VP) and S-waves (VS) as shown below.

σ = ½ (VP2 − 2VS2) / (VP2 − VS2)

Note that if VS = 0, then Poisson's ratio equals 0.5, indicating either a fluid, because shear waves do not
pass through fluids, or a material that maintains constant volume regardless of stress, also known as an
ideal incompressible material. Poisson's ratio for carbonate rocks is ~0.3, for sandstones ~0.2, and greater
than 0.3 for shale. The Poisson's ratio of coal is ~0.4.

See: elastic constants, P-wave, S-wave, velocity

polarity

1. n. [Geophysics]
The nature of the positive and negative portions of the seismic wavelet, the positive and negative aspects of
electrical equipment, or the north and south orientations of magnets and the Earth's magnetic field.
See: amplitude, attribute, geomagnetic polarity reversal, peak, polarity standard, wavelet

post

1. vb. [Geophysics]
To annotate a map or other display with data at the appropriate location. For example, geologists post formation
tops on well logs, isopach maps and seismic profiles. Geophysicists post velocity values and traveltimes on maps
before contouring. Engineers contour maps posted with pressure or production data. Posting can become an
iterative process as new data become available and interpretations are updated.
See: contour

potential field

1. n. [Geophysics]
A field that satisfies the Laplace equation. The Laplace equation is equivalent in three dimensions to the inverse
square law of gravitational or electrical attraction (in source-free regions; in regions with sources, it becomes
Poisson's equation). Examples of potential fields include the field of the gravity potential and static electric and
magnetic fields.
See: gravity, Laplace equation, magnetics

primary reflection

1. n. [Geophysics]
Seismic events whose energy has been reflected once. Multiples, in contrast, are events whose energy has been
reflected more than once. A goal of seismic data processing is to enhance primary reflections, which are then
interpreted as subsurface interfaces.
See: event, long-path multiple, multiple reflection, peg-leg multiple, reflection, short-path multiple, vertical seismic
profile

probe

1. vb. [Geophysics]
In electromagnetic methods, to measure the variation of a property versus depth, including electrical,
electromagnetic and magnetotelluric properties. Probing differs from profiling in that the goal of probing is to
provide a record of vertical changes, whereas profiling documents lateral variations.
Synonyms: sound
See: electromagnetic method, magnetotelluric method, profile

processing

1. n. [Geophysics]
Alteration of seismic data to suppress noise, enhance signal and migrate seismic events to the appropriate
location in space. Processing steps typically include analysis of velocities and frequencies, static
corrections, deconvolution, normal moveout, dip moveout, stacking, and migration, which can be
performed before or after stacking. Seismic processing facilitates better interpretation because subsurface
structures and reflection geometries are more apparent.
Synonyms: seismic processing
See: acquisition, amplitude anomaly, amplitude variation with offset, automatic gain control, bias, brute
stack, common depth point, common midpoint, common midpoint method, convolution, depth
conversion, depth migration, dip moveout, dynamic correction, embedded wavelet, event, filter,
frequency, header, interpretation, inversion, lag, migration, normal moveout, peg-leg multiple, quicklook,
random noise, resolution, short-path multiple, signature deconvolution, sinc x, slant stack, space-
frequency domain, stack, static correction, three-dimensional survey, time migration, true-amplitude
recovery, velocity, wavelet extraction, work station, zero-phase
More Details:
 The Time for Depth Imaging

production

1. n. [Geology]
The phase that occurs after successful exploration and development and during which hydrocarbons are drained
from an oil or gas field.
See: appraisal, development, exploration, licensing round, retrograde condensation, scout, scout ticket, subsalt,
time-lapse seismic data, underpressure, virgin pressure
2. n. [Geophysics]
A measure of the efficiency of seismic acquisition. Production can be expressed in terms of the number of lines,
shots or lengths (km or miles) of data acquired in a given time.

profile

1. vb. [Geophysics]
To measure the lateral variation of a property, such as gravity or magnetic fields. Probing, in contrast, is the term
used to describe the measurement of vertical variations of a property in electromagnetic and other nonseismic
geophysical methods.
See: gravity, probe

profiling

1. vb. [Geophysics]
Measuring theÂ lateralÂ variation of a property, such as gravity or magnetic fields.Â Probing, in contrast, is the
term used to describe the measurement of vertical variations of a property in electromagnetic and other
nonseismic geophysical methods.
See: gravity, probe

propagation constant

1. n. [Geophysics]
A property of a sinusoidal plane wave equal to twice pi divided by the wavelength. Also known as the
wavenumber, the propagation constant is fundamental to the mathematical representation of wavefields. It is the
spatial equivalent of angular frequency and expresses the increase in the cycle of the wave (measured in radians)
per unit of distance. In nondispersive media, the wavespeed is the ratio of the angular frequency to the
propagation constant. The propagation vector has magnitude equal to the propagation constant and points in the
direction the wave is traveling.
See: plane wave, wavenumber

pull up

1. n. [Geophysics]
A phenomenon of relative seismic velocities of strata whereby a shallow layer or feature with a high seismic
velocity (e.g., a salt layer or salt dome, or a carbonate reef) surrounded by rock with a lower seismic velocity
causes what appears to be a structural high beneath it. After such features are correctly converted from time to
depth, the apparent structural high is generally reduced in magnitude.
Antonyms: push-down
See: depth conversion, salt dome, velocity anomaly

push down

1. n. [Geophysics]
A phenomenon of relative seismic velocities of strata whereby a shallow layer or feature with a low seismic
velocity (e.g., a shale diapir or a gas chimney) surrounded by rock with a higher seismic velocity causes what
appears to be a structural low beneath it. After such features are converted from time to depth, the apparent
structural low is generally reduced in magnitude. Hydrocarbon indicators can display velocity push-downs because
the velocity of hydrocarbon is slower than that of rock.
Antonyms: pull-up
See: depth conversion, hydrocarbon indicator, velocity, velocity anomaly

push-down

P-wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
An elastic body wave or sound wave in which particles oscillate in the direction the wave propagates. P-waves are
the waves studied in conventional seismic data. P-waves incident on an interface at other than normal incidence
can produce reflected and transmitted S-waves, in that case known as converted waves.
Synonyms: acoustic wave, compressional wave, dilatational wave
See: acoustic, amplitude variation with offset, body wave, converted wave, dilatancy theory, dilatation,
discontinuity, elastic, elastic wave, interval velocity, Poisson's ratio, rarefaction, S-wave, seismic, shadow zone,
shear, Snell's law, sonic, sonic log, transit time, wave

Q
1. n. [Geophysics]
The dimensionless quality factor. It is the ratio of the peak energy of a wave to the dissipated energy. As waves
travel, they lose energy with distance and time due to spherical divergence and absorption. Such energy loss must
be accounted for when restoring seismic amplitudes to perform fluid and lithologic interpretations, such as
amplitude versus offset (AVO) analysis. Q is also described as the reciprocal of attenuation, but that is not strictly
correct because the attenuation coefficient has units of inverse length.
See: absorption, attenuation, automatic gain control, crosswell tomography, spherical divergence

Q wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of surface wave in which particles oscillate horizontally and perpendicularly to the direction of wave
propagation.
Synonyms: Love wave
See: wave

quick look

1. n. [Geophysics]
A subset of a 3D seismic survey comprising low fold or simplified processing (such as omitting dip moveout
processing) that can be evaluated soon after acquisition.
See: acquisition, borehole seismic data, dip moveout, fold, processing, three-dimensional survey
2. n. [Geophysics]
Borehole seismic data processed on site in the field
See: borehole seismic data
3. n. [Formation Evaluation]
A log, or a display of several logs, that has been generated by a simple computation of log data. The quicklook is
intended to make it easy to identify particular features in a section of log. The term is used for single curves
designed, for example, to identify hydrocarbon zones, estimate porosity or identify lithology. Examples are Rwa,
crossplot porosity, ratio method and apparent matrix density. The term is also used for a complete log containing
some combination of quicklook curves, original logs and lithology display. In all cases the computations are based
on simple models.
See: crossplot porosity

quicklook
1. n. [Geophysics]
A subset of a 3D seismic survey comprising low fold or simplified processing (such as omitting dip moveout
processing) that can be evaluated soon after acquisition.
See: acquisition, borehole seismic data, dip moveout, fold, processing, three-dimensional survey
2. n. [Geophysics]
Borehole seismic data processed on site in the field
See: borehole seismic data
3. n. [Formation Evaluation]
A log, or a display of several logs, that has been generated by a simple computation of log data. The quicklook is
intended to make it easy to identify particular features in a section of log. The term is used for single curves
designed, for example, to identify hydrocarbon zones, estimate porosity or identify lithology. Examples are Rwa,
crossplot porosity, ratio method and apparent matrix density. The term is also used for a complete log containing
some combination of quicklook curves, original logs and lithology display. In all cases the computations are based
on simple models.
See: crossplot porosity

Q-wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of surface wave in which particles oscillate horizontally and perpendicularly to the direction of wave
propagation.
Synonyms: Love wave
See: wave

radial array

1. n. [Geophysics]
An array of sources or receivers radiating outward from a central point, usually a borehole.
See: array

radial refraction

1. n. [Geophysics]
A surveying technique used to identify local, high-velocity features such as salt domes, also called fan shooting.
See: salt dome
2. n. [Geophysics]
A borehole seismic method in which a surface source transmits seismic energy from various locations to a receiver
in a wellbore to locate high-velocity features such as salt domes.
See: borehole seismic data, receiver, salt proximity survey, source

random noise

1. n. [Geophysics]
Disturbances in seismic data that are not coherent (they lack a phase relationship between adjacent traces, unlike
air waves and ground roll) and cannot be correlated to the seismic energy source. Random noise can be reduced or
removed from data by stacking traces, filtering during processing or using arrays of geophones during acquisition.
See: air wave, coherent, coherent noise, filter, geophone, ground roll, noise, processing, stack, trace

rarefaction

1. n. [Geophysics]
A dilatation, or decrease in pressure and density of a medium as molecules are displaced by a P-wave. As P-waves
pass through the Earth, the Earth undergoes compression and expansion. These changes in volume contribute to
the positive and negative amplitudes of a seismic trace.
See: amplitude, dilatation, seismic trace

ray

1. n. [Geophysics]
A representation of the direction of travel of a seismic wave.
See: least-time path, raypath

ray path

1. n. [Geophysics]
The path or direction along which wave energy propagates through the Earth. In isotropic media, the raypath is
perpendicular to the local wavefront. The raypath can be calculated using ray tracing. Seismic energy travels
through media of variable anisotropy and can propagate by diffraction, factors that complicate determination of
raypaths.
See: angle of approach, angle of incidence, anisotropy, average velocity, diffraction, image, normal incidence, ray,
ray tracing, reflection, root-mean-square velocity

ray tracing

1. n. [Geophysics]
A technique for predicting or determining arrival times of waves at detectors using raypaths. Ray tracing requires a
velocity model and the assumption that rays behave according to Snell's law. Ray tracing provides the traveltimes
that are required for Kirchhoff migration.
See: arrival, raypath, Snell's law, velocity

Rayleigh wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of surface wave in which particles move in an elliptical path within the vertical plane containing the
direction of wave propagation. At the top of the elliptical path, particles travel opposite to the direction of
propagation, and at the bottom of the path they travel in the direction of propagation. Because Rayleigh waves are
dispersive, with different wavelengths traveling at different velocities, they are useful in evaluation of velocity
variation with depth. Rayleigh waves make up most of the energy recorded as ground roll.
See: ground roll, surface wave, water-bottom roll

raypath

receiver

1. n. [Geophysics]
A device that detects seismic energy in the form of ground motion or a pressure wave in fluid and transforms it to
an electrical impulse.
See: apparent velocity, common reflection point, detector, fixed-source method, geophone, moving-source
method, offset, one-way time, radial refraction, seismic trace, seismic-while-drilling vertical seismic profile, static
correction, two-way traveltime, undershooting, walk-above vertical seismic profile, walkaway vertical seismic
profile, zero-offset data

record

1. vb. [Geophysics]
To detect and measure energy.
2. n. [Geophysics]
In seismic data, the energy detected and measured by a receiver. Normally, most of the energy is provided by a
seismic source. Noise records are obtained in the absence of a seismic source to measure background or ambient
noise levels.
See: brute stack, noise, receiver, source

reflection

1. n. [Geophysics]
Generally, the return or rebound of particles or energy from the interface between two media. There are two laws
of reflection, which state (1) that incident rays, reflected rays and the normal to the reflecting interface at the
point of incidence are coplanar, and (2) that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. In
geophysics, reflection refers to the seismic energy or signal that returns from an interface of contrasting acoustic
impedance, known as a reflector, according to Snell's law. Reflection seismic surveys are useful for mapping
geologic structures in the subsurface, interpreting sedimentary environments and evaluating hydrocarbon
accumulations that might occur as amplitude anomalies. Reflection surveys are complicated by the variation of
velocity as well as the various types of wave energy that are propagated within the Earth. In electromagnetics,
variation in electrical properties produces reflections.
See: acoustic transparency, amplitude anomaly, arrival, attenuation, autotrack, complex-trace analysis, converted
wave, critical reflection, deep seismic sounding, diffraction, drill-noise vertical seismic profile, electromagnetic
method, Fermat's principle, footprint, primary reflection, raypath, reflection coefficient, reflector, refraction,
seismic-while-drilling vertical seismic profile, Snell's law

reflection coefficient

1. n. [Geophysics]

The ratio of amplitude of the reflected wave to the incident wave, or how much energy is reflected. If the
wave has normal incidence, then its reflection coefficient can be expressed as:
R = (ρ2V2 − ρ1V1) / (ρ2V2 + ρ1V1),
whereR = reflection coefficient, whose values range from −1 to +1ρ1 = density of medium 1ρ2 = density
of medium 2V1 = velocity of medium 1V2 = velocity of medium 2.
Typical values of R are approximately −1 from water to air, meaning that nearly 100% of the energy is
reflected and none is transmitted; ~0.5 from water to rock; and ~0.2 for shale to sand. At non-normal
incidence, the reflection coefficient defined as a ratio of amplitudes depends on other parameters, such as
the shear velocities, and is described as a function of incident angle by the Zoeppritz equations.

Synonyms: reflectivity
See: acoustic impedance, acoustic impedance section, amplitude, density, density contrast, embedded wavelet,
impedance, normal incidence, reflection, reflection tomography, Ricker wavelet, Snell's law, synthetic seismogram,
velocity, wave, Zoeppritz equations

reflection tomography

1. n. [Geophysics]
A technique to measure and display the three-dimensional distribution of velocity or reflectivity of a
volume of the Earth by using numerous sources and receivers at the Earth's surface. In reflection
tomography, space is divided into cells, each having a certain velocity and reflectivity. The final model is
the one whose velocities and reflectivities best describe the data.
Synonyms: seismic reflection tomography
See: reflection coefficient, seismology, tomography, velocity
More Details:
 Looking Deep into the Reservoir
© 2015 Schlumberger Limited. All rights reserved. | Privacy | Terms | Help | Site Map | Contact

reflectivity

1. n. [Geophysics]

Another term for reflection coefficient, the ratio of amplitude of the reflected wave to the incident wave,
or how much energy is reflected. If the wave has normal incidence, then its reflection coefficient can be
expressed as:
R = (ρ2V2 − ρ1V1) / (ρ2V2 + ρ1V1),
whereR = reflection coefficient, whose values range from −1 to +1ρ1 = density of medium 1ρ2 = density
of medium 2V1 = velocity of medium 1V2 = velocity of medium 2.
Typical values of R are approximately −1 from water to air, meaning that nearly 100% of the energy is
reflected and none is transmitted; ~0.5 from water to rock; and ~0.2 for shale to sand. At non-normal
incidence, the reflection coefficient defined as a ratio of amplitudes depends on other parameters, such as
the shear velocities, and is described as a function of incident angle by the Zoeppritz equations.

Synonyms: reflection coefficient

See: acoustic impedance, acoustic impedance section, amplitude, density, density contrast, embedded wavelet,
impedance, normal incidence, reflection, reflection tomography, Ricker wavelet, synthetic seismogram, velocity,
wave, Zoeppritz equations

reflector

1. n. [Geophysics]
An interface between layers of contrasting acoustic, optical or electromagnetic properties. Waves of
electromagnetism, heat, light and sound can be reflected at such an interface. In seismic data, a reflector might
represent a change in lithology, a fault or an unconformity. A reflector is expressed as a reflection in seismic data.
See: acoustic basement, acoustic impedance, common depth point, common midpoint, common reflection point,
Fresnel zone, moveout, normal moveout, reflection, tie, two-way traveltime

refraction

1. n. [Geophysics]
The change in the direction of travel of aÂ wavefront, or the bending of a ray, as it passes from one medium to
another, expressed mathematically by Snell's law. Refraction is a consequence of changes
inÂ wavelengthÂ andÂ velocityÂ of propagation of aÂ waveÂ produced by differences in refractive indices of the
media. Refraction surveys where the incident and reflected angles are critical can be useful for evaluating
increasing velocity gradients and locating features that have anomalously high velocities, such as aÂ salt
domeÂ within surrounding rocks of lower velocities.
Synonyms: seismic refraction method
See: angle of approach, angle of incidence, blind zone, converted wave, critical angle, deep seismic sounding,
displacement, Fermat's principle, head wave, reflection, refractive index, Snell's law, weathering correction

refractive index

1. n. [Geophysics]
The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a given material, commonly symbolized by n.
According to Snell's law, the refractive index is also the ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the
angle of refraction.
See: angle of incidence, refraction

refractor

1. n. [Geophysics]
A layer of rock that is sufficiently thick, areally extensive, and has a distinctly higher velocity than the rocks
immediately above it such that it can transmit a head wave, or a wave transmitted at its critical incident angle.
See: angle of incidence, critical angle, velocity, wave

remote sensing

1. n. [Geophysics]
The process of measuring, observing or analyzing features of the Earth from a distance. Satellite photography and
radar are techniques commonly used for remote sensing. Many geophysicists do not consider seismic methods to
be remote sensing because although seismic methods sense the subsurface remotely, the sources and receivers
are in contact with the Earth.
See: gravity, image, magnetics, seismic

1. n. [Geophysics]
An acoustic velocity value used during processing to produce static, vertical shifts in seismic and other time domain
data in order to bring a specific point into alignment with some common elevation feature. Most often, the point
in question is the 0.0 s time point, while the elevation feature is ground level. In other cases, the elevation feature
may be arbitrary, such as 300 m above mean sea level.
See: average velocity, base of weathering, check-shot survey, interval velocity, static correction, velocity, velocity
layering, VSP, weathering correction

resolution

1. n. [Geophysics]
The ability to distinguish between separate points or objects, such as sedimentary sequences in a seismic section.
High frequency and short wavelengths provide better vertical and lateral resolution. Seismic processing can greatly
affect resolution: deconvolution can improve vertical resolution by producing a broad bandwidth with high
frequencies and a relatively compressed wavelet. Migration can improve lateral resolution by reducing the size of
the Fresnel zone.
See: acquisition, band, deconvolution, migration, phase, processing, seismic modeling, tuning effect, water gun,
wavelet

Rich-azimuth towed-streamer acquisition

1. n. [Geophysics]
A marine seismic data acquisition method using one or more seismic vessels to obtain a combination of
multiazimuth and wide-azimuth geometries. A rich-azimuth seismic dataset can be formed by combining the data
where multiple wide-azimuth surveys intersect.

Ricker wavelet

rock mechanics

1. n. [Geophysics]
The study of the physical characteristics and behavior of rock. Rock mechanics can include analysis of
and relationships between properties such as velocity, density, porosity, permeability, shear strength, and
bending and crushing behavior, as well as the greater geological context of forces that deform strata and
produce geological structures.
See: geomechanics
More Details:
 Watching Rocks Changeâ€”Mechanical Earth Modeling
 Rocks Matter: Ground Truth in Geomechanics

root mean square velocity

1. n. [Geophysics]
The value of the square root of the sum of the squares of the velocity values divided by the number of values,
symbolized by vrms. The root-mean-square velocity is that of a wave through subsurface layers of different interval
velocity along a specific raypath, and is typically several percent higher than the average velocity. The stacking
velocity and the root-mean-square velocity approach equality when source-receiver offset approaches zero and
layers are horizontal and isotropic.
See: Dix formula, raypath, stacking velocity, velocity

root-mean-square velocity

1. n. [Geophysics]
An elastic body wave in which particles oscillate perpendicular to the direction in which the wave propagates. S-
waves are generated by most land seismic sources, but not by air guns. P-waves that impinge on an interface at
non-normal incidence can produce S-waves, which in that case are known as converted waves. S-waves can
likewise be converted to P-waves. S-waves, or shear waves, travel more slowly than P-waves and cannot travel
through fluids because fluids do not support shear. Recording of S-waves requires receivers coupled to the solid
Earth. Interpretation of S-waves can allow determination of rock properties such as fracture density and
orientation, Poisson's ratio and rock type by crossplotting P-wave and S-wave velocities, and by other techniques.
Synonyms: shear wave, tangential wave
See: acoustic wave, seismic, shear

salt proximity survey

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of refraction survey to help define a salt-sediment interface near a wellbore. The source is typically placed
directly above the top of a salt dome and the receivers are placed at a number of locations within the borehole.
This technique takes advantage of the fact that sound travels faster through the salt than the surrounding soft
sediments, such as in the US Gulf Coast. This survey measures the fastest travel path, with part of its path through
the salt. The resultant traveltimes are then inverted via a model to obtain a profile of the salt flanks relative to the
borehole.
See: radial refraction, refraction, salt-proximity vertical seismic profile, source, survey

salt proximity vertical seismic profile

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of reflection survey to help define a salt-sediment interface near a wellbore.
Alternate Form: salt proximity VSP
See: salt proximity survey, vertical seismic profile

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of reflection survey to help define a salt-sediment interface near a wellbore.
Alternate Form: salt proximity vertical seismic profile
See: salt proximity survey, vertical seismic profile

salt-proximity vertical seismic profile

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of reflection survey to help define a salt-sediment interface near a wellbore.
Alternate Form: salt-proximity VSP
See: salt proximity survey, vertical seismic profile

salt-proximity VSP

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of reflection survey to help define a salt-sediment interface near a wellbore.
Alternate Form: salt-proximity vertical seismic profile
See: salt proximity survey, vertical seismic profile

sample frequency
1. n. [Geophysics]
The number of data points or measurements per unit of time or distance.
See: sample interval, sample rate

sample interval

1. n. [Geophysics]
The distance or time between data points or measurements.
See: sample frequency, sample rate

sample rate

1. n. [Geophysics]
The number of measurements per unit of time, or the inverse of the sample interval.
See: sample frequency, sample interval

seabed geophone

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of receiver that can be positioned on the seafloor to acquire seismic data.
See: acquisition, receiver

secondary reflection
1. n. [Geophysics]
Multiply reflected seismic energy, or any event in seismic data that has incurred more than one reflection in its
travel path. Depending on their time delay from the primary events with which they are associated, multiples are
characterized as short-path or peg-leg, implying that they interfere with the primary reflection, or long-path,
where they appear as separate events. Multiples from the water bottom (the interface of the base of water and
the rock or sediment beneath it) and the air-water interface are common in marine seismic data, and are
suppressed by seismic processing.
Synonyms: multiple reflection
See: abnormal events, ghost, long-path multiple, short-path multiple

seismic

1. adj. [Geophysics]
Pertaining to waves of elastic energy, such as that transmitted by P-waves and S-waves, in the frequency range of
approximately 1 to 100 Hz. Seismic energy is studied by scientists to interpret the composition, fluid content,
extent and geometry of rocks in the subsurface. "Seismic," used as an adjective, is preferable to "seismics,"
although "seismics" is used commonly as a noun.
See: downward continuation, dynamite, elastic, frequency, geophysics, hertz, P-wave, remote sensing, S-wave,
survey, wave

seismic acquisition

1 of 4
1. n. [Geophysics]
The generation and recording of seismic data. Acquisition involves many different receiver configurations,
including laying geophones or seismometers on the surface of the Earth or seafloor, towing hydrophones behind a
marine seismic vessel, suspending hydrophones vertically in the sea or placing geophones in a wellbore (as in a
vertical seismic profile) to record the seismic signal. A source, such as a vibrator unit, dynamite shot, or an air gun,
generates acoustic or elastic vibrations that travel into the Earth, pass through strata with different seismic
responses and filtering effects, and return to the surface to be recorded as seismic data. Optimal acquisition varies
according to local conditions and involves employing the appropriate source (both type and intensity), optimal
configuration of receivers, and orientation of receiver lines with respect to geological features. This ensures that
the highest signal-to-noise ratio can be recorded, resolution is appropriate, and extraneous effects such as air
waves, ground roll, multiples and diffractions can be minimized or distinguished, and removed through processing.
Synonyms: acquisition
See: common midpoint method, explosive seismic data, gather, geophone, hydrophone, shotpoint

1. n. [Geophysics]
Another term for acoustic impedance, the product of density and seismic velocity, which varies among different
rock layers, commonly symbolized by Z. The difference in acoustic impedance between rock layers affects the
reflection coefficient.
Synonyms: acoustic impedance
See: acoustic impedance section, acoustic transparency, amplitude anomaly, bright spot, density contrast, dim
spot, polarity standard, reflector

seismic interpretation

1. n. [Geophysics]
Analysis of seismic data to generate reasonable models and predictions about the properties and structures
of the subsurface. Interpretation ofÂ seismicÂ data is the primary concern of geophysicists.
Synonyms: seismic modeling
See: mis-tie, pick
More Details:
 Integrated Reservoir Interpretation

seismic line

1. n. [Geophysics]
A display ofÂ seismicÂ data along a line, such as a 2D seismicÂ profileÂ or a profile extracted from a volume ofÂ 3D
seismic data. A seismic section consists of numerous traces with location given along the x-axis and two-way
traveltimeÂ or depth along the y-axis. The section is called aÂ depth sectionÂ if the section has been converted
from time to depth and a time section if this has not been done.
Synonyms: seismic section
See: trace, two-dimensional survey

seismic modeling
1. n. [Geophysics]
The comparison, simulation or representation of seismic data to define the limits of seismic resolution, assess the
ambiguity of interpretation or make predictions. Generation of a synthetic seismogram from a well log and
comparing the synthetic, or modeled trace, with seismic data is a common direct modeling procedure. Generating
a set of pseudologs from seismic data is the process known as seismic inversion, a type of indirect modeling.
Models can be developed to address problems of structure and stratigraphy prior to acquisition of seismic data
and during the interpretation of the data. As Sheriff (1991) points out, agreement between data and a model does
not prove that the model is correct, since there can be numerous models that agree with a given data set.
Synonyms: modeling
See: acquisition, amplitude variation with offset, interpretation, inversion, model, resolution, synthetic
seismogram, work station

seismic processing

seismic record

1. n. [Geophysics]
Traces recorded from a single shotpoint. Numerous seismic records are displayed together in a single seismic
section.
Synonyms: seismogram
See: shotpoint, stack, synthetic seismogram, trace

1. n. [Geophysics]
A technique to measure and display the three-dimensional distribution of velocity or reflectivity of a
volume of the Earth by using numerous sources and receivers at the Earth's surface. In reflection
tomography, space is divided into cells, each having a certain velocity and reflectivity. The final model is
the one whose velocities and reflectivities best describe the data.
Synonyms: reflection tomography
See: reflection coefficient, tomography, velocity
More Details:
 Looking Deep into the Reservoir

seismic refraction method

1. n. [Geophysics]
A seismic aquisition method in which the incident and reflected angles are critical. These refraction surveys can be
useful for evaluating increasing velocity gradients and locating features that have anomalously high velocities, such
as aÂ salt domeÂ within surrounding rocks of lower velocities.
See: angle of incidence, critical angle, Fermat's principle, reflection, refraction, Snell's law

seismic section

1. n. [Geophysics]
A display of seismic data along a line, such a 2D seismic profile or a profile extracted from a volume of 3D seismic
data. A seismic section consists of numerous traces with location given along the x-axis and two-way traveltime or
depth along the y-axis. The section is called a depth section if the section has been converted from time to depth
and a time section if this has not been done.
Synonyms: seismic line
See: arrival, depth conversion, event, header, synthetic seismogram, trace, two-dimensional survey

seismic stratigraphy
1. n. [Geophysics]
Another term for sequence stratigraphy, a field of study in which basin-filling sedimentary deposits,
called sequences, are interpreted in a framework of eustasy, sedimentation and subsidence through time in
order to correlate strata and predict the stratigraphy of relatively unknown areas. Sequences tend to show
cyclicity of changes in relative sea level and widespread unconformities, processes of sedimentation and
sources of sediments, climate and tectonic activity over time. Sequence stratigraphic study promotes
thorough understanding of the evolution of basins, but also allows for interpretations of potential source
rocks and reservoir rocks in both frontier areas (having seismic data but little well data) and in more
mature hydrocarbon provinces. Prediction of reservoir continuity is currently a key question in mature
hydrocarbon provinces where sequence stratigraphy is being applied. The field originated during the
1960s with the study of the stratigraphy of the continental USA, where numerous unconformities could be
correlated widely, and led to the proposal that major unconformities might mark synchronous global-scale
events. Through sequence stratigraphy, widely-separated sediments that occur between correlatable
unconformities could be compared with each other. Studies of outcrops and seismic lines bore out these
concepts, which initially were called "Seismic Stratigraphy" and first published widely in 1977. Further
study of seismic lines led to the interpretation of the geometry or architecture of seismic events as
representing particular styles of sedimentation and depositional environments, and the integration of such
interpretations with well log and core data. Because of the simultaneous, competitive nature of the
research, numerous oil companies and academic groups use the terminology of sequence stratigraphy
differently, and new terms are added continually.
See: condensed section, hiatus, onlap, parasequence, sequence boundary, sequence stratigraphy, source
rock, systems tract
More Details:
 Sequence Stratigraphyâ€”A Global Theory for Local Success

seismic survey

1. n. [Geophysics]
A seismic data set measured and recorded with reference to a particular area of the Earth's surface, to evaluate
the subsurface.
See: gravity survey, telluric-current method

seismic trace

1. n. [Geophysics]
The seismic data recorded for one channel. A seismic trace represents the response of the elastic wavefield to
velocity and density contrasts across interfaces of layers of rock or sediments as energy travels from a source
through the subsurface to a receiver or receiver array.
Synonyms: trace
See: array, channel, density, gather, receiver, velocity

seismic velocity

1. n. [Geophysics]
The rate at which a seismic wave travels through a medium, that is, distance divided by traveltime. Seismic velocity
can be determined from vertical seismic profiles or from velocity analysis of seismic data. It can vary vertically,
laterally and azimuthally in anisotropic media and tends to increase with depth in the Earth because compaction
reduces porosity. Velocity also varies as a function of how it is derived from the data. For example, the stacking
velocity derived from normal moveout measurements of common depth point gathers differs from the average
velocity measured vertically from a check-shot or vertical seismic profile (VSP). Velocity would be the same only in
a constant-velocity (homogeneous) medium.
See: velocity, velocity survey, wavelength

seismic wave

1. n. [Geophysics]

A periodic vibrational disturbance in which energy is propagated through or on the surface of a medium
without translation of the material. Waves can be differentiated by their frequency, amplitude, wavelength
and speed of propagation. Seismic waves are waves of elastic energy, such as that transmitted by P-waves
and S-waves, in the frequency range of approximately 1 to 100 Hz. Seismic energy is studied by scientists
to interpret the composition, fluid content, extent and geometry of rocks in the subsurface.
Wavelength is defined as:
λ = v/f,
whereλ = wavelengthv = speed of propagationf = frequency.

See: acoustic emission, body wave, diffraction, Fresnel zone, hertz, Love wave, P-wave, S-wave, surface wave,
wave, waveform, wavefront

seismic while drilling vertical seismic profile

1. n. [Geophysics]
A technique using a seismic source on the surface and receivers in the borehole to acquire a vertical seismic profile
(VSP) during pipe connections. Waveforms are transmitted to the surface during drilling operations and can be
processed in time to yield reliable time-depth information and sometimes reflection information. Because the
survey and analysis can be performed while a well is being drilled, the data can be considered in decisions during
drilling operations.
See: acquisition, noise, receiver, reflection, source, vertical seismic profile

seismic-while-drilling vertical seismic profile

seismogram

1. n. [Geophysics]
Traces recorded from a single shotpoint. Numerous seismograms are displayed together in a single seismic section.
Synonyms: seismic record
See: seismograph, shotpoint, synthetic seismogram, trace

seismograph

1. n. [Geophysics]
A device or system that records the ground oscillations that make up exploration seismic data or earthquakes,
sometimes used incorrectly as a synonym for geophone. A seismograph can include amplifiers, receivers and a
recording device (such as a computer disk or magnetic tape) to record seismograms. A crude seismograph was
built in 1855 by Italian physicist Luigi Palmieri (1807 to 1896). The modern seismograph, which used a pendulum,
was invented in 1880 by James Ewing, Thomas Gray and Sir John Milne.
See: geophone, seismogram, seismology
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seismology

1. n. [Geophysics]
The study of seismic or elastic waves, such as from earthquakes, explosions or other causes. Interpretation of the
structure and composition of the Earth from artificially created seismic waves is a chief concern of seismologists
exploring for hydrocarbons and other resources. English physicist John Mitchell (1724 to 1793) is known as the
founder of seismology in part because of his observation that one can determine an earthquake's epicenter, or
point of origin in the subsurface, by measuring the arrival time of earthquake waves at different locations. The
invention of the modern seismograph in 1880 promoted further studies of earthquakes.
See: birefringence, earthquake, elastic, reflection tomography, seismograph, shadow zone, wave

seismometer

1. n. [Geophysics]
A device that records seismic energy in the form of ground motion and transforms it to an electrical impulse.
Synonyms: geophone, jug, receiver
See: accelerometer, acquisition, fold, geophone, group, hydrophone, plant

semblance

1. n. [Geophysics]
A quantitative measure of the coherence of seismic data from multiple channels that is equal to the energy of a
stacked trace divided by the energy of all the traces that make up the stack. If data from all channels are perfectly
coherent, or show continuity from trace to trace, the semblance has a value of unity.
See: channel, coherence, coherence, stack

sensitivity

1. n. [Geophysics]
The smallest change in a measurement that can be recorded by an instrument.
2. n. [Enhanced Oil Recovery]
In matrix stimulation, a characteristic of rock that indicates the degree of reaction between the rock minerals and a
given treating fluid. A formation is described as sensitive if a given stimulating fluid damages the formation. The
detrimental reactions include disaggregation and collapse of the matrix, release of fines or formation of
precipitates. Sensitivity depends on the overall reactivity of the formation minerals with the fluid; reactivity
depends on the structure of the rock and the distribution of minerals within the rock. Sandstone sensitivity also
depends on permeability; low-permeability formations are normally more sensitive than high-permeability
sandstones for a given mineralogy because certain types of damage, such as formation of precipitates, are more
harmful in small pore throats (as in low-permeability formations).
See: compatibility, matrix stimulation, sandstone petrography

SH wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
A shear wave that is polarized so that its particle motion and direction of propagation are contained in a horizontal
plane.
See: converted wave, S-wave, SV-wave

shadow zone

1. n. [Geophysics]
Generally, an area of the Earth from which waves do not emerge or cannot be recorded. In seismology, the term is
used to more specifically describe regions of the subsurface where P-waves and S-waves are difficult to detect,
such as regions of the core at certain distances from the epicenter of an earthquake, or the point on the Earth's
surface directly above an earthquake. Such zones were first observed in 1914 by Beno Gutenberg (1889 to 1960),
an American geologist born in Germany. Because of the molten nature of the outer core, S-waves are especially
difficult to detect at 103 to 142 degrees from the epicenter of an earthquake and not observable from 142 to 180
degrees from the epicenter. Areas below salt features are also called shadow zones because the high velocity of
salt bends and traps energy, so seismic data quality beneath salt is generally poor unless special seismic processing
is performed.
See: blind zone, P-wave, S-wave, seismology

shaped charge

1. n. [Geophysics]
Explosives designed to affect a certain direction preferentially. Shaped charges are most commonly used to
perforate wells, but can be an energy source for seismic acquisition.
Alternate Form: perforating charge
See: directivity

2. n. [Perforating]
An explosive device that utilizes a cavity-effect explosive reaction to generate a high-pressure, high-velocity jet
that creates a perforation tunnel. The shape of the explosive material and powdered metal lining determine the
shape of the jet and performance characteristics of the charge. The extremely high pressure and velocity of the jet
cause materials, such as steel, cement and rock formations, to flow plastically around the jet path, thereby
creating the perforation tunnel.
Synonyms: perforating charge
See: perforating gun

shear

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of vertical seismic profile in which the source is a shear-wave source rather than a compressional-wave
source. Shear waves travel through the Earth at about half the speed of compressional waves and respond
differently to fluid-filled rock, and so can provide different additional information about lithology and fluid content
of hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs.
See: P-wave, S-wave, source, vertical seismic profile, wave

shear modulus

1. n. [Geophysics]
An elastic constant for the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. The shear modulus is one of the Lamé constants. It
can be expressed mathematically as follows:

μ = τ / γ = (ΔF/A) / (ΔL/L),
whereμ = Shear modulusτ = Shear stress = ΔF/AΔF = Increment of shear forceA = Area acted on by the
shear forceγ = Shear strain = ΔL/LΔL = Increment of transverse displacement parallel to AL = Original
length.

Synonyms: modulus of rigidity

See: elastic constants, Lamé constant

1. n. [Geophysics]
Also known as S-wave, an elastic body wave in which particles oscillate perpendicular to the direction in which the
wave propagates. S-waves are generated by most land seismic sources, but not by air guns. P-waves that impinge
on an interface at non-normal incidenceÂ can produce S-waves, which in that case are known as converted waves.
S-waves can likewise be converted to P-waves. S-waves, or shear waves, travel more slowly than P-waves and
cannot travel through fluids because fluids do not support shear. Recording of S-waves requires receivers coupled
to the solid Earth.Â InterpretationÂ of S-waves can allow determination ofÂ rock propertiesÂ such as fracture
density and orientation, Poisson's ratio andÂ rockÂ type by crossplotting P-wave and S-wave velocities, and by
other techniques.
Synonyms: S-wave, tangential wave
See: four-component seismic data

shoot a well

1. vb. [Geophysics]
To acquire a type ofÂ borehole seismic dataÂ designed to measure the seismicÂ traveltimeÂ from the surface to a
known depth. P-waveÂ velocityÂ of the formations encountered in a wellbore can be measured directly by
lowering aÂ geophoneÂ to eachÂ formationÂ of interest, sending out a source of energy from the surface of the
Earth, and recording the resultantÂ signal. The data can then be correlated to surface seismic data by correcting
theÂ sonic logÂ and generating a syntheticÂ seismogramÂ to confirm or modify seismic interpretations. It differs
from aÂ vertical seismic profileÂ in the number and density ofÂ receiverÂ depths recorded; geophone positions
may be widely and irregularly located in the wellbore, whereas a vertical seismic profile usually has numerous
geophones positioned at closely and regularly spaced intervals in the wellbore.
See: check-shot survey, depth conversion, drift, first break, one-dimensional seismic data, one-way time
2. vb. [Perforating]
To perforate a wellbore in preparation for production.
See: perforation

short-path multiple

1. n. [Geophysics]
Multiply-reflected seismic energy with a shorter travel path than long-path multiples. Short-path multiples tend to
come from shallow subsurface phenomena or highly cyclical sedimentation and arrive soon after, and sometimes
very near, the primary reflections. Short-path multiples are less obvious than most long-path multiples and are less
easily removed by seismic processing.
See: event, ghost, long-path multiple, multiple reflection, noise, peg-leg multiple, primary reflection, processing
© 2015 Schlumberger Limited. All rights reserved. | Privacy | Terms | Help | Site Map | Contact

shot depth

1. n. [Geophysics]
The location of an explosive seismic source below the surface. Before acquisition of surface seismic data onshore
using explosive sources such as dynamite, holes are drilled at shotpoints and dynamite is placed in the holes. The
shotholes can be more than 50 m [164 ft] deep, although depths of 6 to 30 m [20 to 98 ft] are most common and
depth is selected according to local conditions. With other "surface" sources, such as vibrators and shots from air
shooting, the shots occur at the Earth's surface.
See: acquisition, air shooting, dynamite, shotpoint, source, vibrator

shot point

1. n. [Geophysics]
One of a number of locations or stations at the surface of the Earth at which a seismic source is activated.
See: acquisition, amplitude variation with offset, common midpoint method, depth migration, dropout, fold,
migration, offset, receiver, seismic record, seismogram, shot depth, spacing, spread, synthetic seismogram

shotpoint

1. n. [Geophysics]
A shear wave that is polarized so that its particle motion and direction of propagation are contained in a horizontal
plane.
See: converted wave, S-wave, SV-wave

side scan sonar

1. n. [Geophysics]
A system for acoustic surveying most commonly deployed in marine environments and towed by a ship. The side-
scan sonar generates a pulse on the order of 30 to 120 kHz that is reflected from the seafloor. Side-scan sonar
records yield an image of the seafloor and shallow sediments.
See: acoustic, deep tow, survey

side-scan sonar

sideswipe

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of event in 2D seismic data in which a feature out of the plane of a seismic section is apparent, such as an
anticline, fault or other geologic structure. A properly migrated 3D survey will not contain sideswipes.
See: event, migration, two-dimensional seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
The portion of the seismic wave that contains desirable information. Noise is the undesirable information that
typically accompanies the signal and can, to some extent, be filtered out of the data.
See: acoustic coupler, acquisition, aliasing, autocorrelation, bel, check-shot survey, coupling, decibel, dynamic
range, filter, filter, frequency, inversion, noise, polarity standard, processing, signal-to-noise ratio, Stoneley wave,
traveltime, zero crossing

signal to noise ratio

1. n. [Geophysics]
The ratio of desirable to undesirable (or total) energy. The signal-to-noise ratio can be expressed mathematically as
S/N or S/(S+N), although S/N is more commonly used. The signal-to-noise ratio is difficult to quantify accurately
because it is difficult to completely separate signal from noise. It also depends on how noise is defined.
See: filter, inversion, noise, signal, stack, stacking velocity

signal-to-noise ratio

signature

1. n. [Geophysics]
A distinguishing feature of a waveform in a seismic event, such as shape, polarity, amplitude, frequency or phase.
The signature of the seismic source waveform is of particular interest to geophysicists.
Synonyms: character
See: event, wave, waveform
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signature deconvolution

1. n. [Geophysics]
A step in seismic processing by which the signature of the seismic source in the seismic trace is changed to a
known, shorter waveform by using knowledge of the source waveform. If the source waveform is known for each
shot, then the process also minimizes variations between seismic records that result from changes in the source
output.
See: deconvolution, processing, trace, waveform

simple multiple

1. n. [Geophysics]
An event in which one deeper and one near-surface reflector, such as the base of weathering or the ocean floor,
are involved. The seismic energy bounces twice from the deep reflector and only once from the shallow reflector,
causing the multiple to appear at roughly twice the traveltime of the primary reflection.
See: long-path multiple

Single-azimuth towed-streamer acquisition

1. n. [Geophysics]
Conventional marine seismic data acquisition method using a single vessel to tow one or more seismic source
arrays and streamers in a straight line as the vessel records seismic data. With this method, the angle between the
source and receivers is narrow.

skid

1. n. [Geophysics]
A conveyance, such as a sled with runners or pontoons, used to transport geophysical gear to a location. Skids are
commonly deployed in acquisition of seismic data in marshes or other areas of soft, soggy terrain.
See: acquisition, marsh

2. n. [Drilling]
A steel frame on which portable equipment is mounted to facilitate handling with cranes or flatbed trucks. The skid
is robust, is usually designed with attachment points for hooks, chains, or cables, and has at least two lengthwise
beams to facilitate sliding the equipment into place on the rigsite.
3. vb. [Drilling]
To slide the rig over, such as to move it from one well slot to another on a fixed offshore platform. This operation is
accomplished by disconnecting the rigid attachments from the platform to the rig, and energizing large-capacity
hydraulic cylinders that push the rig over greased steel skid beams.

skin depth

1. n. [Geophysics]

The effective depth of penetration of an electromagnetic wave in a conductive medium. The skin depth is
the distance in which the wave decays to 1/e (about 37%) of its value; it can be expressed as:
δs = (2/σμω)1/2 = (2/σ)(ε/μ)1/2,
whereδs = skin depthσ = electrical conductivityω = 2πf = angular frequency in radians/sf = frequency in
Hzμ = μrμ0 = magnetic permeabilityμr = relative magnetic permeability of the conductorμ0 = relative
magnetic permeability of free space = 4π × 10−7 newton per ampere squared (N/A2)ε = εrε0 = dielectric
permittivityεr = relative dielectric permittivity of the materialε0 = dielectric permittivity of free space =
8.854 × 10−12 farads per meter (F/m).

See: electromagnetic method, permeability

slant stack

1. n. [Geophysics]
A process used in seismic processing to stack, or sum, traces by shifting traces in time in proportion to their offset.
This technique is useful in areas of dipping reflectors.
See: processing, stack, trace

1. n. [Formation Evaluation, Geophysics]

Also called interval transit time, The amount of time for a wave to travel a certain distance, proportional to the
reciprocal of velocity, typically measured in microseconds per foot by an acoustic log and symbolized by t or DT. P-
wave interval transit times for common sedimentary rock types range from 43 (dolostone) to 160 (unconsolidated
shales) microseconds per foot, and can be distinguished from measurements of steel casing, which has a
consistent transit time of 57 microseconds per foot.
Synonyms: delta t, interval transit time
See: acoustic, drift, P-wave

smile

1. n. [Geophysics]
A concave-upward, semicircular event in seismic data that has the appearance of a smile and can be caused by
poor data migration or migration of noise.
See: event, migration, noise

Snell's law

1. n. [Geophysics]

The mathematical description of refraction, or the physical change in the direction of a wavefront as it
travels from one medium to another with a change in velocity and partial conversion and reflection of a P-
wave to an S-wave at the interface of the two media. Snell's law, one of two laws describing refraction,
was formulated in the context of light waves, but is applicable to seismic waves. It is named for
Willebrord Snel (1580 to 1626), a Dutch mathematician.
Snell's law can be written as:

n1 sin i = n2 sin r,

wheren1 = refractive index of first mediumn2 = refractive index of second mediumsin i = sine of the angle
of incidencesin r = sine of the angle of refraction.
See: angle of approach, angle of incidence, critical angle, Fermat's principle, least-time path, normal incidence, ray
tracing, reflection coefficient, refractive index, tomography, wave

sonic

1. adj. [Geophysics]
Pertaining to sound waves in the frequency range of 1 to 25 kilohertz.
See: acoustic, acoustic log, compaction correction, elastic, frequency, hertz, sonic log, Stoneley wave
2. adj. [Geophysics]
Some authors use the term to describe P-waves in fluids, or as a synonym for seismic or elastic.
See: acoustic, elastic, P-wave, sonic log

sonic log

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of acoustic log that displays traveltime of P-waves versus depth. Sonic logs are typically recorded by pulling
a tool on a wireline up the wellbore. The tool emits a sound wave that travels from the source to the formation
and back to a receiver.
See: acoustic log, P-wave, sonic, traveltime, velocity

sound

1. vb. [Geophysics]
Another term for probe, in electromagnetic methods, to measure the variation of a property versus depth,
including electrical, electromagnetic and magnetotelluric properties. Probing differs from profiling in that the goal
of probing is to provide a record of vertical changes, whereas profiling documents lateral variations.
Synonyms: probe
See: electromagnetic method, magnetotelluric method, profile

source
1. n. [Geophysics]
A device that provides energy for acquisition of seismic data, such as an air gun, explosive charge or vibrator.
See: air gun, air shooting, downhole source, explosive seismic data, shot depth, shotpoint, spacing, vibratory
seismic data, water gun

source pattern

1. n. [Geophysics]
A geometrical arrangement ofÂ seismicÂ sources (a source array), with each individual source being activated in
some fixed sequence in time.
See: array, fan shooting, footprint, geophone, ground roll, hydrophone, radial array, receiver, seismic trace,
source, spread

source point

sourcepoint
1. n. [Geophysics]
One of a number of locations or stations at the surface of the Earth at which a seismicÂ sourceÂ is activated.
See: acquisition, amplitude variation with offset, common midpoint method, depth migration, dropout, fold,
migration, offset, receiver, seismic record, seismogram, shot depth, spacing, spread, synthetic seismogram

space frequency domain

1. n. [Geophysics]
A display, also known as the f-k domain, of seismic data by wavenumber versus frequency rather than the intuitive
display of location versus time for convenience during seismic processing. Working in the space-frequency domain
provides the seismic processor with an alternative measure of the content of seismic data in which operations such
as filtering of certain unwanted events can be accomplished more effectively.
See: event, f-k domain, frequency, processing

space-frequency domain

spacing

1. n. [Geophysics]
The distance between sources and receivers, particularly in logging tools.
See: normal moveout, receiver, source
2. n. [Geophysics]
The distance between successive shotpoints.
See: group interval, shotpoint

1. adj. [Geophysics]
Pertaining to a spectrum. The spectral content of a wavetrain or wavelet usually refers to its amplitude and phase
as a function of frequency.
See: amplitude, frequency, phase, wavelet

spectrum

1. n. [Geophysics]
Generally, a display of entities or properties according to magnitude. In geophysics, spectrum refers to a display of
characteristics of a wavetrain or trace as a function of frequency, wavenumber, or arrival time. A common display
of spectrum is amplitude as a function of frequency.
See: amplitude, arrival, frequency, phase, trace
2. n. [Formation Evaluation]
The distribution of gamma ray energies, or the number of gamma rays as a function of gamma ray energy.
See: activation log, geochemical log, induced gamma ray spectroscopy, neutron interactions, pulsed neutron
spectroscopy measurement

spherical divergence

1. n. [Geophysics]
The apparent loss of energy from a wave as it spreads during travel. Spherical divergence decreases energy with
the square of the distance.
See: divergence, Q, true-amplitude recovery, wave
2. n. [Geophysics]
The apparent loss of intensity of a gravitational or magnetic field with distance. Spherical divergence decreases
energy with the square of the distance.
See: gravity, magnetics

spherical harmonic

1. n. [Geophysics]
The solution to the Laplace equation expressed as spherical coordinates. The normal modes of the Earth, or the
reverberations that follow earthquakes, have the form of spherical harmonics. Love waves and Rayleigh waves can
also be expressed as spherical harmonics.
See: Laplace equation

spherical wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
A wave generated from a point source, such as that generated by an underground explosion. Typical seismic
sources such as vibrators and air-gun arrays emit elastic waves that are assumed to be spherical waves.
See: air gun, vibrator, wave

spontaneous potential

1. n. [Geophysics]
Naturally occurring (static) electrical potential in the Earth. Spontaneous potentials are usually caused by charge
separation in clay or other minerals, by the presence of a semipermeable interface impeding the diffusion of ions
through the pore space of rocks, or by natural flow of a conducting fluid (salty water) through the rocks. Variations
in SP can be measured in the field and in wellbores to determine variations of ionic concentration in pore fluids of
rocks.
Alternate Form: SP
See: diffusion
2. n. [Formation Evaluation]
A log of the natural difference in electrical potential, in millivolts, between an electrode in the borehole and a fixed
reference electrode on the surface. The most useful component of this difference is the electrochemical potential
since it can cause a significant deflection opposite permeable beds. The magnitude of the deflection depends
mainly on the salinity contrast between drilling mud and formation water, and the clay content of the permeable
bed. The spontaneous potential (SP) log is therefore used to detect permeable beds and to estimate formation
water salinity and formation clay content. The SP log cannot be recorded in nonconductive mud. The SP can be
affected by several factors that make interpretation difficult. First, there are other possible sources of electrical
potential not related to the electrochemical effect, for example, the electrokinetic potential and bimetallism. Many
of these are small and constant throughout the log, and can be lumped together in the shale baseline. Second, the
SP can measure only the potential drop in the borehole, and not the full electrochemical potential. The ideal SP
opposite a clean bed is known as the static spontaneous potential (SSP), and opposite a shaly bed as the
pseudostatic spontaneous potential (PSP). The SP is always less than the SSP or the PSP and more rounded at the
boundaries between shales and permeable beds. The SP was first recognized by C. Schlumberger, M. Schlumberger
and E.G. Leonardon in 1931, and the first published examples were from Russian oil fields.
See: differential SP, fish, liquid-junction potential, membrane potential

1. n. [Geophysics]
The geometrical pattern of groups of geophones relative to the seismic source. The output from a single shot is
recorded simultaneously by the spread during seismic acquisition. Common spread geometries include in-line
offset, L-spread, split-spread and T-spread.
See: acquisition, aperture, array, extended spread, geophone, group, in-line, offset, perpendicular offset, shotpoint

stack

1. n. [Geophysics]
A processed seismic record that contains traces that have been added together from different records to reduce
noise and improve overall data quality. The number of traces that have been added together during stacking is
called the fold.
See: bin, brute stack, common midpoint, common midpoint method, fold, ground roll, noise, processing, random
noise, seismic record, semblance, slant stack, stacking velocity, velocity analysis, zero-offset data

2. vb. [Geophysics]
To sum traces to improve the signal-to-noise ratio, reduce noise and improve seismic data quality. Traces from
different shot records with a common reflection point, such as common midpoint (CMP) data, are stacked to form
a single trace during seismic processing. Stacking reduces the amount of data by a factor called the fold.
See: bin, common midpoint, fold, mute, noise, processing, seismic record, signal-to-noise ratio, trace

stacking velocity

1. n. [Geophysics]
The distance-time relationship determined from analysis of normal moveout (NMO) measurements from common
depth point gathers of seismic data. The stacking velocity is used to correct the arrival times of events in the traces
for their varying offsets prior to summing, or stacking, the traces to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the data.
See: common depth point, gather, normal moveout, root-mean-square velocity, signal-to-noise ratio, stack,
velocity, velocity analysis
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static correction

1. n. [Geophysics]
Often called statics, a bulk shift of a seismic trace in time during seismic processing. A common static correction is
the weathering correction, which compensates for a layer of low seismic velocity material near the surface of the
Earth. Other corrections compensate for differences in topography and differences in the elevations of sources and
receivers.
Alternate Form: near surface correction, near-surface correction, statics
See: base of weathering, brute stack, differential weathering correction, dynamic correction, elevation correction,
first break, moveout, processing, receiver, source, velocity, weathered layer, weathering correction

statics

1. n. [Geophysics]
Another term for static correction, a bulk shift of aÂ seismic traceÂ in time duringÂ seismic processing. A common
static correction is theÂ weatheringÂ correction, which compensates for a layer of lowÂ seismic velocityÂ material
near the surface of the Earth. Other corrections compensate for differences in topography and differences in the
elevations of sources and receivers.
Alternate Form: near surface correction, near-surface correction, static correction
See: base of weathering, brute stack, differential weathering correction, dynamic correction, elevation correction,
first break, moveout, processing, receiver, source, velocity, weathered layer, weathering correction

Stoneley wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of large-amplitude interface, or surface, wave generated by a sonic tool in a borehole. Stoneley waves can
propagate along a solid-fluid interface, such as along the walls of a fluid-filled borehole and are the main low-
frequency component of signal generated by sonic sources in boreholes. Analysis of Stoneley waves can allow
estimation of the locations of fractures and permeability of the formation. Stoneley waves are a major source of
noise in vertical seismic profiles.
See: signal, sonic, surface wave, tube wave, vertical seismic profile, wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
A surface marine cable, usually a buoyant assembly of electrical wires that connects hydrophones and relays
seismic data to the recording seismic vessel. Multistreamer vessels tow more than one streamer cable to increase
the amount of data acquired in one pass.
See: acoustic positioning, bird, cable, depth controller, eel, footprint, hydrophone, ocean-bottom cable, streamer
feathering, tail buoy

streamer feathering

1. n. [Geophysics]
In marine seismic acquisition, the lateral deviation of a streamer away from the towing direction because of a
water current.
See: acquisition, streamer

suppression

1. n. [Geophysics]
In seismic acquisition and processing, the attenuation of amplitudes to reduce the effects of noise or to prevent
overload from the high energy of first breaks.
See: acquisition, amplitude, attenuation, first break, noise

surface wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
A wave that propagates at the interface between two media as opposed to through a medium. A surface wave can
travel at the interface between the Earth and air, or the Earth and water. Love waves and Rayleigh waves are
surface waves.
See: abnormal events, body wave, dispersion, ground roll, guided wave, Love wave, noise, Rayleigh wave, Stoneley
wave, tube wave

survey

1. n. [Geophysics]
A data set measured and recorded with reference to a particular area of the Earth's surface, such as a seismic
survey.
See: accelerometer, base station, baseline, baseline, benchmark, benchmark, cultural noise, depth point, drift,
electromagnetic method, free-air correction, gravity, gravity survey, magnetics, monument, perpendicular offset,
salt proximity survey, seismic, side-scan sonar, telluric-current method
2. vb. [Geophysics]
To measure and record data according to location on the Earth's surface. In geophysics, the term is used in the
context of acquiring seismic, electrical, gravity or magnetic data to evaluate the subsurface.
See: acquisition
3. n. [Drilling]
A completed measurement of the inclination and azimuth of a location in a well (typically the total depth at the
time of measurement). In both directional and straight holes, the position of the well must be known with
reasonable accuracy to ensure the correct wellbore path and to know its position in the event a relief well must be
drilled. The measurements themselves include inclination from vertical, and the azimuth (or compass heading) of
the wellbore if the direction of the path is critical. These measurements are made at discrete points in the well,
and the approximate path of the wellbore computed from the discrete points. Measurement devices range from
simple pendulum-like devices to complex electronic accelerometers and gyroscopes used more often as MWD
becomes more popular. In simple pendulum measurements, the position of a freely hanging pendulum relative to
a measurement grid (attached to the housing of the tool and assumed to represent the path of the wellbore) is
captured on photographic film. The film is developed and examined when the tool is removed from the wellbore,
either on wireline or the next time pipe is tripped out of the hole.
See: azimuth, deviation survey, directional drilling, directional survey, inclination, measurements-while-drilling,
total depth, tripping pipe
4. n. [Drilling]
A precise and legally binding measurement of surface locations, referenced to known benchmark locations.
5. vb. [Drilling]
To make the measurements as in definitions 1 or 2.
6. n. [Formation Evaluation]
The measurement versus depth or time, or both, of one or more physical quantities in or around a well. In early
years, the term was used more often than log.
Syno

SV wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
A shear wave that is polarized so that its particle motion and direction of propagation occur in a vertical plane.
See: converted wave, S-wave, SH-wave
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SV-wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
A shear wave that is polarized so that its particle motion and direction of propagation occur in a vertical plane.
See: converted wave, S-wave, SH-wave

S-wave

synthetic seismogram

1. n. [Geophysics]
The result of one of many forms of forward modeling to predict the seismic response of the Earth. A more narrow
definition used by seismic interpreters is that a synthetic seismogram, commonly called a synthetic, is a direct one-
dimensional model of acoustic energy traveling through the layers of the Earth. The synthetic seismogram is
generated by convolving the reflectivity derived from digitized acoustic and density logs with the wavelet derived
from seismic data. By comparing marker beds or other correlation points picked on well logs with major reflections
on the seismic section, interpretations of the data can be improved. The quality of the match between a synthetic
seismogram depends on well log quality, seismic data processing quality, and the ability to extract a representative
wavelet from seismic data, among other factors. The acoustic log is generally calibrated with check-shot or vertical
seismic profile (VSP) first-arrival information before combining with the density log to produce acoustic
impedance.
See: check-shot survey, convolution, forward modeling, marker bed, multiple reflection, one-dimensional seismic
data, phase, reflection, reflection coefficient, Ricker wavelet, seismic modeling, seismic record, seismic section,
shotpoint, trace, velocity, vertical seismic profile

tail buoy

1. n. [Geophysics]
A floating device used in marine seismic acquisition to identify the end of a streamer. Tail buoys allow the seismic
acquisition crew to monitor the location and direction of streamers. They are commonly brightly colored, reflect
radar signals, and are fitted with Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers.
See: acquisition, Global Positioning System, streamer

tangential wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
Also known as S-wave, an elastic body wave in which particles oscillate perpendicular to the direction in which the
wave propagates. S-waves are generated by most land seismic sources, but not by air guns. P-waves that impinge
on an interface at non-normal incidence can produce S-waves, which in that case are known as converted waves.
S-waves can likewise be converted to P-waves. S-waves, or shear waves, travel more slowly than P-waves and
cannot travel through fluids because fluids do not support shear. Recording of S-waves requires receivers coupled
to the solid Earth. Interpretation of S-waves can allow determination of rock properties such as fracture density
and orientation, Poisson's ratio and rock type by crossplotting P-wave and S-wave velocities, and by other
techniques.
Synonyms: S-wave, shear wave

TAR

1. n. [Geophysics]
Steps inÂ seismicÂ processingÂ to compensate forÂ attenuation, sphericalÂ divergenceÂ and other effects by
adjusting theÂ amplitudeÂ of the data. The goal is to get the data to a state where theÂ reflection amplitudes
relate directly to the change inÂ rock propertiesÂ giving rise to them.
Alternate Form: true-amplitude recovery
See: amplitude, attenuation, gain, spherical divergence

TDEM

1. n. [Geophysics]
A variation of theÂ electromagnetic methodÂ in which electric and magnetic fields are induced by transient pulses
of electric current in coils or antennas instead of by continuous (sinusoidal) current. These surveys have become a
popular surface EM technique used inÂ explorationÂ for minerals andÂ groundwaterÂ and for environmental
mapping.
Synonyms: TEM, transient electromagnetic method
Alternate Form: time-domain electromagnetic method

1. n. [Geophysics]
A mode of the electromagnetic field that involves only one component of the electric field and the two
components of the magnetic field perpendicular to it; e.g., the x-component of the electric field and y- and z-
components of the magnetic field. The TE mode is useful in describing 2D models in which the electric field is
perpendicular to the 2D plane of the model. For this case, Maxwell's equations can be reduced to a single scalar
equation for the electric field component, which simplifies calculations tremendously. There is an analogous mode
for the magnetic field called the TM mode. A general EM field in a region without sources can be expressed as a
sum of TE and TM modes.
Alternate Form: transverse electric mode

telluric current

1. n. [Geophysics]
A low-frequency electrical current that occurs naturally over large areas at or near the surface of the Earth. Telluric
currents are induced by changes in Earth's magnetic field which are usually caused by interactions between the
solar wind and the ionosphere (part of the upper atmosphere).
See: telluric-current method
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telluric current method

1. n. [Geophysics]
An electromagnetic method in which naturally occurring, low-frequency electric currents (telluric currents), are
measured at a base station and compared with values measured at other stations. The normalized measurements
of telluric current provide information about the direction of current flow and the conductance (conductivity times
thickness) of sediments in the surveyed area. Extremely low-frequency telluric currents (with periods of days or
months) provide information about conductivity in the deep interior of the Earth.
See: base station, survey, telluric current

telluric-current method

TEM

1. n. [Geophysics]
A variation of the electromagnetic method in which electric and magnetic fields are induced by transient pulses of
electric current in coils or antennas instead of by continuous (sinusoidal) current. These surveys have become a
popular surface EM technique used in exploration for minerals and groundwater and for environmental mapping.
Synonyms: TDEM, time-domain electromagnetic method
Alternate Form: transient electromagnetic method

three component seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of multicomponent seismic data acquired in a land, marine, or borehole environment by using three
orthogonally oriented geophones or accelerometers. 3C is particularly appropriate when the addition of a
hydrophone (the basis for 4C seismic data) adds no value to the measurement, as for example, on land. This
technique allows determination of both the type of wave and its direction of propagation.
See: accelerometer, geophone, hydrophone, multicomponent seismic data

three dimensional seismic data

three dimensional survey

three-component seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of multicomponent seismic data acquired in a land, marine, or borehole environment by using three
orthogonally oriented geophones or accelerometers. 3C is particularly appropriate when the addition of a
hydrophone (the basis for 4C seismic data) adds no value to the measurement, as for example, on land. This
technique allows determination of both the type of wave and its direction of propagation.
Alternate Form: 3C seismic data
See: accelerometer, geophone, hydrophone, multicomponent seismic data

three-dimensional seismic data

three-dimensional survey

TI
1. n. [Geophysics]

Abbreviation for transverse isotropy. Transverse isotropy, polar anisotropy, axial anisotropy and cross
anisotropy are synonymous terms referring to the particular directional character of materials in which
properties have the same values in all directions parallel to planes of isotropy and different values
perpendicular to or crossing the planes of isotropy; this perpendicular direction is an axis of rotational
symmetry.

Alternate Form: transverse isotropy

See: axis of rotational symmetry, vertical transverse isotropy, horizontal transverse isotropy

tie

1. n. [Geophysics]
A comparison, or the location of a comparison, of data. Properly processed and interpreted seismic lines can show
good ties, or correlations, at intersection points.
See: correlation, interpretation, mis-tie
2. vb. [Geophysics]
To correlate data in order to formulate or verify an interpretation or to demonstrate the relationship between data
sets. Long, regional-scale 2D seismic lines are commonly tied to 3D surveys that cover a limited area, and 3D
surveys of different vintages are tied to each other. Well logs are tied into seismic data routinely to determine the
relationship between lithologic boundaries in the logs and seismic reflections. Properly tying all available data,
including seismic data, well logs, check-shot surveys, synthetic seismograms and vertical seismic profiles, can
reduce or, if there are sufficient data, eliminate ambiguity in interpretations.
See: check-shot survey, correlation, lithology, reflector, synthetic seismogram, three-dimensional survey, two-
dimensional seismic data, vertical seismic profile

TIH

1. n. [Geophysics]

Alternate Form: horizontal transverse isotropy, HTI

time domain

1. n. [Geophysics]
The use of a function of time rather than frequency to express an independent variable or measurement. In
contrast, in the frequency domain, variables are expressed as a function of frequency instead of time.
See: domain, Fourier analysis, Fourier synthesis, frequency domain
More Details:
 The Time for Depth Imaging

time domain electromagnetic method

time lapse seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
SeismicÂ data from the surface or aÂ boreholeÂ acquired at different times over the same area to assess changes
in the subsurface with time, such as fluid movement or effects of secondaryÂ recovery. The data are examined for
changes in attributes related to expressions of fluid content.Â Time-lapseÂ seismic data can repeat 2D, 3D (which
is known asÂ 4D seismic data), crosswell and VSPÂ data.
Synonyms: four-dimensional seismic data
See: acquisition, attribute, production, reservoir, secondary recovery, vertical seismic profile

1. n. [Geophysics]
A migration technique for processing seismic data in areas where lateral velocity changes are not too severe, but
structures are complex. Time migration has the effect of moving dipping events on a surface seismic line from
apparent locations to their true locations in time. The resulting image is shown in terms of traveltime rather than
depth, and must then be converted to depth with an accurate velocity model to be compared to well logs.
See: depth migration, diffraction, migration, processing, velocity
More Details:
 The Time for Depth Imaging

time slice

1. n. [Geophysics]
A horizontal display or map view of 3D seismic data having a certain arrival time, as opposed to a horizon slice that
shows a particular reflection. A time slice is a quick, convenient way to evaluate changes in amplitude of seismic
data.
See: amplitude, arrival, horizon slice, three-dimensional seismic data

time-domain electromagnetic method

time-lapse seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
Seismic data from the surface or a borehole acquired at different times over the same area to assess changes in
the subsurface with time, such as fluid movement or effects of secondary recovery. The data are examined for
changes in attributes related to expressions of fluid content. Time-lapse seismic data can repeat 2D, 3D (which is
known as 4D seismic data), crosswell and VSP data.
Synonyms: four-dimensional seismic data
See: acquisition, attribute, production, reservoir, secondary recovery, vertical seismic profile

TIV

1. n. [Geophysics]

Abbreviation for vertical transverse isotropy. Transverse isotropy that has a vertical axis of rotational
symmetry. In layered rocks, properties are uniform horizontally within a layer, but vary vertically and
from layer to layer.

Alternate Form: vertical transverse isotropy, VTI

1. n. [Geophysics]
A mode of the electromagnetic field that involves only one component of the magnetic field and the two
components of the electric field perpendicular to it; e.g., the x-component of the magnetic field and y- and z-
components of the electric field. The TM mode is useful in describing 2D models in which the magnetic field is
perpendicular to the 2D plane of the model. For this case, Maxwell's equations can be reduced to a single scalar
equation for the magnetic field component, which simplifies calculations tremendously.
Alternate Form: transverse magnetic mode

tomography
1. n. [Geophysics]
A technique to measure and display the three-dimensional distribution of velocity or reflectivity of a volume of the
Earth by using numerous sources and receivers. There are several types of tomography used by geophysicists,
including transmission tomography (which uses measurements between boreholes, surface-to-surface, or between
a borehole and the surface), reflection or seismic tomography (based on standard reflection seismology), and
diffraction tomography (using Fermat's principle for computations instead of Snell's law). Variations in velocity can
be attributed to changes in density and elastic properties of rocks, which in turn are affected by the increasing
temperature with depth in the Earth. Tomographic techniques have been used to construct maps of the Earth's
interior, deep in the mantle, as well as for mapping the shallow subsurface by borehole tomography.
See: crosswell tomography, Fermat's principle, receiver, reflection tomography, Snell's law, source, velocity
More Details:
 Looking Deep into the Reservoir

trace

1. n. [Geophysics]
The seismic data recorded for one channel. A trace is a recording of the Earth's response to seismic energy passing
from the source, through subsurface layers, and back to the receiver.
Synonyms: seismic trace
See: bin, brute stack, channel, coherent, coherent noise, common-offset, common-receiver, dilatation, fold,
Fourier transform, gather, group, mute, one-dimensional seismic data, random noise, rarefaction, Ricker wavelet,
seismic record, seismic section, seismogram, signature deconvolution, spectrum, stack, static correction, synthetic
seismogram, two-dimensional seismic data, two-dimensional seismic data, zero crossing
2. n. [Formation Evaluation]
The presentation on hard copy of log data from a single measurement versus depth. The term originated with the
early optical recorders in which log data were recorded on film using an optical trace. Now the term curve is more
common.
See: coding, track

transient electromagnetic method

1. n. [Geophysics]
A variation of theÂ electromagnetic methodÂ in which electric and magnetic fields are induced by transient pulses
of electric current in coils or antennas instead of by continuous (sinusoidal) current. These surveys have become a
popular surface EM technique used inÂ explorationÂ for minerals andÂ groundwaterÂ and for environmental
mapping.
Synonyms: TDEM, time-domain electromagnetic method
Alternate Form: TEM
© 2015 Schlumberger Limited. All rights reserved. | Privacy | Terms | Help | Site Map | Contact

transit time

1. n. [Geophysics]

The duration of time for a P-wave to travel one foot, typically displayed on an acoustic log. The unit of
microseconds per foot (or meter) is called the slowness, which is the inverse of velocity. Transit time is
measured in microseconds per foot (μs/ft) or in microseconds per meter (μs/m).

Synonyms: interval transit time

See: acoustic, cycle skip, delta t, drift, P-wave

transition zone

1. n. [Geophysics]
An area in which water is too shallow for acquisition of marine seismic data with towed streamers, such as near
the shoreline, marshes and lagoons. In some cases, source explosives can be rammed into the unconsolidated
sediments of transition zone environments rather than drilling more costly shot holes. Likewise, hydrophones can
be placed by ramming to couple the receiver to the Earth better and to save time and money during survey
acquisition.
See: acquisition, coupling
2. n. [Formation Evaluation]
With reference to invasion, the volume between the flushed zone and the undisturbed zone in which the mud
filtrate has only partially displaced the moveable formation fluids. One common model of invasion assumes a
smooth transition in resistivity and other formation properties from the flushed to the undisturbed zone. Based on
this assumption, the inner and outer diameters of invasion can be determined from array resistivity logs. Another
common invasion model, which does not assume a smooth transition, is the annulus.
See: step profile

transverse electric mode

transverse isotropy

1. n. [Geophysics]

Transverse isotropy, polar anisotropy, axial anisotropy and cross anisotropy are synonymous terms
referring to the particular directional character of materials in which properties have the same values in all
directions parallel to planes of isotropy and different values perpendicular to or crossing the planes of
isotropy; this perpendicular direction is an axis of rotational symmetry.

Alternate Form: TI
See: axis of rotational symmetry, vertical transverse isotropy, horizontal transverse isotropy

transverse magnetic mode

traveltime

1. n. [Geophysics]
The duration of the passage of a signal from the source through the Earth and back to the receiver. A time seismic
section typically shows the two-way traveltime of the wave.
Synonyms: acoustic traveltime
See: acoustic log, average velocity, depth map, depth migration, isochron map, receiver, signal, sonic log, source,
two-way traveltime, wave

trough

1. n. [Geophysics]
The minimum (negative) deflection of the seismic wavelet. Seismic interpreters commonly pick or track seismic
data on paper sections along the trough of a wavelet rather than the solid-colored peak. With the advent of
workstations, this is no longer necessary because of automatic picking techniques and the ability to reverse the
polarity of the data in real time.
Antonyms: peak
See: amplitude, amplitude, peak, polarity standard, wave, wavelet

true amplitude recovery

true-amplitude recovery

1. n. [Geophysics]
Steps in seismic processing to compensate for attenuation, spherical divergence and other effects by adjusting the
amplitude of the data. The goal is to get the data to a state where the reflection amplitudes relate directly to the
change in rock properties giving rise to them.
Alternate Form: TAR
See: amplitude, attenuation, gain, processing, spherical divergence

1. n. [Geophysics]
A Stoneley wave that occurs at the low frequencies of seismic data.
See: Stoneley wave, surface wave
2. n. [Geophysics]
An interface wave that occurs in cased wellbores when a Rayleigh wave encounters a wellbore and perturbs the
fluid in the wellbore. The tube wave travels down the wellbore along the interface between the fluid in the
wellbore and the wall of the wellbore. A tube wave suffers little energy loss and typically retains a very high
amplitude which interferes with reflected arrivals occurring later in time on vertical seismic profile (VSP) data.
Because the tube wave is coupled to the formation through which it is traveling, it can perturb the formation
across open fractures intersecting the borehole. This squeezing effect can generate secondary tube waves which
travel both up and down from the fracture location. Such events can be diagnostic of the presence of open
fractures and their amplitude related qualitatively to the length and width, e.g., volume of the fluid-filled fracture
space. This effect is generally seen only in shallow formations where the overburden pressure is lower.
See: coupling, Rayleigh wave, vertical seismic profile

tuning effect

1. n. [Geophysics]
A phenomenon of constructive or destructive interference of waves from closely spaced events or reflections. At a
spacing of less than one-quarter of the wavelength, reflections undergo constructive interference and produce a
single event of high amplitude. At spacing greater than that, the event begins to be resolvable as two separate
events. The tuning thickness is the bed thickness at which two events become indistinguishable in time, and
knowing this thickness is important to seismic interpreters who wish to study thin reservoirs. The tuning thickness
can be expressed by the following formula:
Z = VI/2.8 fmax,where Z = tuning thickness of a bed, equal to 1/4 of the wavelengthVI = interval velocity of the
targetfmax = maximum frequency in the seismic section.

The equation assumes that the interfering wavelets are identical in frequency content and are zero-phase
and is useful when planning a survey to determine the maximum frequency needed to resolve a given
thickness. Spatial and temporal sampling requirements can then be established for the survey.

See: bed thickness, event, resolution, wave

two dimensional seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
A vertical section of seismic data consisting of numerous adjacent traces acquired sequentially.
See: trace
2. n. [Geophysics]
A group of 2D seismic lines acquired individually, as opposed to the multiple closely spaced lines acquired together
that constitute 3D seismic data.
See: acquisition, three-dimensional seismic data, trace

two dimensional survey

1. n. [Geophysics]
Seismic data or a group of seismic lines acquired individually such that there typically are significant gaps
(commonly 1 km or more) between adjacent lines. A 2D survey typically contains numerous lines acquired
orthogonally to the strike of geological structures (such as faults and folds) with a minimum of lines acquired
parallel to geological structures to allow line-to-line tying of the seismic data and interpretation and mapping of
structures.
See: acquisition, correlate, correlation, fault, fold, strike

two-dimensional seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
A vertical section of seismic data consisting of numerous adjacent traces acquired sequentially.
See: trace
2. n. [Geophysics]
A group of 2D seismic lines acquired individually, as opposed to the multiple closely spaced lines acquired together
that constitute 3D seismic data.
See: acquisition, three-dimensional seismic data, trace

two-dimensional survey
1. n. [Geophysics]
Seismic data or a group of seismic lines acquired individually such that there typically are significant gaps
(commonly 1 km or more) between adjacent lines. A 2D survey typically contains numerous lines acquired
orthogonally to the strike of geological structures (such as faults and folds) with a minimum of lines acquired
parallel to geological structures to allow line-to-line tying of the seismic data and interpretation and mapping of
structures.
See: acquisition, correlate, correlation, fault, fold, strike

two-way traveltime

1. n. [Geophysics]
The elapsed time for a seismic wave to travel from its source to a given reflector and return to a receiver at the
Earth's surface. Minimum two-way traveltime is that of a normal-incidence wave with zero offset.
See: migration, normal incidence, offset, receiver, reflector, source, traveltime, zero-offset data

TWT

UCS

1. n. [Geology, Geophysics, Formation Evaluation]

Abbreviation for unconfined compressive strength, or uniaxial compressive strength.
Alternate Form: unconfined compressive strength, uniaxial compressive strength

unconfined compressive strength

1. n. [Geology, Geophysics, Formation Evaluation]
A measure of a material’s strength. The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) is the maximum axial compressive
stress that a right-cylindrical sample of material can withstand under unconfined conditions—the confining stress
is zero. It is also known as the uniaxial compressive strength of a material because the application of compressive
stress is only along one axis—the longitudinal axis—of the sample.
Alternate Form: UCS, uniaxial compressive strength
More Details:
 Rocks Matter: Ground Truth in Geomechanics

undershooting

1. n. [Geophysics]
A technique for acquisition of seismic data beneath areas that are difficult to access at the surface of the Earth,
such as near rivers, drilling rigs, production platforms, environmentally sensitive areas or around seismically
problematic features such as salt domes, which introduce uncertainty because of their high velocity. The sources
and receivers are located on opposite sides of the feature.
See: acquisition, receiver, source

undrained test

1. n. [Geology, Geophysics, Formation Evaluation]

An undrained test is one in which the fluid in the sample is not able to flow and equilibrate to imposed pore
pressure conditions; the fluid mass remains the same while the fluid volume and pressure will vary.
See: drained test

uniaxial compressive strength

1. n. [Geology, Geophysics, Formation Evaluation]
A measure of a material’s strength. The uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) is the maximum axial compressive
stress that a right-cylindrical sample of material can withstand before failing. It is also known as the unconfined
compressive strength of a material because confining stress is set to zero.
Alternate Form: UCS, unconfined compressive strength
More Details:
 Rocks Matter: Ground Truth in Geomechanics

upward continuation

1. n. [Geophysics]
The use of measurements of a field at one elevation, level or surface to determine the values of the field at a
higher level. The technique is most often used on potential fields, such as gravity or magnetic fields, to reduce
scattered measurements to a common level for a simpler interpretation.
Antonyms: downward continuation
See: aeromagnetic survey, gravity, magnetics

variogram

1. n. [Geophysics]
A two-point statistical function that describes the increasing difference or decreasing correlation, or continuity,
between sample values as separation between them increases.
See: kriging
2. n. [Reservoir Characterization]
A two-point statistical function that describes the increasing differences or decreasing correlation, or continuity,
between sample values as separation between them increases. The term variogram is sometimes used incorrectly
in place of semivariogram. The two differ only in that the semivariogram uses each pair of data elements only
once, whereas the variogram uses all possible data pairs. Semivariograms are usually used instead of variograms,
but opposite vector directions (for example, north and south) are recognized as representing the same thing and
having identical ranges, sills, nugget points and the like.

velocity

1. n. [Geophysics]
The rate at which a wave travels through a medium (a scalar) or the rate at which a body is displaced in a given
direction (a vector), commonly symbolized by v. Unlike the physicist's definition of velocity as a vector, its usage in
geophysics is as a property of a medium-distance divided by traveltime. Velocity can be determined from
laboratory measurements, acoustic logs, vertical seismic profiles or from velocity analysis of seismic data. Velocity
can vary vertically, laterally and azimuthally in anisotropic media such as rocks, and tends to increase with depth in
the Earth because compaction reduces porosity. Velocity also varies as a function of how it is derived from the
data. For example, the stacking velocity derived from normal moveout measurements of common depth point
gathers differs from the average velocity measured vertically from a check-shot or vertical seismic profile (VSP).
Velocity would be the same only in a constant velocity (homogeneous) medium.
Synonyms: acoustic velocity, seismic velocity
See: acoustic, acoustic impedance, angular dispersion, anisotropy, apparent velocity, attribute, average velocity,
base of weathering, birefringence, channel wave, check-shot survey, depth conversion, depth migration,
discontinuity, dispersion, extensive dilatancy anisotropy, gas chimney, horizon, hydrocarbon indicator, interval
velocity, Poisson's ratio, processing, pull-up, push-down, ray tracing, reflection coefficient, reflection tomography,
refraction, refractor, root-mean-square velocity, seismic trace, sonic log, stacking velocity, static correction,
synthetic seismogram, time migration, tomography, velocity analysis, velocity anomaly, velocity correction,
velocity layering, velocity survey, vertical seismic profile, wave, wave equation, wavelength, weathering correction

velocity analysis

1. n. [Geophysics]
The process of calculating seismic velocity, typically by using common midpoint data, in order to better process
seismic data. Successful stacking, time migration and depth migration all require proper velocity inputs. Velocity or
stacking velocity can be calculated from normal moveout, or the change in arrival time produced by source-
receiver offset.
See: common midpoint, geophone, migration, normal moveout, stack, stacking velocity, time migration, velocity

velocity anomaly

1. n. [Geophysics]
A feature in seismic data that results from changes in velocity, both laterally and vertically. Pull-up and push-down
are examples of velocity anomalies.
See: anomaly, pull-up, push-down, velocity

velocity correction
1. n. [Geophysics]
A change made in seismic data to present reflectors realistically. Velocity corrections typically require that
assumptions be made about the seismic velocities of the rocks or sediments through which seismic waves pass.
See: velocity, wave

velocity layering

1. n. [Geophysics]
Those thicknesses of rock or sediment that have a common velocity, as opposed to the sedimentary layering or
bedding of the rock or sediments.
See: velocity

velocity survey

1. n. [Geophysics]
Measurements used to determine average velocity versus depth, such as from an acoustic log or check-shot
survey. Acquiring a velocity survey is also known as "shooting a well."
Synonyms: check-shot survey
See: acoustic log, shoot a well, velocity
More Details:
 Near-Surface Electromagnetic Surveying

vertical seismic profile

1. n. [Geophysics]
A class of borehole seismic measurements used for correlation with surface seismic data, for obtaining images of
higher resolution than surface seismic images and for looking ahead of the drill bit; also called a VSP. Purely
defined, VSP refers to measurements made in a vertical wellbore using geophones inside the wellbore and a
source at the surface near the well. In the more general context, VSPs vary in the well configuration, the number
and location of sources and geophones, and how they are deployed. Most VSPs use a surface seismic source, which
is commonly a vibrator on land and an air gun in offshore or marine environments. VSPs include the zero-offset
VSP, offset VSP, walkaway VSP, walk-above VSP, salt-proximity VSP, shear-wave VSP, and drill-noise or seismic-
while-drilling VSP. A VSP is a much more detailed survey than a check-shot survey because the geophones are
more closely spaced, typically on the order of 25 m [82 ft], whereas a check-shot survey might include
measurements of intervals hundreds of meters apart. Also, a VSP uses the reflected energy contained in the
recorded trace at each receiver position as well as the first direct path from source to receiver. The check-shot
survey uses only the direct path traveltime. In addition to tying well data to seismic data, the vertical seismic
profile also enables converting seismic data to zero-phase data and distinguishing primary reflections from
multiples.
Alternate Form: VSP
See: air gun, apparent anisotropy, borehole seismic data, check-shot survey, depth conversion, drill-noise vertical
seismic profile, first break, multiple reflection, one-way time, primary reflection, salt-proximity vertical seismic
profile, seismic-while-drilling vertical seismic profile, Stoneley wave, walk-above vertical seismic profile, walkaway
vertical seismic profile, zero-offset vertical seismic profile

vibrator

1. n. [Geophysics]
An adjustable mechanical source that delivers vibratory seismic energy to the Earth for acquisition of seismic data.
Mounted on large trucks, vibrators are commonly used for acquisition of onshore seismic data.
See: acquisition, buggy vibro, shot depth, source, vibratory seismic data

vibratory seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]
Seismic data whose energy source is a truck-mounted device called a vibrator that uses a vibrating plate to
generate waves of seismic energy; also known as Vibroseis data (Vibroseis is a mark of Conoco). The frequency and
duration of the energy can be controlled and varied according to the terrain and type of seismic data desired. The
vibrator typically emits a linear "sweep" of at least seven seconds, beginning with high frequencies and decreasing
with time ("downsweeping") or going from low to high frequency ("upsweeping"). The frequency can also be
changed in a nonlinear manner, such that certain frequencies are emitted longer than others. The resulting source
wavelet is not impulsive. Vibrators are employed in land acquisition in areas where explosive sources cannot be
used, and more than one vibrator can be used simultaneously to improve data quality.
See: acquisition, explosive seismic data, frequency, impulsive seismic data, source, vibrator, wave

1. n. [Geophysics]
A class of borehole seismic measurements used for correlation with surface seismic data, for obtaining images of
higher resolution than surface seismic images and for looking ahead of the drill bit; also called a VSP. Purely
defined, VSP refers to measurements made in a vertical wellbore using geophones inside the wellbore and a
source at the surface near the well. In the more general context, VSPs vary in the well configuration, the number
and location of sources and geophones, and how they are deployed. Most VSPs use a surface seismic source, which
is commonly a vibrator on land and an air gun in offshore or marine environments. VSPs include the zero-offset
VSP, offset VSP, walkaway VSP, walk-above VSP, salt-proximity VSP, shear-wave VSP, and drill-noise or seismic-
while-drilling VSP. A VSP is a much more detailed survey than a check-shot survey because the geophones are
more closely spaced, typically on the order of 25 m [82 ft], whereas a check-shot survey might include
measurements of intervals hundreds of meters apart. Also, a VSP uses the reflected energy contained in the
recorded trace at each receiver position as well as the first direct path from source to receiver. The check-shot
survey uses only the direct path traveltime. In addition to tying well data to seismic data, the vertical seismic
profile also enables converting seismic data to zero-phase data and distinguishing primary reflections from
multiples.
Alternate Form: vertical seismic profile
See: zero-offset vertical seismic profile

VTI

1. n. [Geophysics]

Alternate Form: vertical transverse isotropy, TIV

walk above vertical seismic profile

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of verticalÂ seismicÂ profile to accommodate the geometry of a deviated well; sometimes called a vertical
incidenceÂ VSP. EachÂ receiverÂ is in a different lateral position with theÂ sourceÂ directly above the receiver for
all cases. Such data provide a high-resolutionÂ seismicÂ imageÂ of the subsurface below the trajectory of the well.
See: deviated hole, vertical seismic profile
More Details:
 Seismic Integration to Reduce Risk

walk above VSP

walk-above VSP

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of vertical seismic profile in which the source is moved to progressively farther offset at the surface and
receivers are held in a fixed location, effectively providing a mini 2D seismic line that can be of higher resolution
than surface seismic data and provides more continuous coverage than an offset VSP. 3D walkaways, using a
surface grid of source positions, provide 3D images in areas where the surface seismic data do not provide an
adequate image due to near-surface effects or surface obstructions. Walkaway VSPs in which the receivers are
placed just above the reservoir are gaining acceptance as a tool to quantify seismic attributes and calibrate surface
seismic data.
See: offset, receiver, source, vertical seismic profile
More Details:
 Seismic Integration to Reduce Risk

walkaway VSP

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type of verticalÂ seismicÂ profile in which the source is moved to progressively farther offset at the surface and
receivers are held in a fixed location, effectively providing a mini 2DÂ seismic lineÂ that can be of
higherÂ resolutionÂ than surface seismic data and provides more continuous coverage than anÂ offset VSP. 3D
walkaways, using a surfaceÂ gridÂ of source positions, provide 3D images in areas where the surface seismic data
do not provide an adequateimageÂ due to near-surface effects or surface obstructions. Walkaway VSPs in which
the receivers are placed just above theÂ reservoirÂ are gaining acceptance as a tool to quantify seismic attributes
and calibrate surface seismic data.
See: offset, receiver, source, vertical seismic profile
More Details:
 Seismic Integration to Reduce Risk

Walsh-Hadamard transform

1. n. [Geophysics]
In digital signal processing, a nonsinusoidal transform by addition and subtraction. The Walsh-Hadamard transform
is similar to Fourier series analysis, but uses square waves instead of sinusoidal waves. It is used predominantly in
communication theory and, to a lesser extent, in filtering logs with a blocky character.
See: filter, Fourier analysis, Fourier transform

water bottom roll

1. n. [Geophysics]
TheÂ marineÂ equivalent ofÂ ground roll. Water-bottom roll consists of a pseudo-Rayleigh waveÂ traveling along
the interface of the water and the seafloor. As the use of seabedÂ receiverÂ systems increases,noiseÂ from water-
bottom roll has become more of a concern.

water gun

1. n. [Geophysics]
A source of energy for acquisition of marine seismic data that shoots water from a chamber in the tool into a larger
body of water, creating cavitation. The cavity is a vacuum and implodes without creating secondary bubbles. This
provides a short time signature and higher resolution than an air-gun source.
See: acquisition, air gun, cavitation, gun, resolution, source

water-bottom roll

1. n. [Geophysics]
The marine equivalent of ground roll. Water-bottom roll consists of a pseudo-Rayleigh wave traveling along the
interface of the water and the seafloor. As the use of seabed receiver systems increases, noise from water-bottom
roll has become more of a concern.

wave
1. n. [Geophysics]

A periodic vibrational disturbance in which energy is propagated through or on the surface of a medium
without translation of the material. Waves can be differentiated by their frequency, amplitude, wavelength
and speed of propagation.
Wavelength is defined as:
λ = v / f,
whereλ = wavelengthv = speed of propagationf = frequency.

See: absorption, acoustic emission, acoustic log, air wave, aliasing, angle of approach, angle of incidence, apparent
velocity, attenuation, average velocity, backscatter, birefringence, body wave, character, coherence, diffraction,
displacement, extensive dilatancy anisotropy, Fresnel zone, hertz, image, interval transit time, Love wave, normal
incidence, P-wave, peak, plane wave, reflection coefficient, refraction, refractor, S-wave, seismic, seismic wave,
seismology, shear, signature, Snell's law, spherical divergence, spherical wave, Stoneley wave, surface wave,
transverse electric mode, transverse magnetic mode, traveltime, trough, tuning effect, velocity, velocity
correction, vibratory seismic data, wave equation, waveform, wavefront

wave equation

1. n. [Geophysics]

A mathematical expression to represent wave displacement and wave velocity (V) as functions of space
(x, y, z) and time (t).
∇2ψ = ∂2ψ/∂x2 + ∂2ψ/∂y2 + ∂2ψ/∂z2 = (1/V2) ∂2ψ/∂t2,
whereψ = wave displacementV = wave velocityx, y and z = space coordinatest = time.

See: back-propagation, diffusion equation, Kirchhoff equation

waveform

1. n. [Geophysics]
The shape of a wave, typically shown as a graph of amplitude (or other quantity of interest) versus time.
See: correlation, crosscorrelation, fast Fourier transform, signature, signature deconvolution

wavefront
1. n. [Geophysics]
The edge of an advancing wave, which includes adjacent points that have the same phase.
See: phase, plane wave, wave

wavelength

1. n. [Geophysics]

The distance between analogous points in a wave train, measured perpendicular to the wavefront. In
seismic data, the wavelength is the seismic velocity divided by frequency. Wavelength is defined as:
λ = v / f,
whereλ = wavelengthv = velocity of propagationf = frequency.

See: absorption band, apparent wavelength, band, band-limited function, detectable limit, refraction,
wavenumber

wavelet

1. n. [Geophysics]
A one-dimensional pulse, usually the basic response from a single reflector. Its key attributes are its amplitude,
frequency and phase. The wavelet originates as a packet of energy from the source point, having a specific origin in
time, and is returned to the receivers as a series of events distributed in time and energy. The distribution is a
function of velocity and density changes in the subsurface and the relative position of the source and receiver. The
energy that returns cannot exceed what was input, so the energy in any received wavelet decays with time as
more partitioning takes place at interfaces. Wavelets also decay due to the loss of energy as heat during
propagation. This is more extensive at high frequency, so wavelets tend to contain less high-frequency energy
relative to low frequencies at longer traveltimes. Some wavelets are known by their shape and spectral content,
such as the Ricker wavelet.
See: convolution, embedded wavelet, peak, polarity, polarity standard, resolution, Ricker wavelet, spectral,
synthetic seismogram, trough, wavelet extraction, zero-phase

wavenumber
1. n. [Geophysics]
The reciprocal of wavelength, so the number of wave cycles per unit of distance, abbreviated as k.
See: f-k domain, f-k plot, propagation constant, wavelength

weathered layer

1. n. [Geology, Geophysics]
A near-surface, possibly unconsolidated layer of low seismic velocity. The base of the weathered layer commonly
coincides with the water table and a sharp increase in seismic velocity. The weathered layer typically has air-filled
pores.
See: pore, static correction, weathering, weathering correction

weathering correction

1. n. [Geophysics]
A method of compensating for delays in seismic reflection or refraction times induced by low-velocity layers such
as the weathered layer near the Earth's surface. It is a type of static correction.
See: static correction, velocity, weathered layer, weathering

well shoot

1. n. [Geophysics]
A type ofÂ borehole seismic dataÂ designed to measure the seismicÂ traveltimeÂ from the surface to a known
depth. P-waveÂ velocityÂ of the formations encountered in a wellbore can be measured directly by lowering
aÂ geophoneÂ to eachÂ formationÂ of interest, sending out a source of energy from the surface of the Earth, and
recording the resultantÂ signal. The data can then be correlated to surface seismic data by correcting theÂ sonic
logÂ and generating aÂ syntheticÂ seismogramÂ to confirm or modify seismic interpretations. It differs from
aÂ vertical seismic profileÂ in the number and density ofreceiverÂ depths recorded; geophone positions may be
widely and irregularly located in the wellbore, whereas a vertical seismic profile usually has numerous geophones
positioned at closely and regularly spaced intervals in the wellbore.
Synonyms: check-shot survey
See: depth conversion, drift, first break, one-dimensional seismic data, one-way time
© 2015 Schlumberger Limited. All rights reserved. | Privacy | Terms | Help | Site Map | Contact

Wide-azimuth towed-streamer acquisition

1. n. [Geophysics]
A marine seismic data acquisition method that uses one or more vessels to tow source arrays and streamers to
record seismic signals, along with one or more source-only vessels sailing parallel to, but at some specified
distance from, the recording vessel(s). The source-only vessels provide offset sources that generate reflections
from a wide range of azimuths; these reflections are received by streamers towed by the recording vessel(s).

wiggle trace

1. n. [Geophysics]
A common seismic display that shows trace amplitude versus time as an oscillating line about a null point.
See: amplitude

window

1. n. [Geophysics]
Another term for aperture, a portion of a data set, such asÂ seismicÂ data, to which functions orÂ filtersÂ are
applied. Aperture time, for example, can be specified, such as a window from 1.2 to 2.8 seconds.
Synonyms: aperture
See: filter, sinc x
2. n. [Geophysics]
Another term for aperture, a mechanism to limit the effects of measurements on a device or system.
InÂ seismicÂ data acquisition, the length of the spread has the effect of an aperture.
Synonyms: aperture
See: acquisition, spread

work station

1. n. [Geophysics]
An interactive computer suitable for seismic data processing, interpretation and modeling that is particularly useful
for studies of large quantities of seismic data, particularly 3D seismic data.
See: seismic modeling, three-dimensional seismic data

Young's modulus

1. n. [Geophysics]

An elastic constant named after British physicist Thomas Young (1773 to 1829) that is the ratio of
longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain and is symbolized by E. It can be expressed mathematically as
follows:
E = (F/A) / (ΔL/L),
whereE = Young's modulusF = longitudinal forceA = areaF/A = longitudinal stressΔL = change in
lengthL = original lengthΔL/L = longitudinal strain.

See: elastic constants

zero crossing

1. n. [Geophysics]
The null point of a seismic trace. At zero deflection, the phase of a periodic signal is zero or pi.
See: bias, signal

zero offset vertical seismic profile

1. n. [Geophysics]
A conventionalÂ vertical seismic profileÂ in which the energyÂ sourceÂ is positioned directly above the receivers,
typically very close to the wellbore.
Synonyms: VSP
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zero phase

1. adj. [Geophysics]
Pertaining to seismic data whose wavelet is symmetrical about zero time. DeconvolutionÂ duringÂ seismic
processingÂ can convert data of mixed phase to zero-phase data, but is not always successful. Zero-phase data
tend to provide sharper definition and less distortion between stratigraphic features in the subsurface, such
asÂ sandÂ andÂ shaleÂ layers.
See: distortion, phase, polarity standard, Ricker wavelet, wavelet

zero-offset data

1. n. [Geophysics]
Seismic data acquired with no horizontal distance between the source and receiver. Stacking seismic data acquired
with separated sources and receivers gives the data the appearance of zero-offset data.
See: offset, receiver, source, stack, two-way traveltime

zero-offset vertical seismic profile

1. n. [Geophysics]
A conventional vertical seismic profile in which the energy source is positioned directly above the receivers,
typically very close to the wellbore.
Synonyms: VSP

zero-phase
1. adj. [Geophysics]
Pertaining to seismic data whose wavelet is symmetrical about zero time. Deconvolution during seismic processing
can convert data of mixed phase to zero-phase data, but is not always successful. Zero-phase data tend to provide
sharper definition and less distortion between stratigraphic features in the subsurface, such as sand and shale
layers.
See: distortion, phase, polarity standard, Ricker wavelet, wavelet

Zoeppritz equations

1. n. [Geophysics]
A set of equations that describes the partitioning of energy in a wavefield relative to its angle of incidence at a
boundary across which the properties of the rock and fluid content changes.
See: reflection coefficient

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