Headphones are a pair of small loudspeakers, or less commonly a single speaker, with a way of holding

them close to a user's ears and a means of connecting them to a signal source such as an
audio amplifier, radio or CD player. They are also known as stereophones, headsets or,
colloquiallycans. The in-ear versions are known as earphones or earbuds. In the context
of telecommunication, the term headset is used to describe a combination of headphone
and microphone used for two-way communication, for example with a telephone.

History

Old telephone earpiece.

The telephone earpiece such as the one pictured at the right was common at the beginning of the 20th
century. Headphones originated from the earpiece. Sensitive headphones were the only way to listen to
audio signals before amplifiers were developed.[1]

Brandes radio headphones, circa 1920.

Very sensitive headphones such as those manufactured by Brandes around 1919 were commonly used
for early radio work. These early headphones used moving iron drivers, either single ended or balanced
armature. The requirement for high sensitivity meant no damping was used, thus the sound quality was
crude. They also had very poor comfort compared to modern types, usually having no padding and too
often having excessive clamping force to the head. Their impedance varied; headphones used in
telegraph and telephone work had an impedance of 75 ohms. Those used with early wireless radio had to
be more sensitive and were made with more turns of finer wire; impedance of 1,000 to 2,000 ohms was
common, which suited both crystal sets and triode receivers.
In early powered radios, the headphone was part of the vacuum tube's plate circuit and had
dangerous voltages on it. It was normally connected directly to the positive high voltage battery
terminal, and the other battery terminal was securely earthed. The use of bare electrical
connections meant that users could be shocked if they touched the bare headphone connections
while adjusting an uncomfortable headset.
Applications
Headphones can be used both with fixed equipment such as CD or DVD players, home theater, personal
computers and with portable devices (e.g. digital audio player/mp3 player, mobile phone,
etc.).Cordless headphones are not connected via a wire, receiving a radio or infrared signal encoded
using a radio or infrared transmission link, like FM, Bluetooth or Wi-Fi. These are actually made of
powered receiver systems of which the headphone is only a component, these types of cordless
headphones are being used more frequently with events such as a silent disco or Silent Gig.

In the professional audio sector headphones are used in live situations by disc jockeys with a DJ
mixer and sound engineers for monitoring signal sources. In radio studios, DJs use a pair of headphones
when talking to the microphone while the speakers are turned off, to eliminate acoustic feedback and
monitor their own voice. In studio recordings, musicians and singers use headphones to play along to a
backing track. In the military, audio signals of many varieties are monitored using headphones.

Wired headphones are attached to an audio source. The most common connection standards are
6.35mm (¼″) and 3.5mm TRS connectors and sockets. The larger 6.35mm connector tending to be found
on fixed location home or professional equipment. Sony introduced the smaller, and now widely used,
3.5mm "minijack" stereo connector in 1979, adapting the older monophonic 3.5mm connector for use with
its Walkman portable stereo tape player and the 3.5mm connector remains the common connector for
portable application today. Adapters are available for converting between 6.35mm and 3.5mm devices.

Types of headphones
The particular needs of the listener determine the choice of headphone. The need for portability indicates
smaller, lighter headphones but can mean a compromise in fidelity. Headphones used as part of a home
hi-fi do not have the same design constraints and can be larger and heavier. Generally, headphone form
factors can be divided into four separate categories: circumaural, supra-aural, earbud, and in-ear.
Circumaural

Circumaural headphones have large pads that surround the outer ear.
Circumaural headphones (sometimes called full size headphones) have circular or ellipsoid earpads
that encompass the ears. Because these headphones completely surround the ear, circumaural
headphones can be designed to fully seal against the head to attenuate any intrusive external noise.
Because of their size, circumaural headphones can be heavy and there are some sets which weigh over
500 grams (1 lb). Good headband and earpad design is required to reduce discomfort resulting from
weight.
Supra-aural

A pair of supra-aural headphones.

Supra-aural headphones have pads that sit on top of the ears, rather than around them. They were
commonly bundled with personal stereos during the 1980s. This type of headphone generally tends to be
smaller and more lightweight than circumaural headphones, resulting in less attenuation of outside noise.

In-ear headphones
Earbuds

Earbuds / earphones

Earbuds or earphones are headphones of a much smaller size that are placed directly outside of the ear
canal, but without fully enveloping it. They are generally inexpensive and are favored for their portability
and convenience. Due to their inability to provide any isolation they are often used at higher volumes in
order to drown out noise from the user's surroundings, which increases the risk of hearing-loss.[2] During
the 1990s and 2000s, earbuds became a common type bundled with personal music devices.
***In-ear Monitors***

In-ear monitors (IEMs) are devices used by musicians, sound engineers and audiophiles to listen to
music or to hear a custom crafted mix of vocals and stage instrumentation for live performance or studio
mixing. They are often custom fitted for an individual's ears and provide a high level of noise
reduction from ambient surroundings.

Monitoring system
A monitoring system is any system that provides a mix of audio sources to a performer on stage.
Traditionally, monitors were loudspeakers placed on stage directed toward the performer (often called
floor monitors or wedges). Depending on the sophistication of the audio system, there may be any
number of monitor speakers on the stage, and any number of different mixes sent to the different
monitors (for separate performers). While these monitors are still used today as the default in most
venues for artists without their own in-ear monitor system, there are disadvantages to this system. Loud
instruments, such as drums, require the floor monitors to be even louder than the other stage monitors to
be heard. These competing stage monitors can decrease the clarity of the audio and affect the
performer's hearing. A performer must also remain in front of their own monitor(s) in order to hear their
performance. If they move to the location typically occupied by other performers, they will be hearing that
person's mix, which may not be ideal. Moving away from monitors entirely leaves the performer
monitorless. Too few monitors or monitor channels may require performers to share and neither may
achieve an ideal mix.

A rack of in ear monitor transmitters

In-ear monitors are professional grade earphones which fit into the ear and are commonly optimized to
suit the needs of performers and serious audiophiles. For live performers, IEMs are connected to a
receiver which receives the monitor signal from a wireless transmitter that is typically hardwired to the
monitor mixer. These receivers are usually wireless via radio-frequency, but can also be wired for
stationary performers (such as a drummer or keyboardist). More recent models are designed to function
with popular digital players and computers for more casual use.
In-ear monitor mixes are usually mixed from one of two locations: the front of house mixer (FOH) or a
separate mixer just for in-ear monitors. In-ear monitors are typically only mixed from front of house when
the main sound system is small enough that the sound engineer can handle both the tasks of mixing the
in-ear monitors and the house sound (more on this process in the article live sound mixing). The
alternative is to mix the in-ear monitors through a separate mixer, which is usually set up in one of the
wings of the stage. Wherever the mix is done, the engineer manages a (typically) separate mix of the
performer's sound inputs to the in-ear monitors. This mix is customized to allow the performer to hear the
elements they require to perform best. For example, a performer's own instrument and vocals are usually
mixed at a high level; a lead singer might not have a high mix of a lead guitar or keyboard that might be
more distracting than helpful to their singing. Since performers wear an IEM in each ear, they can also
hear a stereo mix if a particular monitor system allows it. This can allow additional definition of the audio
by panning different elements to each ear. Recent advances in this technology also allows the user to
incorporate an ambient feature, allowing them to adjust the amount of ambient noise filtered by the IEM.

One additional consideration for mixing IEMs is that while getting rid of floor wedges can improve the
overall clarity of the mix for the performers and decrease the overall volume on-stage, one important
piece that is often lost is crowd noise. It is not uncommon for a microphone to be placed near each side of
the stage, facing out to the audience, to provide a way to get some of the crowd noise back into the
performers' IEM mixes. Larger live shows could have several microphones for this purpose spread across
the front of the stage, which could also be sent to a multi-track audio recorder, outside broadcast truck, or
other destinations.

Transmitter and receiver

A case of in ear monitor receivers

The most common professional stage in-ear monitor system employs the use of a wireless system to
send the mix to the IEMs. This system contains a transmitter and a receiver pack that is worn by the
performer. There is generally a transmitter for each monitor mix and there is always a receiver for each
IEM. The transmitters usually output either one stereo mix or two mono mixes. When the transmitters are
set up for two mono mixes, one transmitter can be used for two different mixes. Any number of receivers
can receive a single mix. The output from a receiver is generally too weak to power two monitors at the
same time.

The Transmitters and Receivers transfer audio wirelessly via a VHF or UHF radio frequency. Generally
speaking, UHF systems sound much better than VHF systems and are therefore more expensive to
purchase. UHF systems usually are less susceptible to frequency interference which adds to their level of
quality.

Earpieces
The in-ear monitors themselves are the last stage of the signal path in the system. The IEMs are often
custom molded by an audiologist and therefore are more comfortable to wear and allow the sound to be
sent directly into the user’s ear canal. They also provide a better seal, and thus a lower level of ambient
noise. Depending on the quality of the fit and length of the canal portion of the earpiece, a custom fit in-
ear monitor will generally provide somewhere between 25 and 34 Decibels of noise reduction. Custom in-
ear monitors come in a variety of colors but usually are clear or a color that closely matches the skin color
of the performer. Some manufacturers can also place custom artwork directly on to the custom in-ear
monitors. The IEM cable plugs into the receiver pack via a 3.5 mm stereo jack clipped onto the belt, guitar
strap, clothing of the performer, or placed in a pocket. Non-custom IEMs are also available and include a
variety of universal foam and silicone tips that will fit into most people's ears.

In-ear monitors extend into the ear canal, providing isolation from outside noise.

In-ear monitors (also known as IEMs or canalphones) are earphones that are inserted directly into the
ear canal. Canalphones offer portability similar to earbuds, and also act as earplugs to block out
environmental noise. There are two main types of IEMs: universal and custom. Universal canalphones
provide one or more stock sleeve size(s) to fit various ear canals, which are commonly made out
of silicone rubber, elastomer, or foam, for noise isolation. Custom canalphones are fitted to the ears of
each individual. Castings of the ear canals are made and the manufacturer uses the castings to create
custom-molded silicone rubber or elastomer plugs that provide added comfort and noise isolation.
Because of the individualized labor involved, custom IEMs are more expensive than universal IEMs and
resell value is very low as they are unlikely to fit other people.

Headset
Main article: Headset (telephone/computer)
A typical example of a headset used for voice chats.

A headset is a headphone combined with a microphone. Headsets provide the equivalent functionality of
a telephone handset with hands-free operation. The most common uses for headsets are in console or
PC gaming, Call centres and other telephone-intensive jobs and also for personal use at the computer to
facilitate comfortable simultaneous conversation and typing. Headsets are made with either a single-
earpiece (mono) or a double-earpiece (mono to both ears or stereo). The microphone arm of headsets is
either an external microphone type where the microphone is held in front of the user's mouth, or a
voicetube type where the microphone is housed in the earpiece and speech reaches it by means of a
hollow tube.

The headset was invented in 1910, by a Stanford University student named Nathaniel Baldwin. Baldwin
was not able to interest anyone in mass producing this communication tool. Not until during theWorld War
I did the US Army purchase 100 headsets for their pilots.[5] Hence the early usage and markets for
headsets were mainly for aviation purposes. In fact, Plantronics was started by two pilots,[6] and their main
goals were to develop headsets which are lightweight and comfortable for pilots and subsequently
general users.

Types of headset
Headsets can come in single-earpiece and double-earpiece designs. Single-earpiece headsets are
known as monaural headsets. However, double-earpiece headsets may be stereo type (two channels of
audio signal, one for each earpiece) or the same audio channel for both ear-pieces.

Professional users may choose to wear monaural headsets because they free up one ear, so they can be
more conscious of their work surroundings. Telephone headsets are monaural, even for double-earpiece
designs, because telephone offers only single-channel input and output.

For computer or other audio applications, where the sources offer two-channel output, stereo headsets
are the norm. Telephone headsets generally use 150-ohm loudspeakers with a narrower frequency
range.[2] Stereo computer headsets, on the other hand, use 32-ohm speakers with a broader frequency
range.

[edit]External microphone vs. microtube

The microphone arm of headsets may carry an external microphone or be of the voicetube type. External
microphone designs have the microphone housed in the front end of the microphone arm. Voicetube
designs are also called internal microphone design, and have the microphone housed near the ear-piece.
The sound travels through the tube to the microphone.

[edit]Noise-cancelling microphone vs. omni or directional microphone

Most external microphone designs are either omni-directional or noise-canceling type.

Noise-canceling microphone headsets use a bi-directional microphone as elements. A bi-directional

microphone's receptive field has two angles only. Its receptive field is limited to only the front and the
direct opposite back of the microphone. This create an "8" shape field, and this design is the best method
for picking up sound only from a close proximity of the user, while not picking up most surrounding
noises.

Bi-directional microphones work better than uni-directional microphones because uni-directional

microphones also pick up some of the sound 90 degrees to the desired angle.[citation needed] Omni-directional
microphones pick up the complete 360-degree field, which includes most of the surrounding noises. In
some instances, when a higher sensitivity is required for the microphone, or when the sound source is
further away from the microphone, an omni-direction microphone is the preferred choice.[citation needed] Almost
all voicetube designs use an omni-directional microphone

Different styles of headsets

Standard headsets with a headband worn over the head are known as over-the-head headsets. Headsets
with headband going over the back of the user's neck are known as backwear-headsets orbehind-the-
neck headsets. Headsets worn over the ear with a soft ear-hook are known as over-the-ear
headsets or earloop headsets. Convertible headsets are designed so that users can change the wearing
method by re-assembling various parts.

Telephone headsets

Telephone headsets connect to a fixed-line telephone system. A telephone headset functions by

replacing the handset of a telephone. All telephone headsets come in a standard 4P4C commonly called
an RJ-9 connector.

For older models of telephones, the headset microphone impedance is different from that of the
original handset, requiring a telephone amplifier for the telephone headset. A telephone
amplifier provides basic pin-alignment similar to a telephone headset adaptor, but it also
offers sound amplification for the microphone as well as the loudspeakers. Most models
of telephone amplifiers offer volume control for loudspeaker as well as microphone, mute
function and headset/handset switching. Telephone amplifiers are powered by batteries
or AC adaptors. Telephone headsets

Telephone headsets connect to a fixed-line telephone system. A telephone headset functions by

replacing the handset of a telephone. All telephone headsets come in a standard 4P4C commonly called
an RJ-9 connector.
Headset compatibility and pin alignment

Not all telephone headsets are compatible with all telephone models. Because headsets connect to the
telephone via the standard handset jack, the pin-alignment of the telephone handset may be different
from the default pin-alignment of the telephone headset. To ensure a headset can properly pair with a
telephone, telephone adaptors or pin-alignment adaptors are available in the market.[3]Some of these
adaptors also provide mute function and handset/headset switch.

Telephone amplifiers

For older models of telephones, the headset microphone impedance is different from that of the original
handset, requiring a telephone amplifier to pair with the telephone headset. A telephone amplifier
provides basic pin-alignment similar to a telephone headset adaptor, but it also offers
sound amplification for the microphone as well as the loudspeakers. Most models of telephone amplifiers
offer volume control for loudspeaker as well as microphone, mute function and headset/handset
switching. Telephone amplifiers are powered through batteries or AC adapters.

Quick disconnecting cable

Most telephone headsets have a Quick Disconnect (QD) cable, allowing for fast and easy disconnection
of the headset from the telephone. This allows the user to disconnect from the telephone, without having
to physically remove the headset.

Computer headset

Front view of Steel series Siberia Neckband gaming headset. The microphone is on the left earcup. With standard
3.5 mm TRS connectors

Computer headsets generally come in two connecting types, standard 3.5 mm & USB connection.
General 3.5 mm computer headset comes with two 3.5 mm connectors, one connecting to microphone
jack (line-in) and one connecting to speaker jack (line-out) of the computer. 3.5 mm Computer Headsets
connect to the computer via a soundcard - which converts the digital signal of the computer to analog
signal for the headset. USB computer headset connects to the computer via USB ports, and the audio
conversion occurs in the headset or in the control unit of the headset.

[edit]Mobile phone headsets

Mobile (Cellular) Phone Headsets are most often referred to as Mobile Handsfree. Most mobile phones
come with their own handsfree in the form of a single earphone with a microphone module connected in
the cable. For music-playing mobile phones, manufacturers will bundle stereo earphones with a
microphone. There are brands which offer mobile headset outside of the mobile phones developer. The
main reason for this is either for better sound quality or higher convenience in the form of wireless
solutions.

High quality mobile headsets come a range of wearing-styles, including behind-the-neck, over-the-head,
over-the-ear, and lightweight earbuds. Some aftermarket mobile headsets come in a standard 2.5 mm
plug, so users have to purchase an additional adaptor for their mobile phones; a USB headset for a
computer also cannot be directly plugged into a phone's or portable media player's micro-USB
slot. Smartphones often use a standard 3.5 mm jack, so users may be able to directly connect the
headset to it.

As for Wireless Mobile Headsets, many of them now use Bluetooth technology, as a growing number of
mobile phones come with a Bluetooth transceiver, and a Bluetooth transceiver may be plugged into a
computer's USB port. Bluetooth versions 1.1 and up (all non-deprecated versions) can transmit voice-
calls and many popular music and video formats, but audio will not be played in stereo unless the
cellphone or media device, and the headset, both have the A2DP profile.

[edit]Wireless headsets
Wireless headsets are quickly becoming a new trend for both business and consumer communications.
There are a number of solutions for wireless, and they usually differ according to application and power-
management.

[edit]DECT wireless headsets

A typical Wireless DECT headset by Accutone.

Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) is one the most common standards for cordless
telephones. It uses 1.88 to 1.90 GHz RF (European Version) or 1.92 to 1.93 GHz RF (US Version).
Different countries have regulations for the bandwidth used in DECT, but most have pre-set this band for
wireless audio transmission. The most common profile of DECT is Generic access profile (GAP), which is
used to ensure common communication between base station and its cordless handset. This common
platform allows communication between the two devices even if they are from different manufacturers.
For example, a Panasonic DECT base-station theoretically can connect to a Siemens DECT Handset.
Based on this profile, developers such as Plantronics, Jabra or Accutone have launched wireless
headsets which can directly pair with any GAP-enabled DECT telephones. So users with a DECT
Wireless Headset can pair it with their home DECT phones and enjoy wireless communication.

[edit]2.4 GHz wireless headsets

Because DECT specifications are different between countries, developers who use the same product
across different countries have launched wireless headsets which use 2.4GHz RF as opposed to the 1.89
or 1.9 GHz in DECT. Almost all countries in the world have the 2.4 GHz band open for wireless
communications, so headsets using this RF band is sellable in most markets. However, the 2.4 GHz
frequency is also the base frequency for many wireless data transmission, i.e. Wireless LAN, Wi-
Fi, Bluetooth..., the bandwidth may be quite crowded, so using this technology may be more prone to
interference.

Because 2.4 GHz Wireless Headsets cannot directly "talk" to any standard cordless telephones, an extra
base-unit is required for this product to function. Most 2.4 GHz Wireless Headsets come in two units, a
wireless headset and a wireless base-station, which connects to your original telephone unit via the
handset jack. The wireless headset communicates with the base-station via 2.4 GHz RF, and the voice
signals are sent or received via the base unit to the telephone unit. Some solutions will also offer an
automatic handset lifter, so the user can wirelessly lift the handset off the telephone by pressing the
button on the wireless headset.

[edit]Bluetooth wireless headsets

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A typical Bluetooth headset.

Most users have heard about Bluetooth, and although this technology was designed originally for a much
wider application, it has today become largely for voice transmission (a notable exception to this would be
the use of Bluetooth in wireless controllers of latest generation gaming consoles, like the Wiimote and
the DualShock 3). The reason for this general exclusivity is because of the power/range settings of
Bluetooth. Bluetooth uses 2.4 GHz RF, similar to WLAN or Wi-Fi; however, by default it is set for a very
close proximity usage for power consumption benefits. This deficiency for a longer-range coverage made
bluetooth technology un-desirable for data transmission. As nowadays more and more mobile phones
come equipped with bluetooth, this technology has become a common wireless profile for wireless mobile
phone headsets only.
A stereo Bluetooth headset.

When choosing a Bluetooth headset users should be aware that bluetooth headsets come in different
types as well. Standard bluetooth headset's using version 1.0 or 1.1 are often a single-side monaural
earpiece, which can only access the Headset/handsfree profile of Bluetooth. Depending on the phone's
operating system, this type of headset will either play music at a very low quality (because the phone is
converting it into a voice signal) or will be unable to play music at all (because the phone cannot perform
such a conversion). Users who need a stereo-music playing Bluetooth headset should look for a headset
with the A2DP profile.[4] Users should note that some A2DP-equipped headsets will automatically de-
activate the microphone function during music-listening, so if these headsets are paired to a computer via
bluetooth connection, the headset may either disable the stereo function or the microphone function.

[edit]Bluetooth wireless desktop solutions

Some developers have offered complete desktop solutions using Bluetooth technology. With a base-
station that connects via cables to the fixed-line telephone and also the computer via soundcard, users
with any bluetooth headset can pair their headset to the base-station, hence enabling them to use a
single headset for both fixed-line telephone and computer VoIP communication. This type of solution,
when used together with a multiple-point bluetooth headset enables user to use a single bluetooth
headset to communicate in Telephone/Computer/Mobile.

There are now Bluetooth office headsets that incorporate Class 1 Bluetooth into the base station so that
when using with a Class 1 Bluetooth headset, the user can get a greater distance from the phone or
computer; generally around 100 feet compared to the 33 feet of Class 2 Bluetooth, which is what most
Bluetooth headsets run on. The headsets that come with these base stations connect to cell phones via
Class 2 Bluetooth, so you still get the same 33 foot range from your cell phone.

Technology
A typical moving-coil headphone transducer

Headphone transducers employ one or more of several methods of sound reproduction.

Moving-coil
The moving coil driver, more commonly referred to as a "dynamic" driver is the most common type used
in headphones. The operating principle consists of a stationary magnetic element affixed to the frame of
the headphone which sets up a static magnetic field. The magnetic element in headphones is typically
composed of ferrite or neodymium. The diaphragm, typically fabricated from lightweight, high stiffness to
mass ratio cellulose, polymer, carbon material, or the like, is attached to a coil of wire (voice coil) which is
immersed in the static magnetic field of the stationary magnet. The diaphragm is actuated by the
attached voice coil, when an audio current is passed through the coil. The alternating magnetic field
produced by the current through the coil reacts against the static magnetic field in turn, causing the coil
and attached diaphragm to move the air, thus producing sound. Modern moving-coil headphone drivers
are derived from microphone capsule technology.

Electrostatic

Electrostatic loudspeaker diagram

Electrostatic drivers consist of a thin, electrically charged diaphragm, typically a coated PET
film membrane, suspended between two perforated metal plates (electrodes). The electrical sound signal
is applied to the electrodes creating an electrical field; depending on the polarity of this field, the
diaphragm is drawn towards one of the plates. Air is forced through the perforations; combined with a
continuously changing electrical signal driving the membrane, a sound wave is generated. Electrostatic
headphones are usually more expensive than moving-coil ones, and are comparatively uncommon. In
addition, a special amplifier is required to amplify the signal to deflect the membrane, which often requires
electrical potentials in the range of 100 to 1000 volts.

Due to the extremely thin and light diaphragm membrane, often only a few micrometers thick, and the
complete absence of moving metalwork, the frequency response of electrostatic headphones usually
extends well above the audible limit of approximately 20 kHz. The high frequency response means that
the low midband distortion level is maintained to the top of the audible frequency band, which is generally
not the case with moving coil drivers. Also, the frequency response peakiness regularly seen in the high
frequency region with moving coil drivers is absent. The result is significantly better sound quality, if
designed properly.

Electrostatic headphones are powered by anything from 100v to over 1kV, and are in proximity to a user's
head. The usual method of making this safe is to limit the possible fault current to a low and safe value
with resistors.

Electret
An electret driver functions along the same electromechanical means as an electrostatic driver. However
the electret driver has a permanent charge built into it, whereas electrostatics have the charge applied to
the driver by an external generator. Electret headphones, like electrostatics are relatively uncommon.
They are also typically cheaper and lower in technical capability and fidelity than electrostatics.

Balanced armature

Balanced armature transducer with armature balanced and exerting no force on diaphragm

Balanced armature transducer with armature torqued and exerting a force on diaphragm

A balanced armature is a sound transducer design primarily intended to increase the electrical efficiency
of the element by eliminating the stress on the diaphragm characteristic of many other magnetic
transducer systems. As shown schematically in the first diagram, it consists of a moving magnetic
armature that is pivoted so it can move in the field of the permanent magnet. When precisely centered in
the magnetic field there is no net force on the armature, hence the term 'balanced.' As illustrated in the
second diagram, when there is electric current through the coil, it magnetizes the armature one way or
the other, causing it to rotate slightly one way or the other about the pivot thus moving the diaphragm to
make sound.

The design is not mechanically stable; a slight imbalance makes the armature stick to one pole of the
magnet. A fairly stiff restoring force is required to hold the armature in the 'balance' position. Although this
reduces its efficiency, this design can still produce more sound from less power than any other.
Popularized in the 1920s as Baldwin Mica Diaphragm radio headphones, balanced armature transducers
were refined during World War II for use in military'sound-powered' telephones. Some of these achieved
astonishing electro-acoustic conversion efficiencies in the range 20% to 40% for narrow bandwidth voice
signals.

Today they are typically used only in canalphones and hearing aids due to their diminutive size and low
impedance. They generally are limited at the extremes of the hearing spectrum (e.g. below 20Hz and
above 16kHz) and require a seal more than other types of drivers to deliver their full potential. Higher end
models may employ multiple armature drivers, dividing the frequency ranges between them using a
passive crossover network. A few combine an armature driver with a small moving-coil driver for
increased bass output.

Other Transducer Technologies

Transducer technologies employed much less commonly for headphones include the Heil Air Motion
Transformer (AMT); Piezoelectric film; Ribbon planar magnetic; Magnetostriction and Plasma-ionisation.
The first Heil AMT headphone was marketed by ESS Laboratories and was essentially an ESS AMT
tweeter from one of the company's speakers being driven at full range. Since the turn of the century,
only Precide of Switzerland have manufactured an AMT headphone. Piezoelectric film headphones were
first developed by Pioneer, their two models both used a flat sheet of film which limited the maximum
volume of air that could be moved. Currently TakeT produce a piezoelectric film headphone which is
shaped not unlike an AMT transducer but which like the driver Precide uses for their headphones, has a
variation in the size of transducer folds over the diaphragm. It additionally incorporates a two way design
by its inclusion of a dedicated tweeter/supertweeter panel. The folded shape of a diaphragm allows a
transducer with a larger surface area to fit within smaller space constraints. This increases the total
volume of air that can be moved on each excursion of the transducer given that radiating area.

Magnetostriction headphones, sometimes sold under the label of "Bonephones" are headphones that
work via the transmission of vibrations against the side of head, transmitting the sound via bone
conduction. This is particularly helpful in situations where the ears must be left unobstructed or when
used by those who are deaf for reasons which do not affect the nervous apparatus of hearing.
Magnetostriction headphones though, have greater limitations to their fidelity than conventional
headphones which work via the normal workings of the ear. Additionally, there was also one attempt to
market a plasma-ionisation headphone in the early 1990s by a French company called Plasmasonics. It is
believed that there are no functioning examples left.

Benefits and limitations

Two Sony MDR-series headphones; one folded for travel

Headphones may be used to prevent other people from hearing the sound either for privacy or to prevent
disturbance, as in listening in a public library. They can also provide a level of sound fidelity greater than
loudspeakers of similar cost. Part of their ability to do so comes from the lack of any need to perform
room correction treatments with headphones. High quality headphones can have an extremely flat low-
frequency response down to 20 Hz within 3dB. However, rated frequency response distortion figures do
not provide information on what character the sound reproduced at that frequency will be. Marketed
claims such as 'frequency response 4 Hz to 20 kHz' are usually overstatements; the product's response
at frequencies lower than 20 Hz is typically very small. [3]

Headphones are also useful for video games that use 3D positional audio processing algorithms, as they
allow players to better judge the position of an off-screen sound source (such as the footsteps of an
opponent).

Although modern headphones have been particularly widely sold and used for listening to stereo
recordings since the release of the Walkman, there is subjective debate regarding the nature of their
reproduction of stereo sound. Stereo recordings represent the position of horizontal depth cues (stereo
separation) via volume differences of the sound in question between the two channels. When the sounds
from two speakers mix, they create the phasedifference the brain uses to locate direction. Through most
headphones, because the right and left channels do not combine in this manner, the illusion of the
phantom center can be perceived as lost. Hard panned sounds will also only be heard only in one ear
rather than from one side. This latter point is of particular importance for earlier stereo recordings which
were less sophisticated, sometimes playing vocals through one channel and music through the other.

Binaural recordings use a different microphone technique to encode direction directly as phase, with very
little amplitude difference (except above 2 kHz) often using a dummy head, and can produce a
surprisingly life-like spatial impression through headphones. Commercial recordings almost always use
stereo recording, because historically loudspeaker listening has been more popular than headphone
listening. It is possible to change the spatial effects of stereo sound on headphones to better approximate
the presentation of speaker reproduction by using frequency-dependent cross-feed between the
channels, or—better still—a Blumlein shuffler (a custom EQ employed to augment the low-frequency
content of the difference information in a stereo signal). While cross-feed can reduce the unpleasantness
that some listeners find with hard panned stereo in headphones, the use of a dummy head during
recording, with artificialpinnae, can allow on playback through headphones, the experience of hearing the
performance as though situated in the position of the dummy head. Optimal sound is achieved when the
dummy head matches the listener's head, since pinnae vary greatly in size and shape.

Headsets can have ergonomic benefits over traditional telephone handsets. They allow call center agents
to maintain better posture instead of tilting their head sideways to cradle a handset.[4]

Over time, headphone cables fail. The common scenario in which a replacement might need to be
purchased is the physical breakdown of copper wiring at junction points on the cord (at the TRS jack, or
at the point of connection to the headphone). These are the sites of greatest and most stressful motion on
a cord and so they are typically fitted with some kind of strain relief.

Dangers and volume solutions

See also: Automatic Volume Limiter

Using headphones at a sufficiently high volume level may cause temporary or permanent hearing
impairment or deafness due to an effect called "masking." The headphone volume has to compete with
the background noise, especially in excessively loud places such as subway stations, aircraft, and large
crowds. This leads to the disappearance of the normal pain[citation needed] associated with higher levels of
volumes. Extended periods of the excessively loud volume may be damaging;[5][6] however, one hearing
expert found that "fewer than 5% of users select volume levels and listen frequently enough to risk
hearing loss."[7] Some manufacturers of portable music devices have attempted to introduce safety
circuitry that limited output volume or warned the user when dangerous volume was being used, but the
concept has been rejected by most of the buying public, which favors the personal choice of high
volume. Koss introduced the "Safelite" line of cassette players in 1983 with such a warning light. The line
was discontinued two years later for lack of interest.

The government of France has imposed[8] a limit on all music players sold in the country:[8] they must not
be capable of producing more than 100dBA (the threshold of hearing damage during extended listening is
80dB, and the threshold of pain, or theoretically of immediate hearing loss, is 130dB). Many
users[who?] decry this as an infringement on personal choice, and use third-party options to reverse the
volume limits placed on such devices. Still, other users welcome the government's pro-health stance.

Canalphones and in-ear monitors have been described as being less likely to cause hearing impairment
in noisy environments because much of the external noise is physically blocked out due to the noise
isolation properties of the in-ear seal. This allows the user to listen at lower volume levels.[citation
needed]
However, the user can still choose to listen at dangerously high levels.
Other risks arise from the reduced awareness of external sounds—some jurisdictions regulate the use of
headphones while driving vehicles, usually limiting the use of earphones to a single ear. The complete
isolation from outside noise can be a hazard in itself, as a user could miss the sound of a car horn and
walk into traffic with fatal consequences. Losing situational awareness can also lead to theft, particularly
in busy environments where bumping into another person would be ignored, e.g., subway stations.

Motorcycle and other power-sport riders benefit by wearing foam earplugs when legal to do so to avoid
excessive road, engine and wind noise, but their ability to hear music and intercom speech is actually
enhanced when doing so. The ear can normally detect 1-billionth of an atmosphere of sound pressure
level,[9] hence it is incredibly sensitive. At very high sound pressure levels, muscles in the ear tighten the
tympanic membrane and this leads to a small change in the geometry of the ossicles and stirrup that
results in lower transfer of force to the oval window of the inner ear.[10] Since earplugs reduce the noise in
the auditory canal, this protective mechanism is less likely to trigger, and full sensitivity of the ear is
maintained. With normal sensitivity, a listener has excellent hearing while listening to helmet speakers
through the earplugs.[citation needed] This technique allows excellent hearing of speech, music and most
external sounds at sustainable levels without hearing damage.

Listening to music through headphones while exercising can be dangerous. Blood may be diverted from
the ears to the limbs leaving the inner ear more vulnerable to damage from loud sound.[11] A Finnish
study[12] recommended that exercisers should set their headphone volumes to half of their normal
loudness and only use them for a half hour.

Automatic Volume Limiter (AVL), or sometimes Automatic Volume Limiter System (AVLS) is an
option, enabled through software or hardware, in music players such as, Cassette players, MP3players
and CD players, or other devices used with headphones such as the Sony PSP that limits the maximum
volume level. The aim of this is to stop the headphones drowning out all other noise, and to limit the noise
from the headphones being heard by other people. [1] It can also prevent listeners from damaging their
hearing. In some cases the volume limit is fixed by the player itself. In other cases the user can select
what level to limit the volume at.

Hooked on headphones? personal listening devices can harm hearing

August 31, 2010 By Carl Sherman
Personal listening devices like iPods have become increasingly popular among young — and not-
so-young — people in recent years. But music played through headphones too loud or too long
might pose a significant risk to hearing, according to a 24-year study of adolescent girls.
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The study, which appears online in the Journal of Adolescent Health, involved 8,710 girls of
lower socioeconomic status, whose average age was about 16. They underwent hearing tests when they
entered a residential facility in the U.S Northeast.
“I had the rare opportunity, as an audiologist, to see how this population changed over the years,” said
Abbey Berg, Ph.D., lead study author and a professor in the Department of Biology & Health Sciences at
Pace University in New York.
In this period, high-frequency hearing loss — a common casualty of excessive noise exposure — nearly
doubled, from 10.1 percent in 1985 to 19.2 percent in 2008, she found.
Between 2001 — when testers first asked about it, and 2008 — personal music player use rose fourfold,
from 18.3 percent to 76.4 percent. High-frequency hearing loss increased from 12.4 percent to 19.2
percent during these years, while the proportion of girls reporting tinnitus — ringing, buzzing or hissing in
the ears — nearly tripled, from 4.6 percent to 12.5 percent.
Overall, girls using the devices were 80 percent more likely to have impaired hearing than those who did
not; of the teens reporting tinnitus, all but one (99.7 percent) were users.
However, “just because there’s an association, it doesn’t mean cause and effect,” Berg said. For the girls
who took part in the study, other aspects of their lives — poverty, poor air quality, substance abuse, risk-
taking behavior — might add to the effects of noise exposure.
“This paper offers compelling evidence that the inappropriate use ofheadphones is indeed affecting some
people’s hearing, and the number of ‘some people’ is not small,” said Brian Fligor, director of diagnostic
audiology at Children’s Hospital Boston.
The level of impairment detected in this study might have been relatively subtle “but the point is that it is
completely avoidable,” said Fligor, who has no affiliation with the study.
“The ear is going to be damaged throughout your lifetime; what we’re seeing here resembles early onset
age-related hearing loss — you might think of it as prematurely aging the ear,” he said.
“I don’t demonize headphones,” said Fligor, who encourages moderation, not prohibition. At a reasonable
volume — conversational or slightly louder — there is little risk, he said: “It’s when you start overworking
the ear that you get problems.”
Berg said her findings suggest the need for more effective educational efforts to reduce unsafe listening
behavior, particularly among disadvantaged youth. “You have to target them at a much younger age,
when they are liable be more receptive,” she said.

More information: Berg AL, Serpanos YC. High frequency hearing sensitivity in adolescent females of
low socioeconomic status over a 24-year period (1985-2008). J Adol Health online, 2010.

Source: Health Behavior News Service