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Normal and Abnormal Early Pregnancy

Article  in  Donald School Journal of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology · October 2011

DOI: 10.5005/jp-journals-10009-1214

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10.5005/jp-journals-10009-1214
Ulrich
REVIEW Honemeyer et al
ARTICLE

Normal and Abnormal Early Pregnancy

1
Ulrich Honemeyer, 2Asim Kurjak, 3Giovanni Monni
1
Specialist in Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Mother and Child, Welcare Hospital, United Arab Emirates, Dubai
2
Professor, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical School University of Zagreb, Croatia
3
Professor, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Prenatal and Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis, Fetal Therapy
Ospedale Microcitemico, Cagliari, Italy

Correspondence: Ulrich Honemeyer, Specialist in Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Mother and Child, Welcare Hospital
United Arab Emirates, Dubai, e-mail: ulrich@[Link]

ABSTRACT

The first trimester, mostly defined as the first 100 days of pregnancy, is characterized by many important landmarks heralding the ultimate
outcome of pregnancy. Woman becomes aware of her pregnancy after missing her period, being already two weeks postconception at that
time. A positive pregnancy test opens Pandora’s Box, raising more questions than giving answers. Although a positive pregnancy test most
likely suggests an intrauterine pregnancy, production of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) occurs as well in tumors (dysgerminoma,
choriocarcinoma) or maldeveloped pregnancies, such as ectopic pregnancy, blighted ovum or mola hydatidosa. Other early pregnancy
complications and failures, like subchorionic hematoma, missed abortion, incomplete miscarriage, retained products of conception, are
likely to be accompanied by clinical symptoms such as lower abdominal pain and/or vaginal bleeding, and suboptimal beta hCG serum
levels. Transvaginal ultrasound probes with frequencies of up to 14 MHz have lowered the threshold for US-detection of intrauterine
pregnancy to 1200 mIu/ml beta hCG/serum (discriminatory zone), and enable identification of all above-mentioned 1st trimester pregnancy
disorders earlier than ever before. Furthermore, the additional interrogation of the region of interest (ROI) with color Doppler (CD) and
pulsed-wave Doppler (PW) supplies important information about characteristics of vascularization and flow indices, which assists in further
differentiation and prognosis of abnormal early pregnancy findings. With the introduction of transvaginal three-dimensional (3D) sonography,
and real-time 3D ultrasound (4D), in vivo studies of the early fetal life became possible. The developmental progress of the embryo and
early fetus, its anatomy, and first movement patterns, have been explored by means of ultrasonic 3- and 4D imaging, which can be
considered as nonteratogenic as long as investigators adhere to certain safety rules. The new field of sonoembryology has emerged, and
researchers are penetrating the mists hiding the beginning of human life. Another area of remarkable expansion has been the 1st trimester
scan between 11 and 13/6 weeks of gestation. It includes not only the early diagnose of fetal structural anomalies, like acranius-anencephalus
sequence, and the screening for fetal aneuploidies such as trisomia 21,18 and 13, but also offers likelihood ratios for hypertensive pregnancy
disorders (pre-eclampsia) and intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR).
Keywords: Sonoembryology, Early pregnancy failure, 3- and 4D ultrasound in early pregnancy, First trimester screening, Structural fetal
anomalies, Yolk sac, Preeclampsia.

INTRODUCTION 3D (4D), color and power Doppler and their attachment to

transvaginal scanning has boosted our knowledge of early
Ultrasonographic evaluation of pregnancy during the first
pregnancy ever more. Reports of new findings arrive almost
trimester has no longer the limited purpose of confirmation of
monthly. All this should not let sonographers forget about safety
viability and gestational age. The amazing improvement of
of ultrasound in embryonic and early fetal diagnosis.
technical equipment and deepened knowledge of embryonic
and early fetal development have brought sonomorphologic
Acute Pelvic Pain in the First Trimester
exploration of pregnancy forward into 1st trimester and changed
the agenda of ultrasound examinations in this pregnancy section. Ectopic pregnancy, and other causes like threatened abortion,
Sonographic assessment during 1st trimester targets now inevitable abortion, failed intrauterine pregnancy, subchorionic
ovulation, conception, embryo and early fetus. It is obvious hematoma, spontaneous abortion, 1st trimester pregnancy failure
that diagnosis of abnormal early pregnancy, pregnancy failure, and vaginal bleeding can be reason for pelvic pain.1
and fetal abnormalities should be ascertained as early as possible Clinical signs, such as abdominal pain and vaginal bleeding
to enable timely decisions about management. However, newly in early pregnancy, are in first line suspicious of spontaneous
gained insights have also pointed out the limitations of early abortion. Ultrasound supports the differentiation into threatened,
ultrasound diagnosis. The sono-anatomic survey of the fetus incomplete or complete abortion and shows the way to
after 11 weeks’ gestation is more likely to produce usable appropriate clinical management. About 30 to 40% of
information than before, simply because physiologic structural pregnancies fail after implantation, but only 10 to 15% manifest
alterations of the embryo, such as herniation of bowel into the with clinical symptoms.2
proximal umbilical cord, have disappeared. Moreover, However, vaginal bleeding in first trimester may as well be
advanced ossification after 11 weeks permits assessment of symptom for a variety of other early-pregnancy pathologies,
cranial vault and nasal bone. The introduction of 3D, real-time such as missed abortion, blighted ovum and ectopic pregnancy.

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Normal and Abnormal Early Pregnancy

Vaginal bleeding and incomplete and complete spontaneous Missed abortion: The diagnose of missed abortion is determined
abortion, retained products of conception (RPoC) are the causes by sonographic demonstration of an embryo or fetus without
of bleeding and often endomyometritis, even septic cardiac activity. Since cardiac activity is first seen at 6 weeks,
complications. Transvaginal ultrasound with color Doppler is the diagnosis of missed abortion requires repeated TVS with
the key to a correct diagnosis in these cases. Intrauterine masses color Doppler, and serum beta hCG time profile over at least
with heterogeneous echoes, with or without vascularization in 48 hours, in cases, where embryo CRL measurements equal 6
color Doppler, together with anamnestic information of weeks or less of gestational age (GA) (Figs 3A to E).
secondary amenorrhea and/or positive beta hCG testing, are
Blighted ovum: The term refers to a GS in which the embryo
suggestive of RPoC and require dilatation and evacuation
either failed to develop or died at a stage too early to visualize
(D&E) (Figs 1A and B).
with 14 MHz high resolution TVS probe. Blighted ovum can
An empty uterine cavity, however, with reliable proofs for
be diagnosed at a mean GS diameter of 15 mm. If the volume
a previous intrauterine GS and positive beta hCG test, represents
of the GS is less than 2.5 ml and is not increasing in size by at
findings of a complete miscarriage and absolve the clinician from
least 75% over a period of one week, the requirements for
the necessity of D&E of RPoC. Catastrophic developments can
diagnosis of blighted ovum are fulfilled. This may further be
be caused by wrong diagnosis of cervical ectopic pregnancy as
supported by serial nonascending serum beta hCG levels during
‘cervical abortion’, when D&E brings about the risk of profuse
this week (Figs 4A to C).
bleeding that may need radical approaches, such as emergency
hysterectomy. Such deleterious diagnostic misunderstandings Intrauterine hematoma in early pregnancy: Intrauterine
can only be avoided by thorough anamnestic and clinical hematomas can be, according to their location, divided into
evaluation, and the use of transvaginal color Doppler US for retroplacental, subchorionic, in fundal or cervical. Cervical
detection of atypically increased vascular signals around the hematomas are likely to find drainage through the cervical
suspected RPoC in the cervix (Figs 2A and B). channel; the threat of pregnancy loss for the patient is

Figs 1A and B: Retained products of conception in B-mode and 3D power Doppler

Figs 2A and B: Cervical abortion and cervical pregnancy

Donald School Journal of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology, October-December 2011;5(4):356-384 357
Ulrich Honemeyer et al

Figs 3A to E: Pregnancy in uterus didelphys, missed abortion in uterus bicornis, missed abortion multiplanar and in 3D power Doppler mode

Figs 4A to C: Blighted ovum in multiplanar color Doppler, multiplanar power Doppler with VOCAL

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Normal and Abnormal Early Pregnancy

Figs 5A to C: Subchorionic hemorrhage in B-mode, 3D surface rendered and 3D color Doppler

Figs 6A and B: Comet sign color and power Doppler

emphasized by vaginal bleeding. The prognosis, however, is pregnancy include previous ectopic pregnancy, tubal surgery,
much better in a cervical than in a fundal hematoma, because in exposition to DES (diethylstilbestrol) in utero, and intrauterine
the fundal hematoma, without chance of decompression, contraception with a copper intrauterine device (IUD).7
uteroplacental circulation via spiral arteries is soon
Discriminatary zone: At a serum beta hCG level of 1500 mIU/ml,
compromised. Kurjak et al reported an increased resistance to
which is reached at day 10 to 14 pc in a normal gravidity, an
blood flow and reduced velocities in spiral arteries on the side
intrauterine chorionic sac can be detected by TVS probe with
of the hematoma, as a result of mechanical compression caused
minimum 5 MHz frequency. In transabdominal US, serum beta
by the hematoma.3
hCG values may have to be as high as 6500 mIU/ml before an
It is likely that if the bleeding occurs below the area of cord
intrauterine gestational sac is detected. These serum beta hCG
insertion, at the level of the definitive placenta, this incident
levels mark the so-called discriminatory zone in which
may finally result in separation of the placenta and abortion.
Vice versa, a hemorrhage opposite of the umbilical cord discrimination of a normal intrauterine chorionic sac should be
insertion could probably reach a much higher volume before possible. In a normal intrauterine pregnancy, a chorionic sac is
causing detachment of the placenta from the main area of spiral visible at 4.5 to 5 weeks’ gestation presenting a double
artery blood supply (Figs 5A to C). echogenic ring around a hypoechoic GS, with eccentric
embedding in the decidua. The ‘Comet sign’ of intervillous flow
Ectopic pregnancy: It is a common cause of acute abdomen in in PD assessment of the decidua around the double echogenic
emergency units, with an incidence of 20 per 1000 pregnancies. ring, and visualization of a yolk sac at 5w+, confirm the
Ectopic pregnancy constitutes the leading cause of pregnancy-
impression of an intrauterine implantation (Figs 6A and B).
related maternal deaths in the 1st trimester and accounts for
Conversely, in patients with beta hCG of 1500 mIU/ml and
4 to 10% of all pregnancy-related deaths. About 6 to 10% of all
more, an empty uterine cavity visualized by TVS with
pregnant women who go to an emergency department with 1st
specifications as above can be taken as indirect proof for ectopic
trimester bleeding, pain, or both, have an ectopic pregnancy.4-6
The most common extrauterine pregnancy location is the pregnancy. An ectopic pregnancy can occur as pregnancy with
fallopian tube, which accounts for 98% of all ectopic gestations. viable embryo in 10%, as blighted ovum in 40%, and as
The major cause of tubal pregnancy is disruption of normal questionable adnexa in 50% of cases. Color and power Doppler
tubal anatomy, as consequence of pelvic inflammatory disease demonstrate randomly dispersed multiple small vessels within
(PID), surgery, congenital anomalies, or tumors, causing the adnexa, with pulsed-wave (PW) Doppler showing resistance-
anatomic distortion, damaged ciliary activity, and thus impaired to- flow as low as RI < 0.42. Color-coded flow signals of the
function of the fallopian tube. High-risk factors for ectopic ectopic pregnancy are clearly separated from ovarian tissue and

Donald School Journal of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology, October-December 2011;5(4):356-384 359
Ulrich Honemeyer et al

Figs 7A to E: Ectopic pregnancy, neighboring corpus luteum, assessment of flow velocities,

color-power Doppler imaging of ‘ring of fire’, laparoscopic aspect

corpus luteum. The extent of vascularity reflects trophoblastic mid-trimester scan for structural anomalies, different studies
vitality and invasiveness (neoangiogenesis), enhanced by have shown that it is possible to identify fetal abnormalities
vasodilatation of the fallopian vessels under the influence of and detect genetic syndromes already in the 1st trimester
maternal progesterone.8 scan.11,12
Visualization of the characteristic corpus luteum blood flow It is not unusual for obstetricians and gynecologists to have
may aid in diagnosis of ectopic pregnancy, since about 85% of ultrasound equipment in their private offices. Radiologists
all ectopic pregnancies are found on the very same side of the usually have either a hospital-based practice or function in a
corpus luteum. This explains why in the majority of cases with free-standing diagnostic imaging center. For using diagnostic
proven ectopic pregnancy, luteal flow is detected ipsilateral of ultrasound, the gynecologist/obstetrician clinician must have
the ectopic pregnancy. Luteal color or power Doppler flow may solid basis and detailed knowledge about gynecological/fetal
be used as a guide while searching for an ectopic pregnancy cross sectional anatomy. Also important for the clinician is, to
and could be called the ‘light house-effect’ of corpus luteum, know her or his limits in regards to ultrasound diagnosis.
which directs the investigator to the color Doppler signals of However, basic and limited scans in an Obstetrician/
the ectopic pregnancy (Figs 7A to E).9,10 Gynecologist office can provide useful first-stage diagnostic
Sonographic and clinical assessment, taking into account information, and a fetus with suspected structural anomalies
sonographic parameters such as size of the ectopic, if visualized, should then be referred to a tertiary center where confirmation
vascularity, indirect signs of instability like hemoperitoneum, of the suspicion and search for associated anomalies can follow.
together with information about duration of secondary In this context, it is interesting to know that only 35% of all 1st
amenorrhea and biochemical data of serum beta hCG levels, trimester studies carried out in obstetric practice have been found
will lead to correct diagnosis and help in deciding about to meet all ACOG criteria13 and only 15% to meet all AIUM
conservative or surgical management options. criteria for documentation. First trimester reports from
Screening for fetal malformations: Although the 1st radiologists met ACOG criteria only in 11.5% and AIUM
trimester screening could not completely replace the standard criteria only in 4% of the cases.14

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Normal and Abnormal Early Pregnancy

There is proof as well that ultrasound scan is not effective First Trimester Combined Ultrasound Screening
in detecting fetal malformation if used at a basic level.15
If the primary indication for obstetric sonography is to There is more to 1st trimester ultrasound than to establish
diagnose or exclude congenital anomalies (targeted sonography), viability of the fetus and accurate gestational age. The utility of
then this study should be performed in a center where special the 11 to 13+6 weeks scan continues to expand, presently
expertise is available and has been demonstrated.16 including evaluation of the fetus morphology, of the maternal
pelvic vasculature, and the maternal serum. The aim is to give
Safety of Ultrasound in Embryonic and precise risk estimates of fetal aneuploidy and reliable forecasts
Early Fetal Diagnosis on incidence of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) and pre-
Sonographers are responsible for safety of ultrasound and should eclampsia. The screenings focus is the most common fetal
be aware that intense ultrasound could damage embryonic tissue. aneuploidy trisomy 21; however, it assists as well in detection
Teratogenicity has been reported in animal fetuses exposed to of other chromosomal disorders, such as trisomia 18 and 13,
high temperature. Since the main biological effect of ultrasound monosomy X, triploidies and aneuploidies involving the sex-
absorption in tissue is an increase of temperature (thermal chromosome.19
effect), users of diagnostic ultrasound should be familiar with Two main advantages of the 1st trimester screening for
the ultrasonic intensity of their machines and with methods to aneuploidies and structural anomalies have been acknowledged:
prevent thermal hazards to the embryo. On the screen of all First, early reassurance of fetal well-being reduces both maternal
modern machines, the thermal index (TI) of any scanning anxiety and uncertainty regarding the present gestation. Second,
activity is continuously displayed. TI 1 stands for 1°C early diagnosis of an abnormal fetus allows decision making
temperature elevation above 37°C and, for example, TI 3 means and potentially subsequent termination of pregnancy (ToP) in
a temperature rise of 3° from 37 to 40°C in the tissue. The the 1st trimester when complication rates are lower.20 First
difference between ultrasonic physiotherapy and diagnostic trimester ultrasound screening should include maternal age, NT
Doppler ultrasound is only the duration of exposure, whereas as ultrasound marker and PAPP-A, and free β-hCG as
both operate with maximum intensities of 1 to 3 W/cm2. biochemical markers. These parameters have a detection rate
Temperature increases not only in the sample volume, but also of 90.0% at 5.5% false-positive rate for trisomy 21, detection
in all tissue layers passed on the way. Thermal effect is, rate of 75.0% at 1.0% false-positive rate for trisomy 18 and
therefore, a big concern in diagnostic Doppler ultrasound. It is detection rate of 87.5% at 5.2% false-positive rate for all
more pronounced in pulsed-Doppler (PW) than in color/power aneuploidies. In normal fetuses, the ductus venosus (DV)
Doppler flow mapping. Hence, great care has to be taken in waveform shows a peak velocity during ventricular systole,
scanning febrile patients where the basic temperature is higher another peak during ventricular diastole and a nadir during atrial
than 37°C, regarding exposure time.17 contraction. In combination with NT, DV and biochemical
markers, the absence of the nasal bone indicates the possibility
Ethics of First Trimester Screening of a chromosomal anomaly. By introducing the nasal bone as
an independent additional ultrasonographic marker, and by
The obstetrician as fiduciary of the pregnant patient has the using color Doppler evaluation of DV as a second line marker,
obligation to provide all necessary information for the patient the detection rate of trisomy 21 can be increased to 98%, at 5%
to enable her autonomy in the management of her pregnancy. false-positive rate. Results of different studies suggest that NT
The 1st trimester combined screening for trisomy 21 has been should be used as a first-line screening test in order to maintain
shown to be a reliable screening tool that should be introduced the sensitivity, while examination of the DV waveforms can be
to all pregnant women as soon as they are diagnosed to be useful as a second-line test in order to decrease the false-positive
pregnant in the 1st trimester. Communicating the result of the rate, reducing the need for invasive testing to less than 1%.20
risk assessment to the patient enhances her autonomy by To understand the significance of each ultrasound marker,
allowing her an informed decision about options of diagnostic it is helpful to contemplate that these markers are foreboding
tests, like chorionic villus sampling (CVS) or amniocentesis the postnatal phenotype first described by Langdon Down in
and, depending on the diagnosis, the continuation of the 1866. Skin that appears too large for their body (increased
pregnancy. Recent data demonstrate that women in Australia, nuchal translucency), small nose (hypoplastic or absent nasal
Europe and the United States want this information. The risk bone), flat face (frontomaxillary facial angle, FMF > 90°). Even
assessment should be offered in a high quality center, and the the recently added markers tricuspid regurge and reversed A-
option of risk assessment should be presented nondirective. The wave of ductus venosus find perspicuous explanation in early
same applies to counseling of the patient after obtaining an manifestations of abnormal microscopic and ultrastructural
‘elevated risk’ result of the 1st trimester screening in regards to anatomy of the fetal myocardium and valve leaflets. These
the next invasive steps (CVS, amniocentesis), and especially changes result in dilatation of the tricuspid valve annulus with
after receiving the results of the invasive tests.18 systolic regurgitation of blood from the right ventricle back

Donald School Journal of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology, October-December 2011;5(4):356-384 361
Ulrich Honemeyer et al

Fig. 8A: Ideal fetal midline section of head and upper thorax Fig. 8E: Tricuspid valve regurgitation demonstrated by power Doppler

Fig. 8B: Increased nuchal translucency Fig. 8F: Reversed ductus venosus A-wave

Fig. 8C: Absent nasal bone Fig. 8G: Increased NT with tricuspid regurge and reversed
A-wave at 12w3d, entire fetus 3D surface view

Fig. 8D: Tricuspid valve regurgitation Fig. 8H: Increased NT at 12w3d, head and shoulders, 3D rendered
surface view

362 JAYPEE
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Normal and Abnormal Early Pregnancy

into the right atrium, and transmission of this regurge into the
ductus venosus (positive A-wave) (Figs 8A to H).21

What is New in 1st Trimester Screening?

Intracerebral translucency: Other than the exencephaly-
anencephaly sequence, open neural tube defects (NTD) were
always difficult to diagnose at 1st trimester screening. This
deficiency is probably rectified by introduction of the new
marker intracerebral translucency (IT).22
The fetal image which is needed to evaluate IT, is the same
as for NT, FMF angle and nasal bone assessment: A magnified
midline view of the fetal head and upper thorax with depiction
of the hypoechoic regions of the thalamus, the pons (brain stem)
and the medulla oblongata. The morphological equivalent of Fig. 10: Increased size of the human brain compared to
the IT is the fluid-filled fourth ventricle posteriorly of the pons. other primates
Posterior border of the pons and floor of fourth ventricle
compose a thin echogenic line delineating the anterior Hypertensive disorders of the pregnancy affect
circumference of the IT, whereas the roof of the fourth ventricle approximately 10% of pregnancies. One of the primary causes
represents the posterior border of the IT (Fig. 9). appears to be a defect of the normal human-specific deep endo-
A total of 200 fetuses subsequently confirmed not to have vascular invasion of the trophoblast, brought by evolution as a
NTD showed normal IT appearance at 1st trimester screening. consequence of nutritional demands of the increased size of the
Four fetuses however, during 2nd trimester screening diagnosed human fetal brain. The occurrence of pre-eclampsia (gestosis)
to have spina bifida, had absence of IT in the 1st trimester represents a reproductive disadvantage unique to humans
screening (Chaoui et al 2009). The proposed mechanism for compared with other mammals and primates with a more shallow
this finding is similar to that of the Chiari type II–malformation trophoblast invasion (Fig. 10).24,25
with ‘banana sign’, visible in 2nd trimester fetuses with spina The main threat in pregnancies complicated by gestosis
bifida aperta. In Chiari type II-malformation, the open spina originates from prematurity, intrauterine growth restriction
bifida leads to a decreased pressure in the subarachnoid spaces (IUGR) and maternal eclampsia or HELLP syndrome. A two-
with consecutive caudal displacement of the brain, causing stage model of gestosis has been proposed to explain its
obliteration of the fourth ventricle. On the basis of these findings, pathophysiology:
absence of IT during the 1st trimester screening should trigger a. 1st stage of abnormal implantation/trophoblast invasion/
an intensive search for NTD, with follow-up at 16 and at 20 vascular remodeling causing reduced placental perfusion
weeks.22 and
First trimester screening for pre-eclampsia: More than 60 years b. 2nd stage leading to the multisystemic maternal syndrome
ago, Ernest Page formalized the concept that placental perfusion of pre-eclampsia (gestosis).26
was reduced in gestosis.23 The questions: (A) ‘why does reduced placental perfusion
lead to gestosis?’ and (B) ‘what exactly links stage 1 with stage
2?’, still remain widely unanswered.
Stage 1: Reduced placental perfusion is according to manifold
scientific evidence, a result of failed endovascular trophoblast
invasion, which is normally processed in an early wave around
10 to 12 weeks, and a second wave being completed around 20
weeks. In normal pregnancies, the embryonal cytotrophoblast
cells invade maternal decidua and myometrium, finding their
way into the endothelium and highly muscular tunica media of
the maternal spiral arteries. As a result of this invasion, the
maternal uterine spiral arteries are transformed from muscular
arteries with elastic lamina into flaccid tubes, with a vascular
radius four times wider than before, turning the placental
vascular bed into a low resistance-to-flow area for both fetal
and maternal arterial inflow. In gestosis, however,
cytotrophoblast cells infiltrate the decidua but fail to penetrate
Fig. 9: Magnified fetal midline profile with NT and intracerebral
translucency the maternal myometrium.27,28

Donald School Journal of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology, October-December 2011;5(4):356-384 363
Ulrich Honemeyer et al

The successful invasion and transformation appears to pre-eclampsia, or with both, have different profiles of
depend on a functioning interaction between maternal decidua angiogenic–antiangiogenic factors.35
and fetal trophoblast. Until 10 to 12 weeks, the intervillous Another study of this research group in 2010 found that
space is a low-oxygen environment. With increasing perfusion IUFD was characterized by higher maternal serum
by maternal spiral arteries, the oxygen tension increases. Local concentrations of PIGF (proangiogenic) and low sEng
oxygen tension and maternal antioxidant capacity seem to play (antiangiogenic) during the 1st trimester compared with normal
a critical role in this interaction between decidua and pregnancies. This profile changed into an antiangiogenic one
trophoblast, which—if failing—may result in impaired invasion, in 2nd and 3rd trimester with low PIGF and high sEng.36
poor placental perfusion and eventually systemic maternal A Japanese study in Feb 2010 showed that the sFLT-1/PIGF
endothelial dysfunction, the complete picture of gestosis.29 ratio in early-onset pre-eclampsia was significantly higher than
Another factor of successful trophoblast invasion is the one in late-onset pre-eclampsia, suggesting different profiles
functional immunology in the area. Normal placentation requires of angiogenic/antiangiogenic factors for women with early- and
a balance of inhibition and activation of uterine natural killer late-onset pre-eclampsia.37
cells (uNK). This balance depends both on maternal and fetal In summary, it appears that a practicable approach to a
(Trophoblastic HLA-C) factors.30 conclusive screening for pre-eclampsia as early as in the 1st
Dysfunctional placental apoptosis seems to be another trimester could be based on a multivariate evaluation of the
reason of placentation failure and gestosis. Placentas of following parameters: Maternal history, uterine artery pulsatility
preeclamptic patients show more apoptotic activity, with index (PI)—increased PI heightens the risk of pre-eclampsia;
increased leakage of syncitiotrophoblast fragments into maternal maternal mean arterial pressure (MAP)—increased MAP boosts
circulation.31,32 the risk of pre-eclampsia; maternal serum concentration of
Mammalian placentation requires extensive angiogenesis
pregnancy-associated plasma protein-A (PAPP-A)—decreased
for the establishment of a suitable vascular network to supply
PAPP-A raises the risk of pre-eclampsia; maternal serum level
oxygen and nutrients to the fetus. A variety of proangiogenic
of placental growth factor (PIGF)—decreased PIGF augments
factors, like VEGF and PIGF, and antiangiogenic factors, such
the risk of pre-eclampsia.
as sFLT-1 and soluble endoglin (sEng), are produced by the
Factors in the maternal history which require attention,
growing placenta. The balance of these factors is important for
because of their independent contribution to the pre-eclampsia
normal placental vascular development, whereas an increased
risk include: Maternal body mass index (BMI), age, ethnicity,
production of antiangiogenic factors tilts this balance and
smoking and parity.
promotes systemic endothelial dysfunction. Several studies have
looked into this balance and come to interesting results: One For a 5% false-positive rate, the combination of the above
2010 study showed that low levels of first-trimester PIGF seem listed risk factors was shown to predict 90% of early onset pre-
to provide a good indicator for IUGR complications and eclampsia, 35% of late onset pre-eclampsia and 20% of
hypertensive disorders, in particular severe cases of pre- gestational hypertension. This is indeed a remarkable
eclampsia, such as early onset and HELLP syndrome.33 improvement compared with prediction rates of 20 to 30% based
In another study in 2008, the antiangiogenic factor sFLT-1 on maternal history alone (Fig. 11).38,39
correlated with increasing severity of the disease; sFLT-1 The increased precision of 1st trimester screening has
concentrations were higher in women with severe or early (< 34 enabled a delectable reduction of unnecessary invasive
weeks) pre-eclampsia than in those patients with mild or late pre- procedures for fetal karyotyping.
eclampsia.34
A study in 2008 from the same research group around, R
Romero found that patients who were to deliver an IUGR baby,
had higher sEng (antiangiogenic) levels throughout pregnancy
than normal pregnant women. When patients were destined to
develop preterm and term pre-eclampsia, their sEng levels at
23 and 30 weeks were significantly higher than in normal
pregnancies. PIGF (proangiogenic) was significantly lower
throughout gestation than in normal pregnancies for women
who were to develop IUGR or preterm or term pre-eclampsia.
sFLT-1 (antiangiogenic) was no indicator for IUGR, but was
significantly higher at 26 and 29 weeks in women who
developed preterm or term pre-eclampsia. In conclusion, this
indicates that deviation from normal serum levels of sEng,
sFLT-1, PIGF preceded pre-eclampsia. Only changes in sEng
and PIGF preceded IUGR. In other words, patients with IUGR, Fig. 11: Uterine artery Doppler

364 JAYPEE
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Normal and Abnormal Early Pregnancy

For a more detailed account of theoretical and practical • Diagnosis of renal and urinary anomalies with posterior
aspects of the 1st trimester screening, the inclined reader is urethral valve stenosis at 15 weeks (Figs 12A and B)40
directed to: JD Sonek. First trimester ultrasound screening: An • Limb abnormalities: Lethal pterygium syndrome and
update. Donald School Journal of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and prenatal diagnosis reported in 1st trimester41
Gynecology, April-June 2010;4(2):97-116. • Hydrops fetalis: Homozygous alpha 0-thalassemia is the
Advances in early assessment of various fetal anomalies. commonest cause of hydrops fetalis in Southeast Asia. The
Recent advances of 3D ultrasonography performed with a high principle of the ultrasound prediction is to detect
frequency transvaginal probe have expanded the depth of ultrasonographic features of fetal anemia. Since alpha-
sonographic exploration and allowed three-dimensional globin-dependent hemoglobin F is the major hemoglobin
sonoembryology. Sonographic images can now be obtained of of a fetus from 8 weeks’ gestation onward anemia can occur
the neural tube of a 6-week embryo, and neurocortical in an affected fetus after reaching this gestational age. Severe
development can be observed in the changing appearance of anemia and hypoxia result in placentomegaly, fetal
the Sylvian fissure. Vascular imaging of common and internal cardiomegaly, increased MCA peak systolic velocity,
carotid arteries, and of the circle of Willis with middle cerebral pericardial effusion, ascites and other hydropic features.42
arteries at 12 weeks is feasible. Sonoembryology—new horizons: Transvaginal 3D ultrasound
Early prenatal diagnosis of anatomical congenital anomalies with 12 MHz transducer made it possible to visualize the pre-
includes: embryonic period, the embryo and early fetus in utero, and thus
• Facial anomalies: Nasal bone, micrognathia, cleft lip opened the new field of sonoembryology which spans ultrasound
• Vertebral and spinal cord anomalies assessment of preconception, depicting the cumulus oophorus
• Chest and abdominal anomalies with congenital heart in preovulatory follicle, assessment of early embryonic
defects (CHD), cystic adenoid lung malformation (CCAM), development, such as egg division, visualization of
gastroschisis and umbilical hernia perovulatory triple-line endometrium, endometrial and

Fig. 12A: Prune belly syndrome (PBS), incidence of PBS is Fig. 12B: PBS at this early stage, key hole sign of dilated proximal
estimated to be 1 in 30,000 to 50,000 newborn babies urethra, and oligohydramnios are not yet visible

Fig. 13A: Vanishing twin Fig. 13B: Survivor twin

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Ulrich Honemeyer et al

subendometrial blood supply around the time of implantation as

determinating factors for successful egg implantation, decidual
response to invading conceptus as condition for successful
trophoblast invasion, and formation of the placenta. Sonographic
images can now demonstrate the spinal tube of a 5.5 mm embryo,
visualize detailed intracranial structures and embryonic
vasculature and enable assessment of thoracoabdominal organs
and skeletal elements around 12 weeks.43
Sonographic Visibility Milestones of Embryonic and Early
Fetal Development:
• 5 to 6 weeks of gestation: GS, Yolk sac, embryonic blood
circulation, vitelline duct circulation, maternal intervillous
circulation
• 7 to 8 weeks of gestation: Brain vesicles, development of
hand and foot plates, face shaping, abdominal wall and
umbilical cord insertion
• 9 to 10 weeks of gestation: Continuation of brain and face
Fig. 14: A, B and C plane (three-dimensional ambigram by
development, choroid plexus, physiological umbilical
Philipp Lenssen)
hernia, early spine can be examined at full length, internal
fetal vascularity and systolic pulsation in umbilical cord.
Lumbosacral myelomeningocele is detectable at this stage.44
Three- and four-dimensional (3D, 4D) ultrasound offer new
insights into embryonic and early fetal movements and behavior,
opening new territories for scientific studies of early fetal
neurodevelopment in singleton and multiple pregnancies.45
Embryonic reactions to tactile intertwin stimulation have
been reported as early as 8 and 9 weeks of gestation.46
Vanishing twin phenomenon in monochorionic multiple
pregnancy with its hemodynamic implications for the survivor
twin bred new hypothesis to explain higher CP-risk for normal
birth weight twins compared with singletons (Figs 13A and B).47

Three-dimensional Sonoembryology
3D sonography is in several aspects superior to the standard Fig. 15A: First trimester screening 3D assessment of NT
2D presentation of the 1st trimester pregnancy. Advantages
include: Improved assessment of complex anatomic structures,
surface scan analysis of minor defects, volumetric assessment
of organs, spatial depiction of blood flow information, three-
dimensional visualization of fetal skeleton.
During the 1st trimester of pregnancy when exposure to
ultrasound should be limited, when manipulation (angling) of
the vaginal probe is restricted and when proper sections of fetal
structures are sometimes difficult to obtain due to inadequate
position of the fetus, a volume sweep taking only a few seconds
can provide unlimited tomographic sections, permits rotation
of the object to overcome fetal malpositioning, and allows
repeated analysis/postprocessing of the stored volume without
physical presence of the patient.
Three-dimensional sonography offers two principal modes
Fig. 15B: First trimester NT-assessment by 3D rendering
of imaging: The planar mode and the full 3D image. In the
planar mode, the object is simultaneously projected onto three
perpendicular planes, the A, B, and C plane (Fig. 14). measurement. This feature has been shown to be of special value
All three planes can be separately activated for rotation in for nuchal translucency measurement when standard 2D approach
x, y and z-axis which offers excellent precision of any failed because of unfavorable fetal position (Figs 15A and B).

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Full 3D mode may be compared to an anatomic study similar These changes are consequence of decrease in total
to a vivisection: By moving the rendering line into the object peripheral resistance to flow, caused by progressive conversion
we learn about in vivo interrelationship of different organs or of spiral arteries into nonmuscular dilated tortuous channels
the spatial arrangement of the skeleton. This evaluative approach after trophoblast invasion (1st wave of trophoblast invasion).
to a stored volume data set can be demonstrated with the Dilated spiral arteries are easily detected with color or power
example of fetal diagnosis of a Hutch diverticulum. Paraurethral Doppler close to the chorion, near the placental implantation
or Hutch diverticula are congenital bladder diverticula that occur site and are well recognizable with relatively lower RI and higher
at or adjacent to the urethral hiatus and are associated with
peak systolic velocities followed by turbulent flow (Comet sign).
vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) in the majority of cases.
Vesicoureteral reflux is the retrograde passage of urine from Placental unit: Primary chorionic villi appear during the 4th
the bladder into the upper urinary tract. It is the most common week of gestation and mark the beginning of placental
urologic diagnosis in children, occurring in approximately development. At 5 weeks’ gestation, chorionic villi have
1 percent of newborns and as high as 30 to 45 percent in children branched, and mesenchymal cells within the villi have
with urinary tract infection (UTI). Current management is based differentiated into capillaries and started to form an
upon the long-held belief that VUR is a risk factor for renal arteriovenous capillary network. Until 8 weeks, chorionic villi
scarring because it predisposes patients to recurrent acute
have covered the entire GS. In the 9th week, on the side of the
pyelonephritis by transporting bacteria from the bladder to the
chorion which has the connecting stalk and embryo, the villi
kidney. The development of renal scarring increases the risk of
proliferate toward the decidua basalis and form the chorion
hypertension and chronic kidney disease (CKD) (Figs 16A to E).48
frondosum, whereas they begin to degenerate on the opposite
Pulsed wave, color and power Doppler: Adding pulsed wave, side, in the area of the decidua capsularis which then transforms
color and power Doppler to 3D ultrasound enabled spatial into an avascular shell. Normal placentation is characterized
assessment of blood flow within a 3D region of interest (3D- by progressive change of spiral arteries into wide channels. The
ROI). Only after reaching this new level of diagnostic ultrasound trophoblast carries these changes deep into the inner third of
technology, measurements of blood flow and vascularity became the myometrium, until at the end of 20 weeks gestation all spiral
possible in the periovulatoric follicle and endometrium, and, arteries are transformed into wide blood channels (2nd wave of
after ovulation and fertilization, in the region of implantation.
trophoblast invasion). Disturbance of 1st and 2nd trophoblast
As embryonic and chorionic/placental structures develop, their
invasion is suspected to be leading cause of early pregnancy
hemodynamic properties become more pronounced and
failure and pre-eclamsia.
differentiation into a maternal, a placental and an embryonic/
Pulsed Doppler analysis of intervillous placental flow
fetal unit is now possible on the basis of different flow
demonstrates two types of waveforms: Pulsatile arterial-like
characteristics.49
flow and continuous venous-like flow.
Events following Implantation
Fetal Unit
5th week: Gestational sac (GS) visible eccentric within the
Transvaginal approach (5th week). Embryo with attenuated tail
endometrium, appears as hypoechoic oval structure, surrounded
and deep neural groove visible. Heart prominence recognizable
by a hyperechoic ring.
(Fig. 17).
Maternal uterine unit: Gradual decrease of uterine artery
resistance index (RI) during the 1st trimester, leveling of the 3D: Gestational sac (GS) visible as small anechoic vesicle
protodiastolic notch, increasing diastolic flow velocities. placed in one of the endometrial leafs. 3D ultrasound with planar

Fig. 16A: Paraureteral or hutch diverticula are congenital bladder Fig. 16B: Hutch diverticula are associated with vesicoureteral reflux
diverticula that occur at or adjacent to the ureteral hiatus in the majority of cases

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Ulrich Honemeyer et al

Fig. 16C: Hutch diverticula vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) is the retrograde Fig. 17: Embryo 5 to 6w 3D surface rendered GS with
passage of urine from the bladder into the upper urinary tract embryo and yolk sac

3D power Doppler: Intense vascularity around the chorionic

shell. The hyperechoic chorionic ring is interrupted by color
sprouts of the early intervillous and spiral artery blood flow
(Comet sign) (Figs 6A and B).
Transvaginal approach (6th week): C-shaped embryo with
dominating head. Physiological midgut herniation begins.
Embryonic erythropoietic stem cells, produced at first in the
yolk sac and para-aortic mesoderm (aorta-gonad-mesonephros
region), have colonized the liver, where erythropoiesis now
continues.50
3D: Rounded bulky head due to developing forebrain and
thinner body, umbilical cord and ductus vitellini discernable.
Fig. 16D: Vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) is the most common urologic
diagnosis in children, occurring in approximately one percent of Surrounding the embryo, amniotic membrane with extra-
newborns amniotic yolk sac visible. Limb buds are rarely seen at this
stage. Ductus omphaloentericus present, with up to four times
the length of the embryo.
3D power Doppler: Fetal heart from 5 weeks 4 days onward at
crown rump length (CRL) 3 to 4 mm, with heartbeat visible as
well, aorta and umbilical cord to placental insertion. Proof of
embryonic viability.
Transvaginal Approach (7th week): GS occupies about one third
of the uterus. The main landmark is now an echogenic
embryonic pole adjacent to a cystic yolk sac. The embryonic
head is much larger than the trunk and bent forward over the
cardiac prominence. Hand and foot plates are formed, digital
rays start to appear. The vitelline duct as part of the vitelline
circulation undergoes complete obliteration during the 7th week
Fig. 16E: Hutch diverticula lateral view [in about 2% of cases its proximal part persists as a diverticulum
from the small intestine, Meckel’s diverticulum, which is
situated about 60 cm proximal to the Bauhin’s valve (ileocoecal
mode at the end of 5th week, at a GS diameter of 8 mm and valve), and may be attached by a fibrous cord to the abdominal
above, allows easy discrimination of yolk sac and embryonic
wall at the umbilicus].
pole of 2 to 3 mm length, which appears 24 to 48 hours after
visualization of the yolk sac, at approximately 33rd 3D: Chorion frondosum distinguishable from chorion leave.
postmenstrual day. Amnion visible as spherical hyperechoic membrane, still close

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Normal and Abnormal Early Pregnancy

to the embryo. The head has become the dominant embryonic

structure. Using 3D planar mode, the rhombencephalon (hind
brain), at this stage the largest of the developing vesicles of the
brain, can be found at the top of the head (vertex).
3D power Doppler: At the end of the 7th week, cerebral blood
flow becomes apparent at the base of the embryonic skull, with
discrete pulsations of the carotid arteries. Venous and arterial
blood flow signals from the intervillous space have become
more intense.
Transvaginal approach (8th week): Transabdominal approach
possible (except in retroverted uterus).
CRL 10 to 16 mm: The embryo has developed a skeleton, though
still mostly cartilaginous. The head begins to erect from the
anterior flexion due to the expansion of the lateral, third and
midbrain ventricles. Vertex of the embryo shifted now to the
midbrain (mesencephalon).
3D: The most impressive change is the complete visualization
of the limbs with thickening of the ends where hands and feet
develop. The distinction of facial forms is still rather vague,
due to insufficient ultrasonographic resolution and because of
persisting cranial pole flexion. Umbilical cord insertion visible.
3D power Doppler: At this stage of pregnancy, 3D power
Doppler allows the visualization of the entire embryonic
circulation (Figs 18A to C).
End of embryonic period (9th and 10th week): Transvaginal
approach still most accurate, transabdominal approach possible.
The head constitutes now almost half of the fetus. Upper
limbs develop faster than lower limbs, formation of fingers
complete at the end of 9th week. The rapid growth of the liver
and intestine before closure of the abdominal wall may cause
herniation into the proximal umbilical cord in most fetuses
(physiological midgut herniation). At 10 weeks, when the
abdominal wall finishes its development with closure, the bowel
undergoes two turns of 180 degrees, with final return to its
original position.
3D: Physiological midgut herniation visible. The dorsal column
Figs 19A to D: Umbilical hernia physiologic at 10w5d, (B) umbilical
(early spine) characterized by two echogenic parallel lines, can hernia physiologic at 10w5d, (C) umbilical hernia physiologic gray scale
be examined in whole length. The arms with elbows and legs CD, (D) umbilical hernia physiologic 10w5d glass body CD

Figs 18A to C: (A) Embryo 8w, beginning erection of the head, foot and hand plates, (B) fetal circulation at 8w with both carotid arteries
(C) 8w5d physiologic umbilical hernia

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Ulrich Honemeyer et al

Fig. 21A: Early fetal circulation at 12w3d surface rendered fetus

Fig. 20: Spinal column at 10w5d, characterized

by two echogenic lines

with knees are visible. Head is clearly divided from the body
by the neck. At this gestational age, images of the fetal face can
be obtained. The lateral ventricles in the brain are seen,
containing the hyperechoic choroid plexus (Figs 19A to D and
Fig. 20).
3D power Doppler: From the 9th week, the circle of Willis and
its major branches are visible.
Transvaginal and transabdominal approach (11th week):
Physiological midgut herniation disappears. Fetal kidneys start Fig. 21B: Early fetal circulation color Doppler
to produce urine, fetal bladder is visible.
3D: Planar mode enables visualization of the entire fetal body,
with differentiation of fetal stomach and urinary bladder. middle cerebral artery with its pulsations can be differentiated
Kidneys become visible. Detailed 3D analysis of the fetal within the circle of Willis. Until the end of the first trimester,
skeleton using maximum mode is possible, the spine is seen in the absence of end-diastolic flow in fetal circulation, including
detail. Facial details such as nose, maxilla, mandibles and orbits umbilical arteries, is a normal finding (Figs 21A and B).49
can be differentiated.
The Yolk Sac
3D power Doppler: Depiction of major aortic branches like
renal and common iliac arteries achievable. The microscopic structure of the primary yolk sac is visible in
an implanted 9 days human blastocyst and extends as a cavity
Transvaginal and transabdominal approach (12th week): The
surrounded by the exocoelomic (Heuser’s) membrane and the
fetal neck is well defined, the face is broad, with wide distance
cytotrophoblast layer toward the not yet completely closed
between the eyes. Structural development of the heart is
surface defect of the endometrium at the site of implantation.
complete (four chamber view). Erythropoiesis shifts from liver
to spleen. Fetal gender can be distinguished. At the base (embryonic pole) of the primary yolk sac is the
inner cell mass, the embryoblast. Beyond the embryoblast and
3D: Depiction of fetal anatomy has reached a degree of accuracy the small half-moon shaped early amniotic cavity, toward deeper
which allows counting of fingers and toes. The growing layers of the endometrium, follows a thicker cell layer of
cerebellum is clearly visible, the lateral ventricles with choroid cytotrophoblast, and the syncytiotrophoblast. Here is the future
plexus dominate the brain. From now on, differentiated location of the embryonic stem and the chorion frondosum as
visualization of vertebral anatomy is feasible using maximum the main area of trophoblast invasion into maternal spiral
mode : The medullar channel, each vertebra, intervertebral disks,
arteries. Between the exocoelomic membrane (Heuser’s) and
and the ribs can be measured.
the cytotrophoblast develops until day 12 postconception a
3D power Doppler: Fetal vascular system is now part of detailed surrounding layer of fluid creating the extraembryonic coelom,
anatomic survey of cerebrum, digestive and urinary tract. The also called chorionic cavity. The primary yolk sac, being now

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Normal and Abnormal Early Pregnancy

surrounded by the extraembryonic coelom, has hence become Scientific evaluation of yolk sac and vitelline duct as first
the secondary yolk sac, visible until about 12 weeks of gestation. visible signs of embryonic presence is fascinating. However,
The secondary yolk sac is by origin embryonic tissue and there should be awareness of potential damage to erythropoietic
ultrasonographically the first visible embryonic structure in the stem cells and germ cells by Doppler and especially pulsed
GS at 5 weeks: It appears as circular, well-defined, echo-free Doppler application in this stage of embryonic development,
area, diameter 3 to 4 mm, within the GS which measures at this in this area. The knowledge about yolk sac vascularity and
time about 8 to 10 mm. The yolk sac grows slowly until it reaches vitelline duct flow profiles was, therefore, collected from 150
a maximum diameter of approximately 5 to 6 mm at 10 weeks. patients about to undergo termination of pregnancy for
Its stalk (vitelline duct) can be followed from the origin into psychosocial reasons.52
the embryonic abdomen. The vitelline duct is a tubular The most intense visualization of yolk sac vessels was
elongation connecting yolk sac and embryonal midgut which around 7 to 8 weeks of gestation (5-6 weeks postconception),
had developed during progressive separation of the yolk sac with a sharp decline hereafter due to ceasing vitelline circulation
from the embryo through formation of the intraembryonic body (obliteration of vitelline duct around 7th week of gestation). A
cavity, with the embryonic stalk as remaining opening. The yolk characteristic flow waveform in all examined yolk sacs included
sac is the source of omnipotent stem cells including the gametes low velocities and absent diastolic flow, with a mean pulsatility
which are formed from primordial germ cells in the embryoblast index (PI) of 3.24. The authors found a positive correlation
and which later move into the wall of the yolk sac. From here,
between gestational age and yolk sac volume until 10 weeks.
they migrate through the vitelline duct into the embryo. As the
At the end of the 1st trimester, the GS volume continued to
gestational sac grows and the amniotic cavity (the yolk sac was
increase while the yolk sac remained the same. Kurjak et al
always extra-amniotic) quickly expands, the yolk sac as ‘extra-
coworkers also analyzed yolk sac vascularization in abnormal
embryonic’ structure is gradually separated from the embryo
pregnancies.53
(Fig. 22A).
Flow signals were detected in 18.54% of 48 patients with
Anomalies of the Yolk Sac the diagnose ‘missed abortion’ between 6 and 12 weeks
gestation. Three types of abnormal flow signals could be
The following changes assessed by 2D US are related to
observed: Irregular blood flow, permanent diastolic flow and
subsequent spontaneous abortion: Absence of yolk sac, enlarged
venous blood flow type. Because nutritive secretions of the yolk
yolk sac (more than 6 mm), too small yolk sac (less than
sac are not utilized by the deceased embryo, dysfunctional
3 mm), irregular, wrinkled shape of yolk sac with indented walls,
vitelline circulation could result in insufficient drainage of the
degenerative changes of the yolk sac such as abundant
calcifications with decreased translucency of yolk sac, and yolk sac with progressive accumulation of contents.
abnormal number of yolk sacs which normally has to be equal Consequently, an increased yolk sac volume indicates early
to the number of the embryos. Currently, the major benefits of pregnancy failure. An embryonic heart rate less than 100 beats
a sonographic evaluation of the yolk sac are as follows: per minute (bpm) before 7 weeks is considered as embryonic
Differentiation of potentially viable and nonviable gestations— bradycardia. Bradycardia or arrhythmia often predict subsequent
indication of a possible embryonic abnormality. Abnormal small heart action cessation. Such cases of early hemodynamic heart
size of the yolk sac and increased echogenicity have been shown failure usually go along with yolk sac enlargement (more than
to be markers of poor pregnancy outcome (Fig. 22B).51 6 mm) and initial generalized hydrops.53

Fig. 22A: 3D surface rendering relation of amnion and yolk sac, 9w4d Fig. 22B: Triplets, hyperechoic yolk sacs, one week before
spontaneous miscarriage

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Ulrich Honemeyer et al

Multiple Pregnancy tool because the offline evaluation of the sweep volume will give
Determination of chorionicity and amnionicity in multiples is quick evidence of the number of embryos, their spatial relation,
one of the important goals of early pregnancy ultrasound, because and lamba- or T-sign of separating membranes (chorionicity)
of its prognostic value in regards to subsequent development of (Figs 23A and B and Fig. 24).
discordant growth or/and twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome Abnormalities in twins can be classified in those specific
(TTTS). 3D surface rendering of multiple gestation is an excellent for monochorionicity, and malformations equally affecting
multiple and singleton pregnancies, such as cardiac or neural
tube defects. Conjoined twins in monochorionic pregnancies
occur when the division of the zygote is delayed until day 13 to
16 postconception (Figs 25A and B).

Early Sonographic Diagnosis of Fetal Anomalies

Congenital heart defects (CHD) have an overall incidence of

about 1% in lifeborn infants and account for 20% of all stillbirths
and 30% neonatal deaths due to congenital anomalies. The
etiology of CHD includes maternal diseases, such as diabetes
mellitus, phenylketonuria, exposure to substances
(anticonvulsants, lithium), infections (parvovirus, rubella),
chromosomal anomalies (trisomy 21,18) and specific mutant
gene defects. However, there are many unknown causes. The
Fig. 23A: Lambda sign in triplets aneuploidy risk for a fetus with CHD is 30%.54,55

Fig. 23B: T-sign in monochorionic twins Fig. 25A: Conjoined triplets

Fig. 24: Triplets dichorionic diamniotic and monoamniotic Fig. 25B: Conjoined twins in triplet pregnancy, ectopia cordis
with birth weights at 35w

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The recurrence risk of cardiac anomalies in the absence of

a known genetic syndrome is 2 to 4%, and with two previously
affected siblings, it is 10%.56
CHD, classified as major, have an estimated prevalence of
4 in 1000 live births and are either lethal or require surgical
repair or interventional catheterization within the 1st year of
life.57
It is self-explanatory that CHD should be discovered at the
earliest. By the end of the 1st trimester, the period of
organogenesis is completed. The cardiovascular system
originating from the mesodermal germ layer appears in the
middle of the third week. The developing heart tube bends on
day 23 and is organized in segments, creating the heart loop.
The primitive left and right ventricles begin to expand by the
end of the 4th week. During the 4th to 8th week, the formation Fig. 26A: Tricuspid regurgitation
of the ventricular and atrial septa is complete, and the arterial
and venous connections are established. The division of the
heart into a four-chamber structure is now achieved. Already
16 years ago, using a high-resolution transducer of 6 to 15 MHz,
it was, at this gestational age, possible to obtain satisfactory
images of the four-chamber view (FCV) and the outflow tracts
in the majority of fetuses.58
However, there are critical limitations to a successful early
evaluation of the heart, such as experience of the operator, up-
to-date technological equipment and length of examination time.

Early Fetal Echocardiography at the

Time of 11+0 to 13+6 Weeks
EFE is a highly specialized scan performed until 16 weeks of
gestation under exceptional indications like increased nuchal
translucency (NT) measurement, congenital heart defect (CHD)
risk factors or early diagnosed extracardiac fetal abnormalities. Fig. 26B: Tricuspid regurge in trisomy 21 at 16w
EFE makes sense considering the fact that the severest CHDs
do not develop from a normal looking heart, and that equally
a higher risk for a wide range of fetal structural defects, for
abnormal sonographic views of such a severely dysmorphic
specific genetic syndromes, and especially for congenital heart
heart can be obtained in the first, second and third trimester.
defects (CHD).62,63
The earliest opportunity for successful fetal heart assessment
is offered after embryological finalization of structural heart Severe CHDs with high probability of detection by EFE:
development at 9w6d postmenstruation (pm). Practically, D- and L-transposition of the great arteries (D-TGA, L-TGA)
however, EFE starts at 11 weeks pm. Second trimester fetal hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS) based on aortic and
echocardiography protocol can be successfully adopted for EFE mitral valve atresia or severe stenosis; atrioventricular septal
because the fetal heart at 1st trimester screening is, though defect (AVSD); double outlet right ventricle (DORV); common
smaller, structurally equal to the 2nd trimester heart. Recent arterial trunk (CAT); double inlet left ventricle (DILV); tricuspid
publications support the applicability of spatial temporal image atresia (TA); mitral atresia (MA); pulmonary atresia (PA);
correlation (STIC) for EFE.59 heterotaxy syndromes; total anomalous pulmonary venous
return (TAPVR); large ventricular septal defects (VSD).
Indications for EFE: Next to maternal indications which are
the same as for midgestational fetal echocardiography, it is Less severe CHDs which may be overlooked when performing
mainly the spectrum of findings during nuchal translucency EFE: Coarctation of aorta; mild aortic or pulmonary stenosis;
screening which gives reason for EFE: Early diagnosis of mild tricuspid and mitral valve anomalies; cardiac tumors;
malformations with possible association of CHD, such as single cardiomyopathies; septal defects, including ventricular
umbilical artery, omphalocele, increased NT-measurement, atrioventricular and atrial septum primum defects; tetralogy of
tricuspid valve regurgitation and reversed ductus venosus fallot with normal pulmonary artery size or abnormal pulmonary
A-wave (Figs 26A and B).60,61 venous return.64,65
Since the 1990s, extensive studies have established that Further detailed information about requirements for EFE
euploid fetuses with increased nuchal translucency (NT) have with transabdominal and especially transvaginal approach,

Donald School Journal of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology, October-December 2011;5(4):356-384 373
Ulrich Honemeyer et al

image optimization, effectiveness and limitations of EFE may

be found in: Wiechec M, Nocun A, Beithon J. Early Fetal
Echocardiography at the time of 11+0 to 13+6 Weeks Scan.
Donald School Journal of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and
Gynecology, July-September 2009;3(3):75-81.
Fetal abdominal wall defects: Fetal abdominal wall defects have
an incidence of 17 to 22 per 100,000 live births. The most
frequent forms are gastroschisis (1:10,000) and omphalocele
(1:10,000), followed by body stalk anomaly (1:14,000 to
42,000), cloacal and bladder extrophy (1:25,000 to 50,000),
and pentalogy of Cantrell (1:65,000 to 200,000).66
Since ventral wall defects lead to elevated levels of alpha
fetoprotein (AFP) in maternal serum (and amniotic fluid), Fig. 27A: Gastroschisis—multiplanar 3D CD
detection of increased AFP concentrations should result in
careful sonographic evaluation of the fetal abdominal wall. The
antenatal diagnosis of surgically correctable anomalies is very
stressful for the parents; however, the delivery outcome of
infants with isolated abdominal wall defects benefits clearly
from prenatal diagnosis and delivery in tertiary center with
pediatric surgery, and the long-term prognosis is generally quite
good.67
Gastroschisis (Greek: Gastric cleft): Gastroschisis and
omphalocele can be seen with ultrasound and are diagnosed
after 11 weeks of gestation, when transient structural alterations
of the embryo and early fetus like physiological extra-abdominal
herniation of the bowel are normally no longer present. While
omphalocele is frequently associated with chromosomal Fig. 27B: Gastroschisis—ileus and umbilical cord location
abnormalities, gastroschisis is mostly sporadic and bears low
risks for chromosomal and extragastrointestinal anomalies.68
The ultrasound diagnosis relies on the demonstration of
herniated visceral organs adjacent to the anterior abdominal
wall and the dilatation of intra-abdominal proximal bowels. The
location of the abdominal wall gap is usually to the right of the
normal umbilical cord insertion (site of the transient right
umbilical vein with involution at day 28 to 32 postconception).
The herniated bowels are not covered by parietal peritoneum
and float freely in the amniotic fluid.69
Color Doppler and 3D ultrasound facilitate the diagnosis
by orientating the sonographer about spatial relation between
abdominal umbilical cord insertion and extrusion site of bowels
(Figs 27A and B). Fig. 28A: Omphalocele—whole fetus 3D, umbilical vessels joining on
top of the omphalocele
Omphalocele: Association with other malformations is found
in up to 74% of cases, and most commonly, in up to 50% of
affected fetuses, with congenital heart defects (CHD), such as
ventricular septum defect (VSD), atrial septum defect (ASD)
and coarctatio aorta (CA). Aneuploidy is more likely in smaller
omphaloceles than in the larger ones. The most common type
of aneuploidy is trisomy 18 (Edwards S), less common are
trisomy 13 and Turner Syndrome. If the liver is herniated,
cardiac, renal and limb anomalies are more frequent.70
Color and power Doppler aid in diagnosis by depicting
umbilical arteries and umbilical vein in their spatial relation to
the omphalocele. Cord vessels are circling the omphalocele and
liver topography can be disclosed with electronic scalpel
(Figs 28A and B). Fig. 28B: Omphalocele—glass body power Doppler

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Bladder exstrophy and cloacal extrophy: In both entities, a Early Fetal Neurodevelopment
ventral body wall defect with exposure of the bladder mucosa
Sonoembryology of facial development: The human face differs
is present. Sonographic diagnose is possible only near 12 weeks
in each individual, its formation is embryologically complex,
of gestation, after definitive formation of the kidney from the
and growth and remodeling are not complete until
metanephros and onset of urinary production, with filling of
postpuberty.74,75
the fetal bladder, and excretion of urine into the amniotic fluid.
The same inductive forces that cause growth and shaping
Characteristic sonographic finding after 12 weeks is the repeated
of the neural tube, influence the development of facial structures.
absence of a filled bladder in the area between the ventral pelvic
A large number of fetal face anomalies which can be seen using
curving of the umbilical arteries in color and power Doppler
two- and three-dimensional ultrasound techniques are linked
mode (Fig. 29).
with different brain anomalies. It is, hence, correct to say that
Complex Anomalies associated with ‘the face predicts the brain’ or is the ‘mirror of the brain’. While
Abdominal Wall Defects the study of various fetal facial expressions in late pregnancy
by four-dimensional ultrasound has become a fascinating part
Body stalk anomaly (alias Limb-Body Wall Complex): of the new field of fetal neurosonography, early pregnancy
Ultrasonic findings at the time of 1st trimester screening may ultrasound evaluation of the face is limited to structural
reveal increased nuchal translucency, left lateral thoraco- aberrations and often hampered by technical limitations like
abdominoschisis and attachment of the fetus to the placenta or insufficient ultrasonographic resolution of the embryonal face
uterine wall. At 12 weeks, higher incidence of 1:7,500 fetuses or the predominant flexion of the cranial part of the embryo
was described.71 (hidden face). Behavioral 4D studies of the face at this stage
Other anomalies, such as partial or complete limb absence, would be probably meaningless due to the immaturity of both
midfacial clefts, and exencephaly or encephalocele, may be midbrain (controlling cranial nerves 3-6, auditory and visual
found as well. systems) and nuclei of facial nerves 5 and 7 (responsible for
motoric facial innervation). From the 9th week on the head is
Pentalogy of Cantrell: Complex ventral body wall defect with
clearly divided from the body by the neck. In the weeks 11 and
possible association of sternal cleft, ectopia cordis,
12, structures, like the nose, orbits, maxilla, mandible and
omphalocele, and anterior (Morgagni) congenital diaphragmatic
mouth, can be observed. Around the 13th week, the anatomy of
hernia (CDH) eventually diverse congenital heart defects
the face is developed and can be analyzed for diagnostic
(CDH). Lack of fusion of the bilateral bars of mesoderm
purpose.76
responsible for formation of the ventral body wall at the end of
the 3rd week of embryonic development, is considered to be Early Fetal Neural Activity
the cause.50
Dealing with structural development of CNS only does not
Sonographic diagnosis is feasible around 10 to 11 weeks of
answer the challenging question: What is the neurobiological
gestation. However, the variable severity of the malformation
basis of early fetal movement patterns? In humans, an
might make early diagnosis a difficult task.72
endogenous neural cortical network is already present at 8 weeks
OEIS complex (omphalocele, exstrophy, imperforate anus, postconception, i.e. at the end of the embryonic period. It
spinal defect): Sonographic diagnose of each of the included contains very few synapses, and it is likely that neuronal
malformations has already been discussed. The anomaly has communication happens largely through intercellular junctions.
sporadic incidence and is—if not lethal—associated with Such early neuronal networks display a characteristic oscillatory
considerable morbidity.73 activity. It is unlikely that these nonsynaptic cortical networks
could generate directly early fetal movements; however, their
oscillatory endogenous activity might trigger networks in other
parts of the brain and spinal cord. From a neurodevelopmental
view, these endogenous neuronal activities seem to shape the
subsequent process of synaptogenesis.77

Embryology of the Human Brain

The neural tissue of brain and spinal cord differentiates from
the ectodermal layer of the embryonic disk during the second
week of embryonic life (days postfertilization). The ectodermal
tissue thickens and forms the symmetric neural plates which
are the forerunners of the brain and the spinal cord.
Day 18: A groove appears in the midline of the embryonic disk,
becoming deeper and longer due to the elevation of neural folds
Fig. 29: Umbilical arteries circling the bladder PD along both sides of the groove.

Donald School Journal of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology, October-December 2011;5(4):356-384 375
Ulrich Honemeyer et al

Day 20: Thickenings in the cranial neural plate indicate the from L2 downward, with ossification of one vertebral level every
formation sites of the three sections of the embryonic brain: 2 to 3 weeks, until S2 is ossified by 22 weeks.80,81
The primary brain vesicles rhombencephalon, mesencephalon In the embryonal period, the CNS develops faster than other
and prosencephalon. embryonic structures, whereas in the subsequent fetal period,
the vertebral column grows faster than the spinal cord.
Day 22: The bilateral neural folds begin to fuse with each other,
starting simultaneously at three initiation sites:
1. Cervical fusing toward the posterior (caudal) neuropore Positional Changes of the Spinal Cord
2. At the mesencephalic/rhombencephalic boundary fusing Around 12 weeks of development, the spinal cord extends the
toward the anterior neuropore entire length of the embryo, and spinal nerves pass through the
3. At the rostral end of the neural groove. intervertebral foramina at the level of their origin. However,
Day 24: Anterior and rostral section of neural tube closed with increasing gestational age the vertebral column and the
dura mater lengthen faster than the neural tube, sort of leaving
Day 28: Caudal end of the neural tube closed the neural tube behind, and the terminal end of the spinal cord
If the process of fusion is disturbed, various forms of neural gradually shifts to a higher level. At birth, this end is at the
tube defects ( NTD ) can occur. level of the 3rd lumbar vertebra. Below L3, a threadlike
extension of the pia mater surrounding the spinal cord forms
After day 28: Soon after the closure of the neural tube, the three the filum terminale, which is attached to the periost of the 1st
sections of the embryonic brain undergo a process of flexion. coccygeal vertebra. Spinal nerve fibers passing through
The prosencephalon divides into an end portion called foramina intervertebralia below L3, gradually have to extend
telencephalon from which the future cerebral hemispheres with the accelerated growth of the vertebral column, and
originate and into the diencephalon from which bilateral optic collectively constitute the cauda equina within the vertebral
vesicles arise. The rhombencephalon divides into a rostral part, channel at the end of gestation (Figs 30A and B).50
the metencephalon, and a caudal part, the medulla oblongata.
From 9 weeks onward, then follow the formation of the cerebral
hemispheres, the interhemispheric connections, in particular
corpus callosum, the development of the cerebellum, and the
sculpturing of brain lobes, sulci and gyri.
After 6 weeks, migration of neurons: Until now homogeneous
neuroepithelial tissue of spinal cord and brain begins to form
into several histologically recognizable zones: The ventricular
zone filled with ventricular cells and dividing neural precursor
cells. It is in the ventricular zone, where the cortical neurons
are generated who are destined to migrate through the other
zones along associated glia cells up into the cortical plate.
After 8 weeks, myelination: For proper conduction of neuronal
impulses, axons of neuronal cells need to undergo myelination.
In the central nervous system (CNS), myelination is performed
by oligodendrocytes. Myelination is a slow process, which Fig. 30A: Vertebra at 26w B-mode conus medullaris
begins in the brainstem at 8 weeks, finishes in the vestibulospinal
tract at the end of the 2nd trimester, and begins in the pyramidal
tracts only at the end of the 3rd trimester, thus explaining the
relative immaturity of the human brain at the end of
gestation.78,79
Spinal cord: The spine is formed between 20 and 30 days of
gestation in a process called somitogenesis. In the developing
vertebrate embryo, somites are masses of mesoderm distributed
along the two sides of the neural tube that will differentiate into
dermis (dermatome), skeletal muscle (myotome) and vertebrae
(sclerotome). The somites are sized and spaced regularly. Since
Gray et al in 1991 evaluated the ossification pattern of the
vertebra by ultrasound, it is known that there are separate
ossification centers for the vertebral body and for each of the
neural arches. The ossification of the neural arches occurs in a
predictable pattern, proceeding in caudal direction, progressing Fig. 30B: Vertebra at 26w orthogonal view into vertebral channel 3D

376 JAYPEE
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Normal and Abnormal Early Pregnancy

Fig. 31: Multiplanar sections vertebra

Fig. 32A: Physiologic spina bifida Fig. 32B: Physiologic spina bifida
at 9 weeks at 11 weeks

With 3D ultrasound, by moving the region of interest (ROI),

3D reconstruction image of the surface level, neural arch level
and vertebral body level of the vertebral column is possible.
By 13 weeks of gestation, vertebral bodies, intervertebral spaces
and bilateral premature arches can be clearly demonstrated
(Fig. 31).
Until 15 weeks, the bilateral lamina of the neural arches
are still completely apart at all levels of the vertebral column,
but at the lumbosacral level, the median gap between the
bilateral neural arches is wider than at thoracic level. This stage
of development is called ‘physiological spina bifida’ (Figs 32A
and B).
Neural tube defects (spina bifida) are classified into four
types: Meningocele, myelomeningocele, myelocystocele,
myeloschisis. In myelomeningocele, the spinal cord and its
protective covering, the meninges, protrude from an opening
in the spine. In meningocele, only the meninges protrude from
the spinal gap, whereas the cord is in normal position. The
lumbar and sacral levels of the vertebra are the most common
locations. Early detection by 2D and 3D imaging of spina bifida
Figs 33A to E: (A) Acranius 10w in B-mode, (B) acranius 12w 3D surface
with meningomyelocele at 9 weeks, and at 10 weeks in
rendered face, (C) acranius 12w brain tissue, (D) acranius
combination with iniencephaly and acrania, was described by 12w maximum mode head AP, (E) acranius-head and hand 3D at 17w4d
Pooh RK and Kurjak A in 2008 (Figs 33A to E). open fingers normal position of the thumb

Donald School Journal of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology, October-December 2011;5(4):356-384 377
Ulrich Honemeyer et al

temporal sequences of GMs lies in the intrinsic properties of

neurons which spontaneously begin to generate and propagate
action potentials on their own, and this even more as soon as
they are interconnected. This action potential generating
neuronal network for the initiation of GMs could be primarily
located in the spinal cord and the brainstem which consists of
medulla oblongata, pons and midbrain. The development and
maturation of the fetal CNS in the 2nd and 3rd trimester is
characterized by synaptogenesis and myelinization. By
20 weeks, the cerebral cortex has acquired its full complement
of neurons. The first evoked potentials from the cortex can be
registered at 29 weeks; however, until delivery and neonatal
period, subunits of the brainstem remain the major regulators
of all movement patterns of the fetus and neonate83-85 and thus
Fig. 34: Hemivertebra multiplanar maximum mode
maintain their signature on fetal and neonatal behavior.
Assessment of fetal behavior in different periods of gestation
Prevalence is 0.7 to 2/1000 births. As etiological factors, single promises recognition and early diagnosis of abnormal brain
mutant genes, autosomal recessive inheritance, chromosomal development and various structural and functional CNS
aberrations (trisomia 13, 18), folic acid antagonists, enzymatic abnormalities.82 With the advent of 4D or real-time 3D
defects in folic acid metabolism, specific teratogens like valproic ultrasound, straightforward visual transfer of fetal GMs to the
acid, maternal diabetes and environmental factors are evidently sonographer’s eye has become possible. The human eye can
or suspected responsible. differentiate single images up to a frame rate of 12 Hz, above
As described previously, the spine is formed between 20 this frame rate, serial images are perceived as continuous
and 30 days of gestation in a process called somitogenesis. A movement. Presently, peak frame rates in high-end equipment
disruption of the drastic cellular cytoskeletal rearrangements reach 40 Hz. This enables visualization of even small facial
and biochemical changes can result in hemivertebra and twitches of the unborn and has opened the doors of perception
congenital scoliosis (Fig. 34). to an abundant variety of fetal behavior.
Using the advantages of 4D technology, it was possible to
Dynamic Real-time 3D Ultrasound (4D) and Fetal categorize embryonic and early fetal motor development for
Behavior in Early Pregnancy each week of gestation, beginning with seven weeks post
3D surface rendering of embryonic and fetal structures has been menstruationem when the earliest embryonic movements
a huge step forward in prenatal sonographic diagnosis. The rapid appear. Understandably, the description and categorization of
succession of 3D surface rendered images of a ROI, with movements were repeatedly submitted to changes and
frequencies of up to 40 Hz and sufficient image quality and amendments, as a result of improved resolution of fetal
volume angle, is called dynamic real-time 3D (4D). This movements with new high-end 4D machines.
ultrasound mode opened many doors to new research fields, Seven weeks: Embryonic movements are rare. Bowing the head
one of them the study of fetal neurobehavior: It enables the movements (gross body movement), no movements of limb
sonographer to appreciate not only embryonic and fetal posture buds.
and typical (repetitive) patterns of movement, but also
8 to 9 weeks: The frequent embryonic movements can be divided
abnormality, lack or absence of such movements. Human
into four groups (Fig. 35A):
fetuses, and in continuation, newborn children up to the age of
1. Gross body movements (GM) consisting of complex
four months post-term, have distinct patterns of spontaneous,
movements of neck, trunk and limbs, involving the entire
not externally triggered movements, called general movements
body, but without patterning or sequencing of any body
(GM) which were defined by Prechtl82 as gross movements, parts, waxing and waning in intensity, force and speed,
involving the whole body and lasting from few seconds to beginning and ceasing gradually. GMs emerge prior to
several minutes, or longer. GMs can be described as a variable isolated limb movements, and they can be observed before
sequence of arm, leg, neck and trunk movements, which begin the completion of the spinal reflex arch which is
gradually, increase in force and speed, and then slacken down accomplished at 8 weeks
again. Extension and flexion movements of arms and legs are 2. Slow and small flexion, extension and sideways bending
mostly complex and variable due to integrated rotations and of the trunk, i.e. vermicular movements
frequent minor changes of direction, which adds a fluent and 3. Startles, representing a sudden fetal body movement lasting
elegant quality to the movements. GMs follow after the early for about 1 second: Rapid phase contraction of all limb
embryonal vermicular movements and are first seen from 8 muscles
weeks of gestation onward. The nature of the recognizable 4. Limb movements with vigorous arm and leg movements.

378 JAYPEE
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Normal and Abnormal Early Pregnancy

1 2 3

4 5 6

Figs 35A (1 to 6): Fetal movements at 9 weeks with gross body, arm and leg movements

1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8 9

10

Figs 35B (1 to 10): 3D cine loop: Fetal general movements (GM) at 10+4 weeks
survivor twin of dichorionic twin pregnancy with vanishing twin

Donald School Journal of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology, October-December 2011;5(4):356-384 379
Ulrich Honemeyer et al

10 to 12 weeks: Elbow can be bended and stretched. Most Neurobehavioral and limb development are obviously a
common are now isolated arm movements. Complex body and dialectic process according to the concept of ‘ontogenic
limb movements already resemble movements of 3rd trimester apaptation’, a terminus created by Prechtl et al.88
fetuses and neonates: Twitching, floating, swimming, jumping, Progressive degeneration of alpha motor neurons in the
hick-ups, jaw movements, sucking, swallowing and yawning
anterior horn of the spinal cord, and of motor nuclei in the
can be observed.86
Any alteration of this movement pattern should be an brainstem, is the cause of arthrogryposis: Absence of limb
indication for neurobehavioral follow-up examinations. Delay movements results in joint contracture and spine deformation.89
in motoric development with 1 to 2 weeks delay in the first An interesting detail of early pregnancy 4D is the
appearance of all movement patterns has been described in observation that early fetuses move their right arm more than
diabetic pregnancies (Fig. 35B).87 their left one (lateralization). Clenched fist and so-called

Figs 36A to F: 4D: Vigorous arm movements of acranius at 15 weeks (Courtesy: Prof Asim Kurjak)

380 JAYPEE
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Normal and Abnormal Early Pregnancy

Figs 37A to C: 4D: ‘Frozen’ arm position and bilateral clenched fists with ‘neurological thumb’, acranius at 32 weeks gestation
(Courtesy: Prof Asim Kurjak)

‘neurological thumb’ as pathognomonic signs of trisomy 18 the absence of heartbeats in PW Doppler, and the lack of a
and /or syndromic diseases cannot be expected before 12 weeks color flow signals within the embryo after the 6th gestational
gestation (Figs 36A to F) and (Figs 37A to C).90 week. Blighted ovum (anembryonic pregnancy) refers to a
gestational sac in which the embryo either failed to develop or
CONCLUSIONS died at a stage too early for visualization. The diagnosis of
anembryonic pregnancy is based on the absence of embryonic
Ultrasound examination has become the ‘gold standard’ in
echoes within a gestational sac whose diameter/volume is large
assessment and follow-up of the development and of
enough for such structures to be visualized, independent of the
complications in early pregnancy. With introduction of
clinical data or menstrual cycle. Advances in transvaginal
transvaginal sonography, the accuracy of early morphological
sonography permit early diagnosis of this abnormality at a mean
and biometrical ultrasound examinations has been significantly
sac diameter of 1.5 cm. To confirm the diagnosis, these findings
improved. The essential aim of an early pregnancy ultrasound
should be correlated with other clinical and sonographic data
is not only to diagnose a pregnancy, but also to differentiate
including the presence of a yolk sac and serum beta hCG levels
between normal and abnormal pregnancy. The addition of color
which are likely to show suboptimal ascent in an anembryonic
Doppler ultrasound has enabled functional hemodynamic
pregnancy. Intrauterine hematomas are defined as sonolucent
evaluation soon after implantation. We speak of early pregnancy
crescent or wedge-shaped areas between chorionic tissue and
failure when a pregnancy ends spontaneously before the embryo
uterine wall, or fetal membranes. By localization, intrauterine
has reached the gestational age in which visualization of a viable
hematomas can be divided into retroplacental, subchorionic,
embryo should be possible.
marginal and supracervical. The most severe are large, central,
The most common symptom of early pregnancy failure is
retroplacental hematomas. The prognosis for the pregnancy
vaginal bleeding. Transvaginal sonography is an ideal tool to
outcome is determined by two main elements: The location and
examine patients who present with vaginal bleeding in the first
the size of the hematoma. The essential color Doppler finding
and early second trimester, clarifying the differential diagnosis
is that in the presence of hematomas, vascular resistance in the
of missed abortion, ectopic pregnancy, blighted ovum and
ipsilateral spiral arteries is increased and blood flow is
threatened abortion of a viable embryo. Viability can be
decreased. Doppler measurements show lack of diastolic flow
established reliably by documenting cardiac activity in real-
in most of hematomas, with RI of 1.0. The elevated impedance
time, with B-mode and/or color Doppler ultrasonography. With
to blood flow is a transitory consequence of a compression of
a normal intrauterine pregnancy, bleeding from the chorion
the spiral arterial walls by the hemorrhage itself.
frondosum is undoubtedly the most common source of vaginal
The most common location of ectopic pregnancy is the
bleeding during the first trimester and should be considered as
threatened abortion. Per definition, incomplete abortion is the fallopian tube. If at a serum beta hCG of 1500 mIU/ml
passage of some, but not all, fetal or placental tissue through (discriminatory zone) no intrauterine GS is visible with a high
the cervical canal. In the case of a complete abortion, all products resolution TVS probe, then the situation is highly suspicious of
of conception are expelled through the cervix. Transvaginal ectopic pregnancy. The hypervascular ‘rings of fire’ of both
ultrasonography including color Doppler plays the key role in ectopic pregnancy and corpus luteum graviditatis are often seen
assessing the uterine cavity after spontaneous abortion since it ipsilateral, with their characteristic low RI in pulsed Doppler.
will detect retained products of conception. Retained products Biometric and morphological characteristics of gestational
of conception after abortion may cause bleeding or endometritis. sac and embryonic echo including the yolk sac can be used as
The diagnosis of missed abortion is determined by the predictive factors of abnormal early pregnancy. Decreased
ultrasound identification of an embryo/fetus without heart values of gestational sac diameter and/or its irregular shape
activity. It is relatively easy to make this diagnosis by means of can announce an upcoming incident and are used as markers
transvaginal color Doppler ultrasound. The main parameter is for chromosomopathies. When GS growth-rate does not increase

Donald School Journal of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology, October-December 2011;5(4):356-384 381
Ulrich Honemeyer et al

at least by 0.7 mm per day, an early embryo failure should be Without much doubt there will be further technical improvement
considered. of ultrasonographic tools allowing us new and deeper insights
The yolk sac is the first recognizable structure inside the into in vivo conditions of the beginnings of human life.
gestational sac in early pregnancy. Primarily, the presence of
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