STRUCTURAL THEORY

LECTURE NOTES
CHAPTER 1
B. Live Loads
Live loads, L, are a result of the occupancy of a
structure. In other words, it varies with how the
LOADS building is to be used. For example, a storage
room is much more likely to see larger loads than
A. Dead Loads
Dead load as consisting "... of the weight of all is a residential bedroom. Bleachers at a stadium
materials of construction incorporated into the are likely to see larger loads than what is seen on
building...” This is generally considered to mean a pitched building roof.
that anything that is a fixed part of the structure is
a dead load. To be considered dead load, an The specified live loads are generally expressed
item must be physically attached to the either as uniformly distributed area loads or as
structure. "point loads" applied over small areas.

Items that can be considered to be dead load The uniformly distributed loads are applied to
include construction materials that make up the portions of the structure that is likely to see a fairly
building (beams, columns, floor systems, ceiling uniform distribution of items over large areas
systems, wall systems, doors, windows, floor (areas the size of a single room or larger). They
coverings, wall coverings, cabinets, and the like) are indefinite and are designed to encompass all
and permanently attached equipment such as probable occupancy loading scenarios.
heating and ventilating systems, electrical trays,
piping, etc. Certain occupancies, such as office space, have
the potential for a larger concentrated load (such
Typical Unit Area Dead Load Calculations as a large copy machine) being located in a
space. This space may also be designed for
Computing the unit dead load for a region of uniformly distributed loads, but it is not probable
surface area generally starts by identifying the that both the full uniformly distributed load and
region of a roof plan, floor plan, or elevation the large concentrated load will occupy the
where the unit load is needed then looking at a space at the same time. Consequently the space
typical section of that area to see how it is must be designed to accommodate, separately,
constructed. Once the components of the the uniformly distributed load and the point load,
system have been identified, a weight is with the point load being moved around the
computed for each item. space so as to cause maximum effect on the
supporting elements.
A Floor System Example
Uniformly Distributed and Concentrated Loads
Given the floor section shown in Figure, determine The figure below illustrates distribution of a 2,000 lb
the unit dead load for the region that has this concentrated load on an area 2'-6" square. Note
construction. The floor system is in an office that the location of this concentrated load moves
building that is likely to see reconfiguration of depending on what you are trying to accomplish.
interior partitions over the course of its life. The concentrated loads may be distributed over
Determine the weights of the various a small area.
components:

 Carpet & Pad: 3 psf

 Concrete on Deck: 35 psf.
 Steel Joists: The tributary width of the joists
is 5' 10", so the weight per floor area equals

For example, consider a floor joist that has a

constant tributary width of 4 ft in an area that has
office occupancy. The uniform distributed live
load and the concentrated load from the Table
50 psf and 2000 lbs, respectively.

16 lb/ft / 5.8333 ft = 2.74 psf

 Lightweight Suspended Ceiling: 1.8 psf.
Total = 3+35+2.74+1.8 = 42.54 psf
The figure illustrates the live load cases that would
be considered for the joist. C. Wind Load

Zone 1 = 250 kph

Zone 2 = 200 kph
Zone 3 = 150 kph
*as of NSCP 2010

Wind Pressure Formula V in kph

P = 0.0000473V2

Duchemien Formula
2𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑃𝑛 =
1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

 Wind pressure coefficients for winward

and leeward are also considered in
designing a truss.

Example

Determine the loadings of the truss shown

DL + LL = 1.18 KPa
Wind speed (V)= 250 kph
Note that the concentrated load is used twice. It
Indicate the loadings for deadload and liveload
is placed at mid-span so as to create the And for wind load using both duchemien and
maximum moment in the joist. It is then placed coefficients.
near one support so as to create maximum shear
in the joist.

The joist would be designed for the envelopes of

all the moments and shears generated by these
three load cases added to the dead load case.

Basic Example

Determine the loading diagrams for beams B-1,

G-1, B-2, and G-2 for the building whose partial
floor plan Is shown. The loading for each bay is
Assignment no. 1
indicated.
Important Tables (please have a copy always)

 Minimum DEAD LOAD

 Minimum LIVE LOAD
 Coefficient for roofs and walls
Source: NSCP 2010

Submission date: November 13, 2018 on or before

12 Noon at CET Office.
Chapter 2
B. Tributary Loadings
When flat surfaces such as walls, floors or roofs are
supported by a structural frame, it is necessary to
Analysis of Statically determine how the load on these surfaces is
transmitted to the various structural elements used
Determinate members for their support.

One way system

IDEALIZED STRUCTURE
A slab or deck that is supported such that it
A. Idealized structure
delivers its load to the supporting members by
one way action is often referred to as a one-way
Actual Structure Idealized Structure
slab.

As general rule, if the span ratio L2/L1 ≥ 2, (where

L2 longer side, L1 shorter side), the slab will
behave as a one way slab.

Two-Way System
If the support ratio is L2/L1 < 2, the load is assumed
to be delivered to the supporting beams and
girders in two directions. When this is the case the
slab is referred to as a two-way slab.
Roof and Wall System Load
(See Table of Coefficients for roofs and Walls)

Example Problem
WIND SPEED 250.00 kph
PURLIN SPACING 1.00 m
SPAN OF TRUSS 12.00 m
HEIGHT OF TRUSS 2.00 m
BAY SPACING 6.00 m
SLOPE OF THE ROOF 0.33
THETA 18.43
LOADINGS (Includes the deadload, liveload, and
windload)
A. DEAD LOAD
S/W OF SHEETING 60.00 Pa
S/W OF PURLIN 71.80 Pa
SAGRODS/BRACINGS 47.86 Pa
Assume Truss Weight 1,459.27 N/m PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
B. LIVE LOAD “The total displacement or internal loadings
(stress) at a point in a structure subjected to
ROOF LIVE LOAD 1,000.00 Pa
several external loadings can be determined by
C. WINDLOAD adding together the displacement or internal
P OF WINDLOAD 2.96 Kpa loadings (stress) caused by each of the external
PN OF WINDLOAD 1.70 Kpa loads acting separately.”
CALCULATE and Draw the POINT DEAD LOAD, LIVE
LOAD, and WINDLOAD

C. Support Connections
Structural members are joined together in various
ways depending on the intent of the designer.
The three types of joints most often specified are
pin connection, roller support, and fixed joint.

Supports for Coplanar Structure

Two requirements must be imposed for the

principle of superposition to apply :
1. The material must behave in a linear-
elastic manner, so that Hooke’s law is
valid, and therefore the load will be
proportional to displacement.
σ = P/A
δ = PL/AE
2. The geometry of the structure must not
undergo significant change when the
loads are applied, i.e., small displacement
theory applies. Large displacements will
significantly change and orientation of the
loads. An example would be a
cantilevered thin rod subjected to a force
at its end.
EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM APPLICATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM
It may be recalled from statics that a structure or 1. Determine the reactions on the beam
one of its members is in equilibrium when it shown. Assume A is a pin and the support
maintains a balance of force and a moment. at B is a roller.

Fx = 0 Fy=0 Fz = 0

Mx =0 My =0 Mz = 0

DETERMINACY AND STABILITY

Determinacy
𝑟 = 3𝑛, 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑟 > 𝑛, 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
Where 2. The compound beam is fixed at A.
n = the total parts of structure members. Determine the reactions at A, B, and C.
r = the total number of unknown reactive Assume that the connection at B is a pin
force and moment components and C is a roller.

Example

Classify each of the beams shown as statically

determinate or statically indeterminate. If
statically indeterminate, report the number of
degrees o indeterminacy. The beams are
subjected to external loadings that are assumed
to be known and can act anywhere on the 3. The side of the building is subjected to a
beams. wind loading that creates a uniform
normal pressure of 15 KPa on the winward
side and a suction pressure of 5 KPa on the
leeward side. Determine the horizontal
and vertical components of reaction at
the pin connections A, B, and C of the
supporting gable arch.

Stability
𝑟 < 3𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑟 ≥ 3𝑛, 𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑟
𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑚

Example 4. Determine the tension in the cable and

Classify each of the structures in figure as stable or the horizontal and vertical reactions at C.
unstable
 Chapter 3
5. Determine the reactions on the beam

Analysis of Statically
Determinate Trusses
A truss is a structure composed of slender
members joined together at their end points. The
members commonly used in construction consist
of wooden struts, ,metal bars, angles, channels.

Common Types of Trusses

6. Determine the reactions on the beam
A. Roof Truss
a. Scissors
b. Howe
c. Pratt
d. Fan
e. Fink
f. Warren
g. Sawtooth
h. Bowstring
i. Three hinged arch
B. Bridge truss
a. Pratt
7. Determine the reactions at the supports A b. Howe
and B of the compound beam. There is a c. Warren
pin at C. d. Parker
e. Baltimore
f. K-truss

Assumption for Design

1. The members are joined together by
smooth pins
2. All loadings are applied at the joints

Classification of Coplanar Forces

a. Simple Truss
The simplest framework that is rigid and stable is a
8. Determine the horizontal and vertical triangle. A simple truss is constructed by starting
components of the reaction at the support with basic triangular element and connecting two
A and B. members to form an additional element.
b. Compound Truss
A compound truss is formed by connecting two or
more simple trusses together.
c. Complex Truss
A complex truss is one that cannot be classified as
being either simple or compound.

Determinacy
𝑏 + 𝑟 = 2 𝑗 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑏+>= 2 𝑗 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
Where b = number of bars of the truss
r = total number of external support
reactions
j = number of joints
The degree of determinacy is specified the
difference in the numbers (b+r)-2j.
Stability
𝑏 + 𝑟 < 2 𝑗 𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
 𝑏 + 𝑟 ≥ 2 𝑗 𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑖𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙
𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑚

Examples
Classify each of the truss as stable, unstable ,
statically determinate or statically indeterminate.

Example 2
Determine the force members IH, AH, and BC
of the truss shown. State whether the members
are in tension or compression.

The Method of Joints

It consists of satisfying the equilibrium conditions
for the forces exerted on the pin at each joint of
the truss.
Compound trusses
Pushing on the pin - compression
Type 1. The trusses may be connected by a
Pulling on the pin - tension
common joint and bar. An example is given figure
where the shaded truss ABC is connected to the
Simple Trusses
shaded truss CDE in this manner.
Examples
Type 2. The trusses may be joined by three bars, as
Determine the force on each member of the
in the case of the shaded truss ABC connected to
roof truss shown. State whether the members
the larger truss DEF.
are in tension or compression.
Type 3. The trusses may be joined where bars of a
large simple truss, called the main truss, have
been substituted by simple trusses, called
secondary trusses. An example is shown where
dashed members of the main truss ABCDE have
been replaced by the secondary shaded trusses.
If this truss carried roof loads, the use of the
secondary trusses might be more economical,
since the dashed members may be subjected to-
excessive bending, whereas the secondary trusses
can better transfer the load.

The Method of Sections

It consists of passing an imaginary section through
the truss thus cutting it into two parts.

Example 1
Determine the forces in members JI, JD, and
DE of the truss. State whether the members
are in tension or compression.
Procedure for Analysis Complex Trusses
Type 1. Determine the external reactions on the A more direct method for analyzing complex truss
truss, and then, using the method of sections, cut referred to us the method of substitute members.
the truss through the bar connecting the two Procedures for Analysis
simple trusses so that this bar force may be  Reduction to Stable Simple Truss.
obtained when one of the sectioned parts is Determine the reactions at the supports
isolated as a free body. Once this force is and begin by imagining how to analyze
obtained, proceed to analyze the simple trusses the truss by the method of joints, i.e.,
using the method of joints. progressing from joint to joint and solving
Type 2. Determine the external reactions on the for each member force. If a joint is
truss. Use the method of sections and cut each of reached, where there are three unknowns,
the three bars that connect the two simple trusses remove one of the members at the joint
together. From a free-body diagram of one of the and replace it by an imaginary member
sectioned parts, determine each of the three bar elsewhere in the truss. By doing this;
forces. Proceed to analyze each simple truss using reconstruct the truss to be a stable simple
the method of joints. truss.
Type 3. Although many of these types of trusses  External Loading on Simple Truss. Load the
can be analyzed using the method of sections simple truss with the actual loading P, then
combined with the method of joints, we will determine the force S in each member i.
instead use a more general method. Remove the In Fig. 3-32b, provided the reactions have
secondary trusses and replace them by dashed been determined, one could start at joint
members so as to construct the main truss. The A to determine the forces in AB and AF,
loads that the secondary trusses exert on the main then joint F to determine the forces in FE
truss are also placed on the main truss at the joints and FC, then joint D to determine the
where the secondary trusses are connected to forces in DE and DC (both of which are
the main truss. Determine the forces in the dashed zero), then joint E to determine EB and EC,
members of the main truss using the method of and finally joint B to determine the force in
joints or the method of sections. These forces are BC.
then applied to the joints of the secondary trusses  Remove External Loading from Simple
and then, using the method of joints, the bar Truss. Consider the simple truss without the
forces in the secondary trusses can be obtained. external load P. Place equal but opposite
collinear unit loads on the truss at the two
Examples joints from which the member was
removed. If these forces develop a force
s, in the ith truss member, then by
proportion an unknown force x in the
removed member would exert a force xs;
in the ith member.
 Superposition. If the effects of the above
two loadings are combined, the force in
the ith member of the truss will be
𝑆𝑖 = 𝑆𝑖′ + 𝑥𝑠𝑖

Example 1
Determine the force
in each member of
the complex truss
shown in figure.
Assume joints
B,F,and D, are on
the same horizontal
line. State whether
the member are in
tension or
compression.
Example 2 Procedure for Analysis
Determine the forces in all the Either the method of sections or the method of
members of the complex joints can be used to determine the forces
truss. State if the member are developed in the members of a space truss.
in tension or compression.
Method of Sections
If only a few member forces are to be
Space Truss determined, the method of sections may be used.
A space truss consists of When an imaginary section is passed through a
members joined together at truss and the truss is separated into two parts, the
their ends to form a stable force system acting on either one of the parts
three dimensional structure. must satisfy the six scalar equilibrium equations. By
proper choice of the section and axes for
Assumptions for Design summing forces and moments, many of the
The members of a space truss may be treated as unknown member forces in a space truss can be
axial-force members provided the external computed directly, using a single equilibrium
loading is applied at the joints and the joints equation. In this regard, recall that the moment of
consist of ball-and-socket connections. This a force about an axis is zero provided the force is
assumption is justified provided the joined parallel to the axis or its line of action passes
members at a connection intersect at a common through a point on the axis.
point and the weight of the members can be
neglected. In cases where the weight of a Method of Joints
member is to be included in the analysis. it is Generally, if the forces in all the members of the
generally satisfactory to apply it as a vertical truss must be determined, the method of joints is
force, half of its magnitude applied to each end most suitable for the analysis. When using the
of the member. method of joints, it is necessary to solve the three
scalar equilibrium equations I F, = 0, IF,. = 0, IF; = 0
For the force analysis the supports of a space truss at each joint. Since it is relatively easy to draw. the
are generally modeled as a short link, plane roller free-body diagrams and apply the equations of
joint, slotted roller joint, or a ball-and-socket joint. equilibrium, the method of joints is very consistent
Each of these supports and their reactive force in its application.
components are shown in Table.

Example 1
Determine the force in each member of the
space truss shown. The truss is supported by a ball
and socket joint at A, a slotted roller at joint B, and
a cable at C.
 Chapter 4
Example 2
Determine the force members AB, AD, and AC of
the space truss. Indicate the members are in
tension or compression
Internal Loadings Developed in
Structural Members
 Internal Loadings at a Specified Point
 Shear and Moment Functions
 Shear and Moment Diagrams for Beams
 Shear and Moment Diagrams for a Frames
 Moment Diagrams Constructed by the
Method of Superposition
 Deflected Shapes

INTERNAL LOADINGS AT A SPECIFIED POINT

 Sign Convention

PROJECT PROBLEM 1
The Pratt roof trusses are uniformly spaced every
15 ft. The deck, the roofing material, and the
purlins have an average weight of 5.6 lb/ft 2. The
building is located in New York where the
anticipated snow load is 20 lb/ft2 and the
anticipated ice load is 8 lb/ft2. These loadings
occur over the horizontal projected area of the
roof. Determine the force in each member due to
dead load, snow load and ice loads. Neglect the
weight of the truss members and assume A is SHEAR AND MOMENT FUNCTIONS
pinned and E is a roller.

SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR BEAMS

Format (Short Coupon Bond)

Romblon State University THEORY 1
College of Engineering & Technology 1st Semester
Department of Civil Engineering 2013-2014
Name: Year:
Date: Prof:
Title: ENGR. APRILLE ANN SIM
Analysis of Statically Determinate Truss
Problem: Figure:

Solution:
Figures/Free Body Diagram Detailed Solution
SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR FRAMES

MOMENT DIAGRAMS CONSTRUCTED BY THE

METHOD OF SUPERPOSITION

Most loading on beams in structural analysis will

be a combination of the loadings shown in the
figure below:
 Example 4-1
Determine the internal shear and moment acting
in the cantilever beam shown in the figure at
sections passing through points C and D.

Example 4-2
Determine the internal shear and moment acting
at a section passing through point C in the beam
shown in the figure.

Example 4-3
The 40 kN force in the figure is supported by the
floor panel DE, which in turn is simply supported at
its ends by floor beams. These beams transmit
their loads to the simply supported girder AB.
Determine the internal shear and moment acting
at point C in the girder.

DEFLECTED CURVE

Example 4-4
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the
compound beam shown in the figure. Assume the
supports at A and C are rollers and B and D are
pin connections.
Example 4-5 Chapter 5
Draw the shear
and moment
Cables and Arches
diagrams for the
frame shown. Cables are often used in engineering structures for
Assume A, C and D support and to transmit loads from one member
are pinned and B is to another. When used to support suspension
a fixed joint. roofs, bridges, and trolley wheels, cables form the
main load-carrying element in the structure. In the
force analysis of such systems, the weight of the
cable itself may be neglected; however, when
Example 4-6 cables are used as guys for radio antennas,
Draw the moment diagram for the frame shown. electrical transmission lines, and derricks, the
Assume A is pin, C is a roller, and B is a fixed joint. cable weight may become important and must
be included in the structural analysis. Two cases
will be considered in the sections that follow: a
cable subjected to concentrated loads and a
cable subjected to a distributed load. Provided
these loadings are coplanar with the cable, the
requirements for equilibrium are formulated in an
identical manner.

Cable Subjected to Concentrated Loads

Example 4-7
Draw the moment diagrams for the beam shown
at the top of the figure below using the method of
superposition. Consider the beam to be
cantilevered from the support at B.

PROJECT PROBLEM 2 Example 5-1

Draw the moment diagram for the gable frame Determine the tension in each segment of the
shown. Assume C is a hinge, and A and B are pin cable shown in the figure below.
supports. Also, what is the dimension h ?