Research Methods

RESEARCH MODULE
1.2 OBJECTIVE 11
1.3 ABBREVIATED CURRICULUM 11
1.4 SPECIFIC OUTCOMES AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA 11
1.5 STUDENT'S SELF-ORIENTATION 11
1.6 THE STUDENT AND SUPERVISION 12
1.7 THE RESEARCHER 15
1.8 BASIC ORIENTATION 16
1.8.1 ONE FINAL INTRODUCTORY COMMENT 19
1.8.2 THE RESEARCH PROCESS IN A MULTI-DISCIPLINARY ENVIRONMENT 19
1.8.3 CONTRIBUTION TO THE “POOL OF KNOWLEDGE” 20
1.8.4 THE QUESTION MAY NOW BE ASKED: WHO IS CORRECT? 21
1.8.5 COMMENT 21
1.8.6 INTERACTION BETWEEN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, USER, RECIPIENT 22
1.8.7 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TECHNOLOGY, FUNCTION, USER AND RECIPIENT. 22
1.8.8 COMMENTS ON TECHNOLOGICAL RESEARCH 22
1.9 COMMENT 23
1.10 TECHNOLOGY AND THE TECHNOLOGIST 23

2 THE FOCUS OF TECHNOLOGICAL RESEARCH 24

2.1 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 24

2.1.1 SCIENCE MAKES A CONTRIBUTION TO TECHNOLOGY IN THE FOLLOWING MANNER: 25

3 THE IMPACT OF TIME AND ENVIRONMENTAL POWERBASES ON THE RESEARCH

PROCESS 27

3.1 HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE “RESEARCH”? 28

4 WHAT RESEARCH IS NOT? 28

4.1 WHAT IS SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH? 28

4.1.1 DEFINITION 28
4.1.1.1 Others… 28
4.1.1.2 Research in Business 29

5 MAIN RESEARCH TRADITIONS AND PARADIGMS 29

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5.1.1 THE POSITIVIST TRADITION AND QUANTITATIVE PARADIGM 29

5.1.2 THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL TRADITION AND QUALITATIVE PARADIGM 30
5.1.3 THE CRITICAL TRADITION AND PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH 30

6 MAIN RESEARCH GOALS 31

6.1.1 COMMENT 31
6.2 METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE 32
6.2.1 TENACITY: 32
6.2.2 INTUITION. 32
6.2.3 AUTHORITY. 32
6.2.4 RATIONALISM. 32
6.2.5 EMPIRICISM. 33
6.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS 34

7 THE RESEARCH PROCESS 34

7.1 THE CYCLIC NATURE OF RESEARCH 34

7.1.1.1 Comment 35
7.1.1.2 Comment 36
7.1.1.3 Comment 37

8 FORMAL AND INFORMAL RESEARCH 37

8.1 FORMAL RESEARCH ON THE OTHER HAND IMPLIES THE FOLLOWING: 37

8.1.1 COMMENT 38

9 THE RESEARCH PROCESS AND THE RESEARCHER 38

9.1 COMMENT 38
9.2 COMMENT 39
9.3 COMMENT 39
9.4 COMMENT 39
9.5 COMMENT 40

10 RESEARCH WITHIN THE COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY 40

10.1 FORMULATING AND CLARIFYING THE RESEARCH TOPIC 41

10.1.1 ATTRIBUTES OF A GOOD RESEARCH TOPIC 41

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10.2 GENERATING AND REFINING RESEARCH IDEAS 41

10.2.1 RATIONAL THINKING 41
10.2.2 CREATIVE THINKING 41
10.2.3 TURNING PROJECT IDEAS INTO RESEARCH PROJECTS 42
10.2.4 PROJECT IDEA: THE REDUCTION OF INTEREST RATES IN ZIMBABWE 42
10.2.4.1 Research question: 42

11 WRITING RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 42

12 COMPARISON BETWEEN REPORT OR DISSERTATION OR THESIS 43

12.1 COMMENT 44

13 THE TOOLS OF RESEARCH 44

13.1 COMMENT 45
13.2 INFORMATION AS A TOOL OF RESEARCH 45
13.2.1 COMMENT 45
13.3 SOURCES OF INFORMATION 46
13.4 SUBJECT LIBRARIES AND LIBRARY STAFF 46
13.4.1 BOOKS 46
13.4.2 JOURNALS AND TECHNICAL PERIODICALS 47

14 CONSULTATION 47

14.1 YOUR EMPLOYER 47

14.1.1 A WORD OF CAUTION 48
14.1.2 COMMENT 48
14.2 YOUR SUPERVISOR OR PROMOTER 48
14.3 OTHER LECTURERS AT THE UNIVERSITY OR COLLEGE 48
14.4 OTHER EXPERTS OUTSIDE THE UNIVERSITY OR COLLEGE 49
14.5 COMPUTERISED INFORMATION SERVICES 49
14.5.1 THE CSIR COMPUTER SERVICES 49
14.6 THE HUMAN SCIENCES RESEARCH COUNCIL (HSRC) INFORMATION SERVICE 49
14.7 SABINET AND OTHER INFORMATION SERVICES 50
14.8 ELECTRONIC MAIL (E-MAIL) 50
14.9 COMMENT 50

15 CRITICALLY REVIEWING THE LITERATURE 51

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15.1 THE PURPOSE OF THE CRITICAL REVIEW 51

15.2 THE CONTENT OF THE CRITICAL REVIEW 51
15.3 THE STRUCTURE OF THE CRITICAL REVIEW 52

16 EVALUATING YOUR LITERATURE REVIEW 52

17 LITERATURE SEARCH AND REVIEW 53

18 PLANNING THE LITERATURE SEARCH 53

18.1 CARRYING OUT THE LITERATURE SEARCH 54

19 OTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION 54

19.1 COMMENT 54

20 MEASUREMENT 55

20.1 DEFINITION OF MEASUREMENT 55

20.2 COMMENT 55
20.3 TYPES OF MEASUREMENT SCALES 56
20.3.1 WHAT IS MEASURED? 56
20.3.2 TYPES OF MEASUREMENT SCALES 56
20.3.3 NOMINAL SCALE 57
20.3.4 COMMENT 57
20.4 ORDINAL SCALES 58
20.5 COMMENT 58
20.6 INTERVAL SCALES 59
20.7 RATIO SCALE 60
20.8 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND MEASUREMENT 60

21 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY 60

21.1 VALIDITY 61
21.2 RELIABILITY 62
21.3 STABILITY 62
21.4 EQUIVALENCE 62
21.5 COMMENT 63
21.6 INTERNAL CONSISTENCY 63

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21.7 FACE VALIDITY 63

21.7.1 COMMENT 63
21.7.2 CRITERION VALIDITY 63
21.7.3 CONCURRENT VALIDITY 64
21.7.4 PREDICTIVE VALIDITY 64
21.7.5 COUNTER VALIDITY 64
21.7.6 CONSTRUCT VALIDITY 64
21.7.7 INTERNAL VALIDITY 65
21.7.8 HISTORY 65
21.7.9 MATURATION 66
21.7.10 TESTING 66
21.7.11 INSTRUMENTATION 66
21.7.12 SELECTION 66
21.7.13 STATISTICAL REGRESSION 66
21.7.13.1 Mortality 67
21.7.14 DIFFUSION OR IMITATION OF TREATMENT 67
21.7.15 COMPENSATORY EQUALISATION 67
21.7.16 COMPENSATORY RIVALRY 67
21.7.17 RESENTFUL DEMORALIZATION 67
21.7.18 LOCAL HISTORY 67
21.7.19 EXTERNAL VALIDITY 68
21.7.20 POPULATION VALIDITY 68

22 THREATS TO POPULATION VALIDITY 68

22.1 MISUSE OF CLINICAL SAMPLES 69

22.2 ANIMAL RESEARCH AND GENERALISATION ACROSS SPECIES 69
22.3 ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY 69
22.4 GENERALISATION ACROSS GEOGRAPHIC AREAS 70
22.5 TREATMENT BY SETTING INTERACTIONS 70
22.6 TEMPORAL VALIDITY 70
22.7 GENERALISING ACROSS TREATMENTS 70
22.8 GENERALISING FROM UNIQUE CONTEXTS 70
22.9 GENERALISATION ACROSS EXPERIMENTER 70
22.10 PRACTICALLY 71
22.11 ECONOMY 71
22.12 CONVENIENCE 71
22.13 INTERPRETABILITY 72

23 STATISTICS 73

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23.1 A WORD OF CAUTION. 74

23.2 LANGUAGE 74

24 COMPUTERS AND ITS SOFTWARE 76

24.1 COMMENT 77

25 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND DEVELOPMENT 78

25.1 COMMENT 78
25.2 COMMENT 80
25.3 COMMENT 80
25.4 WRITING THE PROBLEM STATEMENT (P+M→G) 80
25.4.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT CONTROL QUESTIONS 81
25.4.2 THE SUB PROBLEMS 82
25.4.2.1 Characteristics of sub problems 82
25.4.2.2 Comment 83
25.4.3 IDENTIFYING SUB PROBLEMS 83
25.4.4 PROBLEM STATEMENT 83
25.4.5 VARIABLE MIX 84
25.4.5.1 Sub problem one 84
25.4.5.2 Comment 84
25.4.6 WRITING THE SUB PROBLEMS 84

26 THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL 85

27 PILOT STUDY 87

28 SAMPLING 87

28.1 SAMPLING TERMINOLOGY 87

28.2 THE NEED FOR SAMPLING 88
28.3 DEFINING THE TARGET POPULATION 88
28.3.1 THE BAYESIAN APPROACH 89
28.3.2 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE ISSUES 89
28.3.2.1 Probability sampling 90
28.3.2.2 Systematic sampling 90
28.3.2.3 Stratified sampling 90
28.3.2.4 Cluster sampling 90

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28.3.2.5 Non – probability sampling 91

28.3.2.6 Convenience sampling 91
28.3.2.7 Judgemental (purposive) sampling 91
28.3.2.8 Quota sampling 91
28.3.2.9 Snowball sampling 91
28.3.2.10 Sample size 91
28.3.2.10.1 Degree of accuracy 92
28.3.2.10.2 Resources 92
28.3.2.10.3 Time 92
28.3.2.10.4 Population characteristics 92
28.3.2.10.5 Geographical breath of project 92
28.3.2.10.6 Need for statistical analysis 93
28.3.2.10.7 Issues to do with errors 93
28.3.2.10.8 Non-sampling errors 93
28.3.2.10.9 Response errors 93
28.3.2.10.9.1 Interviewer errors 93
28.3.2.10.9.2 Non-response errors 93
28.3.2.10.9.3 Processing errors 93
28.3.2.10.10 Sampling errors 93
28.3.2.10.10.1 Systematic error 94
28.3.2.10.10.2 Total survey error (TSE) 94
28.3.2.11 Exercise 94
28.3.2.11.1 Questions and statements 94
28.3.2.11.1.1 Open-ended and closed-ended questions 94
28.3.2.11.1.2 Closed-ended questions 95
28.3.2.11.1.3 Contingency questions 95

29 DATA COLLECTION METHODS 97

29.1 CHOOSING AN APPLICABLE METHOD 97

29.2 THE TIME DIMENSION 97
29.2.1 CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH 97
29.2.2 RESEARCH OVER TIME (LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH) 97

30 METHODS AVAILABLE 98

30.1 SURVEY 98
30.1.1 INTRODUCTION 98
30.1.2 QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION 99
30.1.2.1 General questionnaire format 99

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30.1.2.2 Formats for respondents 99

30.1.2.3 Ordering items in a questionnaire 99
30.1.2.4 Instructions 99
30.1.2.5 Pre-testing the questionnaire 99
30.1.2.6 Follow-up letters 99
30.1.2.6.1 Acceptable response rates 100
30.1.2.6.1.1 Interviewing 100
30.1.2.7 The role of the interviewer 100
30.1.2.8 General rules for face-to-face interviews 100
30.1.2.9 Telephone interviews 101
30.1.2.10 Experiments 101
30.1.2.10.1 Independent and dependent variables 101
30.1.2.11 Pre-testing and post-testing 102
30.1.2.12 Advantages and disadvantages of experiments 103
30.1.2.12.1 Advantages 103
30.1.2.12.2 Disadvantages 103
30.1.2.12.3 Selecting subjects 103
30.1.2.13 Representative members 103
30.1.2.14 Designation of subjects to experimental and control groups 103
30.1.2.14.1 Random selection 103
30.1.2.14.2 Matching 104
30.1.2.14.3 Frequency division control 104

31 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 104

31.1 NATURALISM 104

31.2 PROCESS 104
31.2.1 INSIDER PERSPECTIVE (TO SEE THROUGH THE EYES ...) 104
31.2.2 DESCRIPTION AND UNDERSTANDING 105
31.2.3 CONTEXTUAL INTEREST 105
31.2.4 IDIOGRAPHIC RESEARCH STRATEGY 105
31.2.5 INDUCTIVE APPROACH 105
31.2.6 INTER-SUBJECTIVITY 105
31.3 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS 105
31.3.1 ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDIES 105
31.3.2 CASE STUDIES 105
31.3.3 LIFE HISTORY STUDIES 106
31.3.4 SAMPLING IN THE QUALITATIVE APPROACH 106
31.3.5 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION 106
31.3.5.1 Basic individual interviewing 106

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31.3.5.2 Depth individual interviews 106

31.3.5.3 Focus group interviews 106
31.3.5.4 Observation and participant observation 106
31.4 PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH 108
31.4.1 THE ROLE OF THE RESEARCHER AS CHANGE AGENT 108
31.4.2 THE IDEA OF PARTICIPATION 108
31.4.3 DEMOCRATISING THE RESEARCH RELATIONSHIP 109
31.4.4 THE INCORPORATION OF LOCAL KNOWLEDGE 109
31.4.5 KNOWLEDGE IN ACTION 109
31.4.6 THE GOAL OF EMPOWERMENT 109
31.5 METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES IN PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH 110

32 DATA ANALYSIS IN RESEARCH 111

32.1 QUANTIFYING DATA 111

32.2 ELEMENTARY ANALYSIS 112
32.3 SUBGROUP COMPARISONS 114
32.4 BIVARIATE ANALYSIS 114
32.5 MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS 115

33 SOCIAL STATISTICS 116

33.1 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 116

33.2 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 116

34 REPORT, DISSERTATION AND ARTICLE WRITING 117

34.1 RESEARCH REPORT AND DISSERTATION 117

35 PUBLISHING OF AN ARTICLE 120

36 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 120

36.1 ETHICAL REVIEW OF PROPOSALS 120

36.2 ETHICAL ISSUES IN SOCIAL RESEARCH 121
36.2.1 VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION/INFORMED CONSENT 121
36.2.2 NO HARM TO THE PARTICIPANTS 122
36.3 PRIVACY, ANONYMITY AND CONFIDENTIALITY 122
36.4 DECEIVING SUBJECTS 122

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36.5 GENDER AND CULTURAL BIAS AND INSENSITIVITY 123

36.6 ANALYSIS AND REPORTING 123

37 THE POLITICS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH 123

37.1 A TYPOLOGY OF INTELLECTUAL POSITIONS (BABBIE AND MOUTON, 2001, 536-543) 123
37.2 SCIENCE AS SOCIAL PRACTICE AND THE SPECTRE OF IDEOLOGY (BABBIE AND MOUTON, 2001, 543-546) 124

38 REFERENCES 125

Table 1 Specific Outcomes 11

Table 2 Supervisor Criterion 14
Table 3 Traditions and paradigms 29
Table 4 Research Distinction 31
Table 5 Research Goals 31
Table 6 Research Questions and Objectives 43
Table 7 Education Levels 44
Table 8 Guidelines for Sampling 92
Table 9 Research Design and Data Collection Methods 98
Table 10 Newspaper policies regarding dagga and the size of communities 115
Table 1110 Gender, origin and monthly income 115
Table 12.Difference between reports (Mouton, 2002, 173) 120

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1.1 Objective
The objective of this research module is to equip diploma, degree and post-graduate
students with the necessary knowledge to assess, understand and apply research
procedures and results.

1.2 Abbreviated curriculum

 Formulating research problems
 Research design
 Research methods and Sampling procedures
 Data analyses
 Ethical matters

1.3 Specific outcomes and assessment criteria

Specific outcomes Assessment criteria

1. The learner can develop a < construct a research proposal for a stated
research proposal research problem
2. The learner can use < demonstrate a critical understanding of
appropriate research the scientific approach in social research
methodologies < demonstrate the concept of research in
specialisation field
< reflect on ethical issues and professional
values in research
3. The learner can understand < apply the research process to a
and analyse the research specialisation field
process < compile a research report
Table 1 Specific Outcomes

1.4 Student's self-orientation

Research makes heavy demands on a diploma and postgraduate student's abilities. Phillips
and Pugh (2000, 5) view is very applicable for diploma and postgraduate students: "Be
aware that, you are under your own management and have the responsibility for determining
what is required as well as for carrying it out. You will experience periods of self-doubt which
you must come through with the clear aim of becoming a competent professional
researcher."

Students carrying out research need discipline, independent initiative, creative thinking, and
skills to work with others and must surmount self-doubt. On this level of study expectations
are vague, norms unclear and social networks incomplete. Pitfalls are many: overestimating
what is required; underestimating what is required, losing contact with your supervisor and
taking a new job before completing (Phillips and Pugh, 2000, 38-44).
A diploma or postgraduate student goes through different phases during her/his study:
Enthusiasm, isolation (the pleasures of isolation wearing rather thin during study), increasing

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interest in work, at work, boredom (fed up, confused, stuck), frustration with the temptation of
all the avenues you would like to pursue, just want to get it finished (must finish) and
euphoria after submission (Phillips and Pugh, 2000, 75-83).

Important for a student is (Rudestam and Newton, 1992, 136):

 to give herself/himself privacy and quiet
 divide the dissertation in manageable slices
 get your thoughts on paper
 write frequently and regularly
 talk your ideas over with others
 establish a regular weekly schedule that allows for several hours of concentrated
dissertation time (manage time wisely) and
 Recognize that even the most productive work horse needs a break now and then.

1.5 The student and supervision

The relationship between the student and her/his supervisor is very important for the
successful completion of the diploma or postgraduate study. It is therefore of prime
importance that the student will discuss her/his expectations and hopes for the working
relationship with the supervisor. Deadlines must be set up. The student must help her/his
supervisor to make the most of the feedback time available by asking the right questions for
eliciting the information you need.

Phillips and Pugh (2000, 162-171) list the following expectations that students have or their
supervisors:
 Students expect to be supervised
 Students expect supervisors to read their work well in advance
 Students expect their supervisors to be available when needed
 Students expect their supervisors to be friendly, open and supportive
 Students expect their supervisors to be constructively critical
 Students expect their supervisors to have a good knowledge of the research area
 Students expect their supervisors to structure the tutorial so that it is relatively easy to
exchange ideas
 Students expect their supervisors to have sufficient interest in their research to put
more information in the student's path
 Students expect supervisors to be sufficiently involved in their success to help them
get a good job at the end of it all!

Phillips and Pugh (2000, 100-105) also listed the supervisors' expectations of their students:
 Supervisors expect their students to be independent
 Supervisors expect their student to produce written work that is not just a first draft.
 Supervisors expect to have regular meetings with their research students.
 Supervisors expect their research students to be honest when reporting on their
progress.
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 Supervisors expect their students to follow the advice that they give, when it has
been given at the request of the postgraduate.
 Supervisors expect their students to be excited about their work, able to surprise
them and fun to be with.

6. Criteria for assessing a dissertation

Chris Hart (1998, 17-18) identified the following criteria for supervisors in assessing
postgraduate dissertations:
Excellent and distinctive Competent work Significantly deficient
work work
Aims, Clear aims able to be Clear aims and Aims and objectives
objectives operationalise. Explanation objectives. unclear due to no
and of the topic with succinct Acceptable logical connections
justification justification using the justification with between them.
literature. Shows full identification of the Insufficient attempt to
awareness of the need to topic. justify the topic. Actual
focus on what is able to be topics not clear due to
done. lack of focus.
Methodology Choice of methodology Methodology No explanation of the
and data explained in comparative described but not in methodology, its
collection terms showing considerable comparative terms; choice or
evidence of reading and so no explanations appropriateness for
understanding. Overall given for choices; the research. No
research design abundantly nevertheless, an indication of reading
clear and logical for the appropriate on methodology or
student to apply. Strengths methodology data-collection
and weaknesses in employed. techniques, so no
previously used Research demonstration of
methodologies/data- techniques clear ability to collect data
collection techniques are and suitable for the in a systematic way.
recognized and dealt with. topic. May have No overall research
replicated design.
weaknesses or bias
inherent in previous
work on the topic.
Literature Thorough review of the Review of the main No review of literature;
review and relevant literature; literature with main annotations of some
evaluation systematically analysed and variables and items but no attempt
all main variables and arguments at a critical evaluation,
arguments identified. identified. Some therefore no
Critical evaluation firmly links made to arguments or key
linked to justification and methodology and variables identified
methodology. justification. relevant to the topic.
No bibliography or too
large a bibliography to
have been used.
Style and Clear and cohesive Clear structure and Structured
presentation, structure. Very well arrangement of presentation but very

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including the presented with accurate materials with thin on substantive

use of graphic citations and bibliography. accurate citations, content. Citations
materials Impressive use of visual appropriate use of mostly correct but not
and graphic devices, and visual and graphic consistent. Little
effective arrangement of devices. evidence of thought
materials. Accurate and about the use of visual
proper use of English, or graphic devices.
employing scholarly Sloppy use of
conventions. language.
Overall Systematic and considered Considered Not a considered
coherence approach; critically reflexive; approach; clarity in approach therefore no
and academic clarity and logic in the the structure of planning evident. Poor
rigour structuring of argument; presentation; use of technical terms
proper use of language; satisfactory use of and overuse of cliché.
assumptions stated; clarity language; No argumentative
of interpretation; assumptions mostly structure evident.
identification of gaps and stated, though some Some attempt at
possibility for further implicit; conclusions interpretation, but not
research. Of a publishable and ideas for further based on the data.
standard. research identified.
Table 2 Supervisor Criterion

The following is a checklist usually used by supervisors to evaluate thesis proposals:

 Thesis topic
 Is the problem clearly stated and defined?
 Is the problem researchable?
 Has the problem the potential to make an important or significant contribution to
knowledge or practice?
 Is the scope of the research appropriate for the degree?
 Are the limitations inherent in the research project stated?
 Is terminology adequately defined?
 Are assumptions clearly stated?

Literature review (context)

 Is the literature relevant to the problem?
 Has the relationship between the problem and the previous research been outlined?
 Has the study been placed within an appropriate conceptual framework?

Methodology and Research design

 Is the research method appropriate?
 Are the procedures clearly described to allow replication of the study?
 Are the data collection instruments valid and reliable?
 Are the data analysis methods appropriate?
 Is ethical clearance likely to be approved?

Resources

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 Are the necessary resources available?

 Has the acquisition of special skills (e.g.: language, computer knowledge) been taken
into consideration?

Time frame
 Is the research project manageable within the time allowed for the diploma or degree?

1.6 The researcher

Mouton (2002, 52) said the process of social research involves continuous interaction
between the researcher and the social world. During this interaction or engagement the
researcher has to make a number of decisions in the pursuit of valid conclusions (Mouton,
2002, 63). The main stages in this decision-making process are problem formulation,
conceptualisation, operationalization, sampling, data collection, data analysis and
interpretation (Mouton, 2002, 69).

The interaction between researcher and the social world is influenced by different factors
which effect research questions, objectives and methodology:
 The researcher's motives.
 His/her personal interests and goals.
 His/her ideas about making a contribution to a discipline and socially.
 The library and literature the researcher has access to.
 His/her time and money.
 His/her social networks.
 His/her commitment and capacity to handle anxiety in the different stages of the
research project.
 His/her language and culture.
 The restrictions which the researcher encounters in his/her research with regard to
audiences, politics and feasibility.
 His/her paradigms and approaches to social enquiry.

It is important that the researcher's project must fit the capacity of the research to conduct
the project. Limited resources and unfamiliarity creates paralysis and panic.

Blaikie (2000, 52) names some of the roles researchers can play in research: Detached
observer, empathetic observer, faithful reporter, mediator of languages, reflective partner,
and dialogic facilitator.

1.7 BASIC ORIENTATION

“I am living in Mahatshula (or…Ngozi Mine….or Mganwini….or…) and if I want to obtain my
Diploma or Degree, I have no option but to complete a research project. This implies that I
will have to do the research here in Mahatshula while my supervisor is sitting in some
college or university far away. My biggest fear is not knowing where and how to start!
Everyone is telling me that I need a “research problem” but how do I identify a research
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problem? Furthermore, doing research while I live far from a college or university can only
guarantee frustration. I may find myself working for months on a problem that is not
researchable without even recognizing the fact.

Everybody is telling me what I should be doing to complete a research project and not how
to go about it”.

‘How to go about it’ is what this manual is all about. Many potential post-graduate students
work in rural areas far from any educational support system, or they may be working in
factories with heavy production schedule. If you are one of those potential distance
education students and your environment is not very sympathetic towards your attempts to
improve your qualifications, then you need a ‘hands –on approach’ towards your research.
The chances are very good that you will be working alone on your project and for this reason
you must have some assurance of success. This means that not only do you need a method
for checking whether you are doing the rights things, but also whether you are doing things
right.

Since research and its associated supervision is still a relatively new concept within the
college environment, few colleges, unlike universities, have full-time post-graduate students
on campus. Most post-graduate (college) students are in employment and their research will
be done on a part time basis. If you are unemployment, you may be fortunate to have your
studies and research sponsored by your employer. If that happens the chances are god that
your project will be job related, i.e. the ‘problem’ that needs to be investigated will relate
directly to the work situation. If this is the case you will become aware of the need for some
mechanism to apply the research results on both research and your employer demand a
commitment of quality time and performance-and you are stuck right in the middle! The mere
thought of attempting to unravel the mysteries of research while working devoid of
immediate support, has discouraged many potential post-graduate students from improving
their qualifications on a part-time basis. If you do plan to get involved, sooner or later you will
have to make choices about which master you must-with the many other ‘masters’ you
serve- serve unless you plan your research in such a manner that it co-exist within your daily
working routine. Hence the hands-on approach research as described in this manual.

The manual has been designed to assist you in managing the research experience by
including checklists which you can use to evaluate not only your own progress, but also the
criteria for decision making during the development of your project. The logic demonstrated
throughout the manual will not only ensure that you complete your project in the shortest
time possible, but also that you aware of how the research process can be used a tool for
problem solving in your working environment after completion of the qualification. To
reinforce the potential for wider application of the research problem solving methods used in
research, examples of everyday occurrences taken from, for example newspapers, posters
and popular magazines are used to demonstrate how the formal research problem solving
techniques also feature in our daily lives. We only have to develop the ability to recognize

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the relationship between theory and practice, and to appreciate the fact that the scientific
method is also a tool for solving problems in commerce, industry and our community.

The information and practical example used in this manual have been derived from
management theory, newspaper clippings, observation of a large number of post-graduate
students and their work, research methodology textbooks, and students’ guides for research
from the various colleges and universities in Zimbabwe.

This manual has a practical thrust to research, and is designed to provide information and
methods on how to:
 Provide a research proposal;
 Use the proposal to produce a dissertation, thesis, research
publication or research poster.
Because many students are uncertain where examiners place the emphasis during the
examination of a dissertation, an analysis of actual examiners’ reports has been provided
which students can use as a ‘checklist’ for their own work before they submit their
documents for examination.

The research methodology of Leedy (1989) as described in his manual “Practical Research:
Planning and Design” was used as the basis for developing this manual. Although not
stressed in Leedy’s manual, his practical approach towards the research process also has
application in other areas where problem solving methods are required, for example in
production management, strategic planning, marketing and even departmental planning. You
are encouraged to obtain a copy of Leedy’s manual which has an extensive bibliography
which can be very useful if you are searching for additional reading material regarding
various aspects of the research process.

The diploma or postgraduate dissertation is perhaps the first large unstructured project you
will undertake, and this requires careful planning. Poor project management can be
disastrous and completion of the dissertation almost always takes longer than anticipated
because:
 There are difficulties in identifying a problem for research;
 There are problems in working with a project panel. Conflict arises when you are a
student working in industry, the project panel are ‘specialist’ academics and the
nature of the project requires a multi-disciplinary approach;
 You find yourself at work in an unstructured environment with high uncertainty as to
success and an elusive completion date.

If or when you complete the dissertation, the experience may have been sufficiently
traumatic to greatly reduce your desire for future scholarly research. What should have been
a learning experience demonstrating your ability to do independent research may actually
reduce your faith in your ability as a problem solve. Much of the difficulty experienced can be
traced to the fact that students do not know how to manage a research project. You may

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have learned much about your subject area and even about research methodology, but it is
very likely that you have never been instructed in the management of a major project.
Nothing in your academic development has adequately prepared you for this. As a result,
you misallocate your efforts, delay the necessary structuring and make unrealistic time
estimates.

Research towards a higher qualification will probably always be a huge undertaking with
certain risks as to completion and acceptance. However, the risk can be substantially
reduced and the probabilities of successful and timely completion greatly improved by
following a systematic approach to the management of the dissertation project.

A systematic approach to the management of the dissertation I therefore vital. Such an

approach I explained in this student manual. The underlying philosophy of the approach
rests on three propositions which will significantly improve performance
 The student must take responsibility for the management of the project.
 The project must be effectively structured by means of a problem analysis, and
proposal documents comprising a plan, timetable and costing.
 Each completed phase of the project becomes a building block for the work that will
follow. Moreover, details and references are continuously documented as the project
develops, while the “approaching goal” remains in focus.
The objective of such an approach is to complete a good dissertation within a reasonable
time frame. But there are some other benefits that come to any student working in
commerce and industry that successfully follows the suggested methods:
 You will gain confidence in your ability to manage problem solving processes in your
working environment.
 Your ability to recognize the research problem in a management problem and do
something about it, will establish you as the main problem solver and trouble shooter
in the company.

One day when you are invited to become a supervisor for a postgraduate or Diploma student
at college or university, your operational appreciation of research as a tool for solving
problems in commerce and industry, will be reflected in the standard of guidance given to
research students working on their respective projects.

1.7.1 One final introductory comment

Only a few post-graduate students find a career in the academic environment their career
options. Many diploma, postgraduate and doctorate graduates will be working in commerce
and industry. What will their role be in the business or manufacturing environment as top
qualified researchers? We must remember that research as we know it, is one of the many
methods available to solve problems. Once qualified, we have the potential to establish
ourselves as the problem solvers or ‘trouble shooters’ in commerce and industry. In a

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vocational educational environment the postgraduate qualification implies the student has
developed the capability:

 To identify the ‘researchable’ problem within a business or industry

 To select an appropriate method to collect and process the data required in order to
propose a solution to an identified problem;
 To relate the research results to the elements needed to solve the business or
production problem.

1.7.2 The research process in a multi-disciplinary environment

If we are going to follow a hands-on strategy towards problem solving or research, it is
important that we first appreciate however operational factors relate to our understanding of
the research process. In many companies the problem solving process takes place in a
multi-disciplinary environment. The teams involved in the problem solving process are often
described as ‘task forces’. Each participating member of the team has their own particular
mix of experiences and educational bias which was forged over a period of time as a result
of interaction with their environment prior to their involvement in the project. Moreover, no
problem solving exercise can take place without us being constantly aware of the
environmental forces which impact on the research process itself and those introduced into
the project by virtue of previous experiences. The duality of the contribution of such a task
force is measured in terms of their:

 Contributions to the ‘pool of knowledge’

 The relationship between technology, its function and interaction with the use
and/or recipient
 The relationship between science and technology

The role of each category will be briefly discussed so that you can become aware of how
each category influences projects in general. This will give you the opportunity to appreciate:
 How each category relates to your approach towards your research in particular;
 Why certain precautions need to be taken to minimize bias;
 Why planning is vital before the research starts.

1.7.3 Contribution to the “pool of knowledge”

Each individual participating in a task force makes meaningful contributions towards the
research process and interpreting the collected data. However, every contribution is unique
because each researcher is using a different frame of reference (e.g. experience of the job
environment, level of academic education, personal value systems) to interpret the observed
phenomena. It is critical that you should appreciate this since many projects executed in
industry are multi-disciplinary and you should be sensitive to the nature of the contribution
every team member can make. To clarify this, consider the following:

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Let us assume that somewhere on mother earth there is a cluster of three cubicles. The
design of the cubicles is such that each cubicle can accommodate one occupant only and as
a result of the dividing walls it I impossible for the individuals to communicate with each
other. The only opening in each cubicle is one small out of reach window through which day
and night can be observed. The light source in the first cubicle is a candle, the second, a
wick adjustable paraffin lamp and the third, an electric light with a rheostat. These
instruments are used to indicate the difference between:

 Light and dark

 Hot and cold

Every morning when the sun rises, the occupants can see through the window opening how
the colour of the sky changes as the day progresses. Early in the morning the colour is
scarlet, and then it turns deep blue towards midday. A deep red colour is seen before the
sun sets and during the night the window opening is black. Sometimes stars can be seen
during the night.
In this manner the three individuals live in their own respective cubicles, month after month,
year after year, each one minding his/her own business. Then one day, a very strange
occurrence takes place. The walls separating the cubicles simply disappear and for the first
time the three occupants realize that they have neighbours. Even more exciting is the fact
that they are able to communicate! Very soon they start to discuss the colour changing
phenomenon they can observe through the windows and naturally all three express the
desire to see the origin of the light source. Because the window is too high above the ground
they make a plan to look through the window. They decide that everyone should he the
opportunity to stand on the shoulders of their mates in an effort to observe the source of
colour change.

This is done and the first individual sees the rising sun early in the morning, looking like a
semi-circle on the horizon, colour being a bright red. The second individual sees the sun at
midday, representing a silver disk hanging in the sky, while the third sees the sun hidden
behind a cloud. After these series of exciting observation the three individuals discuss their
respective impressions, which go something like this:

Number one: That semi-circular red disk I saw on the horizon was absolutely beautiful”
“No, no!” responds Number two, “You suffer from an optical illusion. What you saw was a
bright, flat, silver disk, hanging in the sky”.
“Gentlemen”, intervenes Number three, “what you do not realize is that what you saw was a
fluffy white structure covering a semi-circular disk of some sort:

1.7.4 The question may now be asked: Who is correct?

We all realize that each individual saw a small fragment of the Ultimate Truth. By pooling
their observations they can already describe something of the phenomenon which is a daily
occurrence. Let us suppose we can now ask the three individuals to explain how it is
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possible that the sun, as we know, can radiate such intense heat and cause day and night.
The answers would most likely be one of the following:
“It must be a candle as big as a tree”.

I predict it must be something like a huge paraffin lamp, fitted with an enormous, large wheel
to adjust the lamp wick”.
“That thing operates like a huge light bulb and its light intensity is controlled by a rheostat”.

1.7.5 Comment
The point made here is that you normally use existing knowledge as a reference to explain
what you observe. What is also important is that we must learn how or listen to other people
because they also have seen and experience similar events but they may have different
reference points. By using their own specialized vocabulary they can share their own
experiences and interpretations. That is why we arrange conferences and seminars to
create the opportunity to share and publicly debate our observations and perceptions.

As far as the lighting used by the three individuals, consider the following:
 What do the three individuals have in common?
 What do number one and two have in common?
 What do number two and three have in common?
 What properties do numbers one; two and three possess which make each one
unique?

By breaking down the information in the manner described, we are establishing the basis for
making an analysis of the results. It is only through integration and interpretation of the
observations of the three individuals that we can begin to reconstruct the events and really
begin to understand the ramifications of the phenomenon the three observed and become
aware of new questions that demand answers.

1.7.6 Interaction between science, technology, user, recipient

Technology, its function and interaction with the user
The most apparent and dramatic environmental force for change is technology. A
technological innovation usually becomes known as a breakthrough and it often receives
widespread publicity. While the new commodity has obvious benefits for the general public
or shareholders, it also destroys existing industries, for example the wagon and coach
building industry was superseded by the motor-car manufacturing industry.

New technology also introduces a new set of challenges. A fact that is often overlooked is
that the technological dimension or HOW a specific function within the company will be
performed is dependent on the interaction between two other dimensions, namely the user
group or WHO will use the technology, and the worker function, or WHAT NEED has to be
satisfied

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1.7.7 The relationship between technology, function, user and recipient.

For example, a mining company may purchase the latest technology to improve production
output. If the technology is not compatible with the workers or the function the workers must
perform, then the maintenance or production engineer has a problem. If the attitudes
towards using the technology appear to be the problem because the assistance from human
resources manager or training department is not available, then the engineer in charge will
have to solve the problem on his own. He will be forced to use non-engineering techniques,
for example questionnaires, to identify the factors which are causing the problem. The
results of the survey will obviously be married with the production objectives of the company.
As a consequence, the engineer will have produced a multi – disciplinary solution to a
technology related problem which takes cognizance of technology, its function, the user and
recipient.

1.7.8 Comments on technological research

“It is now generally recognized that technological research is essential to the survival of
individual companies and, indeed, of advanced industrial societies. In brief, technological
research is specifically directed towards the attainment of some new step, new drug, new
manufacturing process, or what have you” (Duckworth, 1998)

Note that although this statement was made almost 30years ago, it is even more applicable
to the situation in the world as we know it today. With resources becoming more scarce and
as the global pressure to create harmony between development and conservation increases,
the survival of many companies will be in jeopardy. In the preface of his book, Statistical
Techniques in Technological Research, Duckworth (1998) makes reference to the amount of
money that was spent in the United Kingdom and the USA on technological research. The
expenditure amounted to billions of dollars and at that time he pointed out that: “With
expenditure of this order of magnitude the value of technological research can no longer be
taken as an act of faith. Quite hard and serious questions must be asked about its
effectiveness and productivity”. In the last decade of this century when resources are
becoming scarce, and pollution and populations are on the increase, the rate for survival is
on. The introduction of new environmentally friendly technology demands a strategy which
promotes harmony between conservation and development. Consequently the elements of
time, money and an expression of concern for the environment have been the realities
problem solving activities must entertain.

Only a few people have a natural flair for scientific and technological research. The basic
approach to the design and development of a research project is covered in all research
methodology programmes. One aspect of technological research, namely, design of
experiments to facilitate the collection of numerical data and the evaluation of these data
needs to be highlighted. Duckworth (2004) comments in this regard:
 Numbers are fundamental to technology. No technological innovation is ever made
without numerical assessment of its advances. Yet researchers, on the whole, are
much unsophisticated in handling numbers. Very few are trained in the use of
statistics; many are even frightened of the word.
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 It takes time to acquire skill in the use of statistical techniques. There must be a real
will on the part of the investigator to use the techniques during operations. Statistical
evaluation and planning must be kept very basic because the objective is not to
produce professional statisticians, but to make technologists familiar with the
concepts of statistics.
 Knowledge of simple statistical methods and designs can save each company a lot of
time and effort.

1.8 Comment
Statistics are used because they maximize the data collected. Leedy (1989) is very clear on
this matter. Unless proper care is taken in all the phases of an investigation – from the
conception and statement of the problem to planning and design and all the stages of data
collection, analysis and interpretation – the conclusion(s) reached may be invalid. How the
data are collected and how the whole investigation or survey is planned are of basic
importance.

1.9 Technology and the technologist

Technology is a totality of know-how coupled with artefacts by means of which man acquires
greater power over his environment (natural and human) than his natural ability or
intelligence permits. Technology is not synonymous with applied science, because it is more
based on practical experience of the world we see and feel, and not by ideas out of books.

The practice of technology has its origin in the application of practical, useful outcomes of
existing scientific knowledge in order to solve a given practical problem, often by finding new
applications from existing scientific knowledge. Technology is generally practiced in a multi-
disciplinary environment in order to accommodate the variety of operational demands
occasioned by a practical situation.

A technologist is a person who is required to carry out advanced technological tasks that
involve more than merely the application of existing knowledge and know-how within the
context of a specific operating process. On the strength of his knowledge and research
proficiency, the technologist is oriented towards problem solving and innovation. In other
words, he does not merely apply technological knowledge; he also creates new
technological knowledge or know-how.

The technologists may be described as the “thinker within technology” and should not only
be skilled in identifying problems, but be conversant with research methodologies that are
part and parcel of problem – solving in commerce, industry and our community.

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2 The focus of technological research

Technological change is one of the principal drivers of competition in industry. It plays a
major role in industrial change, as well as in creating new industries. Porter (1985:164)
reports in his book “Competitive Advantage – creating and sustaining superior performance”
that technology is embedded in every activity of a firm, and technological change can affect
competition through its impact on virtually every operation. Every activity in industry uses
some technology to combine physical and human resources to produce a particular product.
The technology applied may be as mundane as implementing simple procedure for
personnel management.

Technology is embodied not only in primary activities such as the logistics required to handle
materials needed for operations, the operations themselves, marketing, sales and
technology development, human resources management and procurement of materials.
Technology affects competitive advantage if it has a significant role in determining relative
cost and differentiation. Technological development can raise lower scale of economies,
make interrelationships possible where these did not exist before, create the opportunity for
advantages in timing, and influence nearly any of the drivers of cost or uniqueness.

2.1 The relationship between science and technology

The relations between science and technology are complex and vary considerable with the
particular filed of technology being discussed. To illustrate this point Brooks (1994:479) in a
publication “The relationship between science and technology” compares the relative
contributions science makes to technology and vice versa. It is important that we take note
of these contributions because in Zimbabwe both universities and colleges, each with their
own education and research objectives, are involved in research, Brooks mentions for
example that the contribution of science to technology in mechanical technology is relatively
weak because it is often possible to make rather important inventions without a deep
knowledge of the underlying science, and most inventions are made by people with
considerable training in science. A summary of Brook’s argument is below:

2.1.1 Science makes a contribution to technology in the following manner:

1. Science contributes new knowledge which serves as a direct source of ideas for
new technology possibilities. Science often acts as a source for new technological
ideas. Opportunities for satisfying new social needs are conceived as a direct
sequel to a scientific discovery. In many instances the discoveries are made in the
course of an exploration of natural phenomena undertaken with no specific
application in mind. For example, the discovery of uranium fission first had to take
place and the concept of nuclear cache in reaction had to be understood before the
atomic bomb could be built and nuclear power stations could be designed.

2. Science as a source of engineering design tools and techniques. While the process
of design is quite distinct for the process for developing new knowledge of natural
phenomena, the two processes are intimately related. Much of the technological
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knowledge used in design and the comparative analytical evaluation of the

alternative designs are actually developed as “engineering science” by engineers
and is in fact the major activity comprising engineering research in academic
engineering department. This research is very much in the style of other basic
research in the “pure” sciences. It can happen that “basic research” is motivated
primarily by potential applications in design “downstream” through its theoretical
interest bad its mathematical sophistication are comparable with that of pure
science.

3. Instrumentation, laboratory techniques and analytical methods. Laboratory

techniques or analytical methods used in basic research, particularly in physics,
often find their way either directly, or indirectly via other disciplines into :
 Industrial processes;
 Process controls largely unrelated either to their original use or to the
concepts and results of the research from which they were originally
devised. The Scanning Electron Microphone (SEM) is an example of an
instrument which was developed as a tool for basic research, but which
today has a wide application in mines and metallurgic industries as well.

4. The development of human skills. An important function of academic research often

neglected in estimating its economic benefits is that it imparts research skills to
graduate students and other technicians. Many graduates go on to work in industry
and in the process take with them not just the knowledge resulting from their
research but also the problem solving skills, methods, and professional contacts
that will help them tackle the technological problems that they later face. This is
important in light of the fact that basic research instrumentation so often finds
application not only in engineering and other more applied disciplines such as
medicine, but also in routine industrial processes and operations, health care
delivery and environmental monitoring.
5. Technology assessment. The past two decades have witnessed an enormous
growth of interest and concern with regard to predicting and controlling the social
and/or environmental impact of technology – this would involve new technologies as
well as the consequences of the ever-increasing scale of use of older technologies.
In general assessment of technology, whether for evaluating its feasibility to assess
entrepreneurial risk, or for anticipating its societal side-effects, requires a deep and
fundamental scientific understanding of the basis of the technology, because it is
possible that the original creation occurred as a result of what was done trial- and-
error methods. Such understanding often requires basic scientific knowledge well
outside the scope of what was originally relevant in the development of the
technology. For example, the manufacturing of anew chemical may involve disposal
of wastes, which in turn requires knowledge of the groundwater hydrology of the
manufacturing site. Thus, as the deployment of the technology becomes more
extensive, and the technology itself becomes more complex, one may anticipate the

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need for much more basic research knowledge relative to the technological
knowledge required for the original development.
6. Science as a source of development strategy. The development of an efficient
strategy of technological development is often dependent on the science from many
fields. This accumulated stock of existing scientific (and technological) knowledge
helps to avoid blind alleys and hence wasteful development expenditures. That is
why every creative miners, engineers and inventors tend to read very widely and
selectively about the history of science and technology, and as well about
contemporary scientific developments.

Technology makes a contribution to science in the following manner (Brooks, 1994:479):

1. Terminology as a source of new scientific challenges. Problems arising in an
industrial development are frequently a rich source of challenging, basic science
problems. The problems are first picked up with a specific technological problem in
mind, but once the problem has been solved the results can trigger off further
investigations well beyond the original technological applications. This research may
set the basis for generating new insights and technological ideas from which new
and unforeseen technology can originate. Quite often observations are made in an
industrial environment by people who are not capable of appreciating the resources
to pursue, generalize, and interpret observations, obstructs basic fundamental
scientific discovery. This may be so simply because in many small and medium
sized industries the ‘bottom line’ (e.g. Profit) dictates the focus of many operations.
Unless their potential application is clear and immediate, many small and medium
sized industries cannot afford to pursue promising concepts. Obviously we cannot
ignore the fact that in many instances the lack of prepared mind may be as a result
of a mind-set that is belittling of mere theory.
2. Instrumentation and measurement techniques. Technology has played an enormous
role in making it possible to measure natural phenomena that we have not
previously been accessible to research. Much of the technology we use today has
been developed and engineered by researchers themselves. In perhaps the majority
of cases, laboratory instruments have been originally developed by research
scientists simply because the instrument could not be purchased off the shelf. After
evaluation of the prototype in the research situation, commercialization follows and
the product is sold to a much broader research community. Through this process the
ne experimental techniques diffuse throughout the scientific community. The
defectiveness of this pattern depends on close collaboration between vendors and
scientific users, and between engineers and scientists, so that instruments and
laboratory techniques often become a mechanism by which some of the pathologies
of over specialization in science are moderated.

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3 The impact of time and environmental powerbases on the

research process
The conversion of inputs (raw materials) to outputs (products or services) is only possible
when appropriate technology is used in the process. This conversion takes place on a daily
basis in every sector of our working environment. In a perfect establishment there should be
complete harmony between the various technologies but unfortunately this is not so. As time
marches on, forces in our environment cause changes to take place continuously, for
example pressure groups campaign against the cosmetic testing on animals, section, ivory
and fur trade and factory farming. Should these groups become successful in their mission
the results will in turn affect certain economic, technological, political-legal and socio-cultural
force in the greater environment.

Moreover, the consequences should the campaigns of such pressure groups be successful
would directly or indirectly affect the applicability of existing technologies in the industries
associated with the production of cosmetics an animal by-products. It is obvious that
technologies within these industries will have to change to compensate for the new
requirements; from their point of view, these changes will also be subject to certain
environmental, economic, technological, political-legal and socio-economic forces. This on-
going search to achieve harmony is complicated by the fact that as time marches on the
relative importance of each of the environmental forces also changes. This implies that
solutions to problems have only a short shelf life, and the desirability and applicability of new
technology must be evaluated in terms of environmental needs.

3.1 How do we recognize “research”?

To be able to recognize research proper Leedy (1989) stresses the importance of being able
to distinguish between what research IS and what research IS NOT.

4 What research IS NOT?

The word research has the potential to capture the imagination of the public, swing the
direction of debate at meetings, or to add credibility to decisions. Because it is such an
impressive word, it is often used incorrectly by students, teachers, the general public, and in
commerce and industry. Students often use the word when they complete assignments. It is
only later that they learn to use it appropriately in its operational context.

To many people the word ‘research’ has the same meaning as ‘making an in-depth study’ of
the literature in the library and other sources of information, for example newspapers and
company records. As a result, the word research is often used loosely and is given various,
misleading meanings. Often the problem solving nature of research is therefore. For
example, finding details of information in the library and writing an assignment based on this
information does not constitute research. It is only information. It is definitely not a fact
finding exercise demanding interpretation of the information on hand.

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Many manufacturers and some entrepreneurs like to imply that research has led to the
discovery of a new product when only minor changes have been made to an existing
product. Why would an entrepreneur for example use the word research? Obviously to
increase the product’s sales appeal.

4.1 What is scientific research?

4.1.1 Definition
There are as many definitions for research as there are textbooks on research methodology.
If you make a comparison of the definitions you will soon realize that they all entertain the
same components. For the purpose of this manual however, we will use the definition given
by Leedy (1985:5) in his book Research: Planning and Design.

In general Research in general terms can be taken to mean the systematic collection,
recording analysis, and interpretation of data to yield information that can be put to
various uses, depending on the need for and type of research.

4.1.1.1 Others…

Other definitions of research are as follows:-

• “A systematic investigation to increase knowledge and/or understanding” (Page and
Thomas 1977 in Merriam and Simpson 1995, p.2).

• “Disciplined inquiry” (Good, 1974 in Merriam and Simpson 1995, p.2)

4.1.1.2 Research in Business

“Business and management research is undertaking systematic research to investigate
things about business and management” (Saunders et al 2000).

The above definitions have the following implications:

• Research is systematic
• Research is a process
• Research is objective, purposeful
• Research involves identification, recording analysis and interpretation of data.

Purpose and types of research that is motivated by intellectual interest and has as its
purpose the extension of knowledge is called basic, fundamental or academic research. On
the other applied research is research undertaken to solve an immediate practical research.

Research is the manner in which we attempt to solve problems in a systematic effort to push
back the frontiers of human ignorance or to confirm the validity of the solutions to problems
others presumably have solved.

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5 Main research traditions and paradigms

Johann Mouton has very well formulated the three main research traditions and paradigms
in South African social research. He also relates the three to each other in a scheme. They
are as follows:

Traditions Paradigms

Positivist tradition
Quantitative
paradigm

Phenomenological/interpretive tradition
Qualitative
paradigm

Critical tradition
Participatory action
research
Table 3 Traditions and paradigms

5.1.1 The positivist tradition and quantitative paradigm

This tradition states that social research should follow the same methodology as the natural
sciences. The methodology of the natural sciences is considered as being best, because of
the scientific achievements obtained thereby. The nature of the natural and social realities is
also considered to be similar.

In the quantitative paradigm aspects of the social reality are measured quantitatively (in
quantities) by means of variables, while checking for errors. The aim is to explain the
incidence of social phenomena - to indicate why they occurred. For this purpose
sophisticated measuring and analytical instruments have been developed. This tradition and
paradigm give preference to the deductive procedure.

5.1.2 The phenomenological tradition and qualitative paradigm

The premise of the phenomenological tradition is that humans are unique because of their
consciousness. Because of consciousness humans have an ability to allocate meaning. This
causes human action and therefore social phenomena to be completely different from
natural phenomena. The phenomenological tradition believes that social reality is therefore
fundamentally different from natural reality. Social research must therefore make provision
for people’s way of making sense. In the qualitative paradigm it is not attempted to explain
social phenomena but to describe them. It does not attempt to indicate why social
phenomena occur, but explains the nature of existing social phenomena. This tradition and
paradigm give preference to the inductive procedure.

5.1.3 The critical tradition and participatory action research

The critical tradition believes that the most important objective of science is not to explain or
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to understand society, but to change society. Participatory action research (PAR) is an

approach in which the people who may benefit by the research participate in the research
process and are involved in the actions which may result from the research. This
participation includes political considerations - it makes the power relations between
researcher and the persons studied more equal and it empowers the disadvantaged and the
poor in society.

The following table helps clarify the differences between basic and applied research in
engineering, sciences and business context.

Table 4 Research Distinction

6 Main research goals

Table 5 The different goals of research are described by Chris Hart (1998, 47) as follows:
Type of Goal
research goal
Exploratory  to satisfy curiosity, provide better understanding or for general
interest;
 to examine the feasibility of further study by indicating what might
be relevant to study in more depth;
 to provide illumination on a process or problem.
Questions focus on the how, what, when and where. Studies tend to be
small scale and often informal in structure, for example, illuminative
evaluation.
Descriptive  to understand a common or uncommon social phenomenon by
observing the detail of the elements that makes it a phenomenon
in order to provide an empirical basis for valid argument.
Questions focus on the how and what. Studies tend to be small scale and
qualitative, for example, ethno methodological research.
Explanatory  to explain the cause or non-occurrence of a phenomenon;
 to show causal connections and relationships between variables
of the types ‛if A then B';
 to suggest reasons for events and make recommendations for
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change.
Questions focus on the why and aim to uncover laws and regularities of a
universal nature. Studies can be large or small scale and are often based
on hypothetico-deductivism and associated quantitative data.
Table 5 Research Goals

6.1.1 COMMENT
A study towards the Doctor’ s degree will most probably involve the “pushing back the
frontiers of human ignorance” or involve original research, whereas the study towards
Diploma or the Postgraduate degree will in many instances involve the “confirmation of the
validity of solutions to problems others presumably have solved”.

Ultimately, research is a manner of thinking and the method we follow to acquire new
knowledge about problem situations.

6.2 Methods of acquiring knowledge

To be able to learn we need objective and factual information. Christensen (1985:3) report
that there are at least six different approaches to acquiring knowledge

6.2.1 Tenacity:
This approach to acquiring knowledge seems to boil down to superstition, its
acquisition and persistence because it represents beliefs that are reacted to as if they
were fact. There are numerous examples of how superstition in the past and even
today has influenced the process of acquiring knowledge.

6.2.2 Intuition.
Intuition refers to the act or process of coming to direct knowledge or certainty
without reasoning or inferring. In this context the thesaurus on the Microsoft Word
programme lists the following synonyms for the word “intuition”:
 Premonition
 Hunch
 Feeling
 Clue
 Anticipation
 Prescience
 Presentiment

From a research point of view it does not mean that this type of knowledge is undesirable or
unsuitable – it only means that this knowledge is not scientifically-based knowledge.

6.2.3 Authority.
Authority represents another method of acquiring knowledge. It must not be confused
with the situation where an expert is invited to provide expert advice-which we may
accept or reject. Authority is ever present within the various religion and political-
social field. Quite often a highly respected person or a person in a position of

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authority will make certain statements which in turn are accepted by other people as
fact or information.

6.2.4 Rationalism.
Rationalism is the fourth way of gaining knowledge. Reasoning is used to arrive at
knowledge and in this instance it assumes that valid knowledge is acquired if the
correct reasoning process is used. Think about the following classical syllogism – ‘a
reasoned argument which must lead to a third statement’ (Longman’s Dictionary of
Contemporary English, 1991):
All men will die one day
Socrates is a man
Therefore, one day Socrates will die.

Note that the first two statements each constitute a fact. It can therefore be argued that the
conclusion, which is nothing more than a prediction that Socrates will die, I therefore valid. It
is not even necessary to perform a test to confirm the validity of the prediction.
Unfortunately, this kind of reasoning is not valid for all syllogisms in all situations. Once the
focus shifts away from a fact of life to e.g. performance in sport, production or training – the
nature of all activities being a highly variable concept, the conclusion of reasoning can turn
out to be valid or invalid. If the argument used in the example is followed, the first two
statements with regard to performance may be valid but to reason about the outcome and
accept the knowledge without testing it, can be disastrous. Research implies that by
accepting or rejecting the outcome of the test and explaining why, we gain knowledge.

6.2.5 Empiricism.
The fifth and final unscientific approach to gaining knowledge according to
Christensen (1985:6) is through empiricism. This approach relies on the experience
of the individual and anything that does not concur within the individual’s experience
is rejected, and vice versa. “Seeing believes”, illustrates the empirical approach many
people have in accepting new knowledge, and it also illustrates the willingness to
believe anything we observe through our senses. This approach is natural but it can
be deceiving. Quite often our perceptions are affected by a number of variables.
These are liked to:
 Past experiences and our motivation at the time the observation is made;
 Our memory of events. This does not remain constant and we tend to forget
detail and distortion take place;
 The situation we experience. We experience only a fraction of the possible
situations and what we experience often represents a biased sample which could
lead to an inaccurate conclusion.

It must be emphasized that empiricism is a vital element in science because it relies very
much on the ability to observe; but the scientific approach requires more than one element to
acquire knowledge.

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2. Science. In research, the preferred method for acquiring knowledge is the scientific
method. Christensen (1998:56) defines science as a process of method for
generating a body of knowledge. It represents logic of inquiry, or specific method to
be followed in solving problems.

6.3 Characteristics of the research process

The scientific method of enquiry is a seven-stage process. Each major step in the process is
discussed below.

7 The research process

The following are the systematic stages that a researcher goes through in conducting
research.
1) Stage 1: Formulating and clarifying research topic (problem definition)
2) Stage 2: Critically reviewing the literature
3) Stage 3: choosing a research approach (methodology)
4) Stage 4: Data collection (fieldwork)
5) Stage 5: Analysing the data
6) Stage 6: Research Report writing
7) Some of the above stages are covered in some detail in the chapters that follow.

7.1 The cyclic nature of research

1. Research begins when you make an observation (O). This observation is only
possible because what you see is either similar to or different from what you
definitely know, intuitively know or what you think you know the explanation from the
observation should be. The ability to make the observation resides in the knowledge-
i.e. prior knowledge-you already possess as a result of your previous experience in a
particular filed, education and other life experiences. The observation may be short-
lived, or it may be an awareness of which the details only manifest over time. If you
have a desire to explain the similarities of your observation in terms of other
observations, or if you wish to determine the difference between observations, the
basis is set for making a statement of a goal (G). This initial goal statement can be
tentative or it can be of a more permanent nature.

2. Once the tentative or real goal (G) has been stated, the basis for asking questions
(Q) relative to the observation and goal is set. By asking the right questions we
initiate a chain reaction that helps us to focus on problem areas within the
observation we made. It is questions such as “Why?” “What does it mean?” “Where
does the benefit lie?” “To what extent do….?” that exposes the underlying elements
that make up the problem. Only if there are no answers to such questions, will you be
able to identify the problem (P).

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3. Through inspection you will soon realize that a gap exists between the goal (G) and
the problem (P). To breach this gap a specific research method (M) is required.
 The statement of the goal is in fact a statement of why you are planning to
solve the problem.
 The method is a statement of how you propose reaching that goal. Note how
soon in the investigation you are making statements of what you plan to
achieve and how you plan to do it.
 It is important to know in the formative stages of the research project what
variables are involved?
 Where are the data located? Are there any data to be found that will address
the research problem? Do you need special permission to gain access to the
data? Presuming you do, what will you do with it once they are in your
possession?

Indication of what lies ahead become visible as soon as the method need to breach the gap
between problem and goal have been identified.

7.1.1.1 Comment
These questions merely suggest that planning and design cannot be postponed. Most
projects will generate questions similar to those mentioned above. Unless each of the
questions is answered early in the research process there is no way that the implementation
of the results can be entertained. Delaying the planning process must be avoided by the
problem-solver in industry as well as the student preparing for his study towards his
postgraduate or Diploma studies.

4. Research usually approaches the main area of investigation by dividing it into more
manageable sub-areas (the sub problems – for example P1, P2 and P3). The first
step in planning the research is to inspect closely the main problem for research in
terms of its appropriate sub problems. Most researchable problems subsume other
problems of lesser breadth and importance which, collectively, are the component
parts of the whole. The first step is to recognize the subsidiary and integral
components within the larger problem (for example P1+P2+P3 = P). Students are
often so keen to start the research that they take neither the time nor the trouble to
isolate the lesser problems within the major problem area. They find that their
research project becomes increasingly poorly defined, cumbersome and unwieldy.
From a project design standpoint, therefore, it is expedient to divide the main
problem into appropriate sub problems, all of which, when addressed, will result in
the solution of the main research problem.

A fact easily ignored is that by identifying the sub-problems we are forced to state our sub-
goals. Suppose we have three sub-problems (P1+P2+P3), then we must specify three sub-
goals (G1+G2+G3). Furthermore, to reach each sub-goal we have no option but to use an

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appropriate method to breach the gap between the sub-problem and the sub-goal. The
development of the project is shown in Exhibit 1-9

5. Research seeks direction through appropriate hypotheses (H) based upon

recognizable assumptions (A). Having sated the problem and the supporting sub-
problems, the goal of each of the sub-problems is then viewed through a logical
construct called a hypothesis. A hypothesis is an educated guess, a reasonable
prediction, a logical; theory of what the outcome of investigation will be. The
hypothesis gives direction to your search for data and thus aids in solving the
research problem. Its sole function is to facilitate focus on the problem and
achievement of the ultimate goal, and on completion of the project, it provides a new
reference point for further academic debate, because if you accept the hypothesis,
the reasons for accepting it must be stated. If you reject the hypothesis, the reasons
for rejecting it must be stated.

7.1.1.2 Comment
It is important to realize that hypotheses are never proved. Hypotheses are tested and the
outcome is either accepted or rejected or hypotheses may be valid or invalid. The moment
we aim to prove hypotheses it implies that we have a vested interest in the outcome of the
research and we can be accused of being biased. We collect facts and only facts during the
research process and if “proving” the hypothesis becomes the focus, then we may be
tempted to “overlook” or “ignore” critical facts.

6. Assumptions are self-evident conditions, inherent in the research situation, without

which the entire research endeavour would be impossible. The assumption is a
condition that is taken from granted and will not be tested. For example, if you are
using a questionnaire written in English to assess factory workers’ perceptions of the
effect of television on their knowledge of healthy and wholesome food, you are
assuming at the workers can read and also that they have access to television on a
regular basis. Otherwise, there can be no study. Assumptions are usually so self-
evident that we may feel that it is not necessary to mention them. Experienced
researchers usually do. It is only when something goes wrong during the research
process that the validity of the stated assumption is carefully examined first before
we interfere with other research variables. If you are that student planning to do
researches project while being far from a college or university, it is better to be
acutely aware of the assumptions you make than to take too much for granted.

7. Research deals with facts (data) and their inter-relationship – i.e. meaning. The next
step in the research process is to collect whatever data seem appropriate and to
organize them in meaningful ways so that they can be interpreted. Facts, events,
happenings, observations are in themselves facts, events, happenings, observations-
nothing more. But all these are potentially meaningful. The significance of the data
depends upon the way meaning is extracted from those data. Data demand
interpretation. There is no rule that will lead the researcher accurately to the correct
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interpretation and no two researchers will make exactly the same interpretation given
the same data set. The advancement of technology has given us new insights and
opportunities to interpret data in a manner that was previously not possible.

7.1.1.3 Comment
We must keep in mind that “science” is constructed of facts or data in the same manner a
house is built of bricks; but an accumulation of facts is no more science than a pile of bricks
is a house. Furthermore data or facts demand interpretation, while interpretation is a
theoretical procedure. Interpretation depends entirely upon deductive logic aptitude,
inductive reasoning skills and the objectivity of the researcher.

8. Research is helical. The process begins when an observation and a tentative goal
are specified. Questions are generated and the problem becomes visible when there
is no answer to the question. The main problem is then divided into sub-problems,
each of which is an integral part of the main problem. The research is facilitated by
the construction of tentative hypothesis because they point in the direction of relevant
facts. The collected facts are organized, analysed, and interpreted for the purpose of
discovering what they mean in terms of the problem. This facilitates the solution of
the problem, which satisfies the question that gave rise to the research effort
originally. However, in the face of the facts that have been revealed through the
research process, new observations are made against the background of new goals,
which in turn set the basis for the development of the new cycle. In this way, the
helical cycle is initiated. All basic research is a similar pattern. Since the solution of
the research problem exposes new faces of the main problem which demand
answers, the research spirals progressively onward.

8 Formal and informal research

It can happen that a student working in the industrial environment is confronted with
the problem of deciding whether research is formal or informal. In this context Wehrli
(1986:80) describes the research effort as a continuum stretching from formal to
informal, informal research, for instance, embraces many of the problem solving
investigations architects, urban planners, engineers, and other designer ordinarily
perform in connection with design. Because clients are involved the results will in
many instances be focused to satisfy their particular need and the need for
confidentiality of the results.

8.1 Formal research on the other hand implies the following:

1) Objectivity. The researcher is objective even to the point of adopting the
hypothesis, which is to be true, until all the evidence has been gathered.
2) Rationality. To support objectivity, the researcher relies on the application of
logic in analysing issues and translating them from the abstract to the
concrete, describes the procedures that have been followed, and shows
others how to follow them.

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3) Rigor. The outcome of the research depends on measurements that are

obtained as rigorously as possible. During this process data derived from
primary and secondary sources are collected.
4) Systematic procedures. Formal research is based on the systematic
gatherings of evidence. The researcher tries to gather all the relevant
background information-or at least to become familiar with related topics,
opinions and points of departure-and to evaluate the quality of available
information.
5) Continuity. The formal researcher joins and participates with the community of
scientists. New research is viewed within the framework of previous literature
and efforts as well as a continuation of them.
6) Communication. The researcher makes research findings public for the
scrutiny of others, revealing the methods of recording and reporting results as
public information so that others can repeat the experiments or do further
research to confirm or deny findings.

8.1.1 Comment
This statement must be seen in context. In the competitive business environment where
companies are locked and struggle for survival, it is obvious that new details of research and
development will not be communicated to the rest of the world – but only through the
protection of copyright, patents or licensing. The first time the public becomes aware of most
of the new developments is when the product is launched through one of the various
promotion campaigns.

In the light of the preceding discussion, one can say that research is formal when it is
objective, rational, rigorous, and systematic, takes place within civilization’s history of
science, and is communicated to others. Research that follows some but not all of these
precepts or that follows some of them only partially, is informal research.

9 The research process and the researcher

One fact we cannot escape is that the research process and the researcher are not two
separate units. They must function in harmony otherwise the entire research effort will lead
nowhere. During a seminar on “Tertiary Education” Du Preez (2004) highlighted the following
elements which characterize the research process and the qualities the researcher must
possess:

1. Research requires patience. There is no shortcut to research. The methodology of

research requires care, and care requires time. Any attempt towards undisciplined
time-saving leads to unacceptable results.

9.1 Comment
Students often fall into this trap. They think that it is possible to quickly formulate a research
proposal and do the research. In real life the opposite is true. It can take months to complete

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an acceptable research proposal. Producing the final research report or dissertation may
require re-writing it three or four times before it is acceptable.

2. Research requires discipline. In research neither carelessness nor accuracy is

allowed. Only a disciplined, organized person can effectively do research.
3. Research requires a system. Research must be systematic. Careful planning is the
corner-stone of successful research.

9.2 Comment
A good plan can accommodate change. It implies flexibility and versatility. Any changes to
the plan or proposal are affected with an acute awareness of the implications the proposed
change can cause. The research proposal, which is one of the essential steps in the
research process, should not be seen as a binding contract, obliging the researcher to
execute the project, irrespective of the consequences. The ability to recognize the time and
the need for a trade-off when the research is in progress is part of your education as a
researcher.

4. Research requires reading and more reading. Any research project comprises a
literature search, half of which is undertaken prior to the experimental work or the
distribution of questionnaires. Research is synonymous with an enquiring mind and
the researcher should be aware of the latest developments in the chosen field.
According to our definition of research one of the objectives of the research process
is to push back the frontiers of human ignorance. We should be acutely aware of
what knowledge is already available in the pool of knowledge. How is it possible to
recognize new knowledge if we do not know what knowledge already exists?
5. Research does not necessarily require sophisticated equipment. A shortage of
sophisticated equipment is no excuse at all for not doing research.

9.3 Comment
This remark is of particular importance when the implementation of results is considered. It
will serve no purpose to conduct a research project, using every piece of sophisticated
equipment available, if the results are to be implemented in a technology poor environment.
In such an instance it will be important to design the project in such a manner that the
outcome has application in the environment where the problem originated in the first place.
Although the degree of sophistication of the equipment used in projects may differ, the
principles guiding all research projects will always be the same.

6. Research is not confined to a laboratory. The whole world is one large laboratory.
Problems that arise in the office environment, on the factory floor or in the
manufacturing plant, can all be researchable problems.

9.4 Comment
We often find ourselves in a situation where we have to see if something works. For
example, can video games improve eye-hand co-ordination in typing? All you need is a bank
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of computers and a group of typists. You set up a training session and see if the typing skills
improve. This kind of research is called “Action Research” by Leedy (1989:90)

7. Research requires publication. In the definition of research given above, reference is

made to “pushing back the frontiers of human ignorance”. The only way the world will
know that a contribution has been to the pool of knowledge, is by having the results
published. Research should not be hidden. The researcher owes it to the world to
make his results known, because his success is based on the contributions of his
predecessors. Unpublished research is no research at all.

9.5 Comment
In the business environment research or problem-solving investigations are, as a rule,
confidential because the publishing of results in the general press could affect the survival of
the company or alert its competitors. In such cases the outcome of an investigation is
published internally in the form of a research report and is available for reading by
employees who have the necessary authorization. Alternatively, the public will become
aware of the latest development when the new product is launched. When the new product
is developed under license, the licensee will also be introduced to the mysteries concerning
the new product. Obviously, nothing prevents the competitors from buying the new product
and doing some reverse engineering in order to identify the detail which constitutes the
cutting edge of technology-but at the end of the day all detail will be communicated on paper
in some manner.

10 Research within the college and university

Research has traditionally been the province of the university. Research at Colleges is, in
comparison, still in its infancy and their research efforts are of recent date. It is therefore only
natural that you would ask how the institutions differ in their approach to research. A brief
comparison is given below:
Traditionally the university concentrates on:

 The theory and practice of pure science (including research), and general
professional vocational preparation.

 College research is aimed at utility and /or applicability in industry. The technologist’s
goal is to produce some physical change in the world, particularly in a specific work
environment.

The College concentrates on:

 The application of existing scientific knowledge and the practice of technology
(including development), Specific vocational training, in other words, preparation for
specific vocations.

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 College training is therefore programme – oriented, for example Environmental

health, and not discipline oriented, for example Zoology, as it is the case at mining
schools or universities. The college is mainly concerned with solving problems in
industry and the theme of applicability of results should permeate all its research
activities.

10.1 FORMULATING AND CLARIFYING THE RESEARCH TOPIC

Trying to find a research topic is always the starting point for any piece of research. It is
however the most difficult part of the research process. It is therefore always advisable to
spend considerable time at this stage since the rest of the stages are dependent upon it.

10.1.1 Attributes of a good research topic

A good research topic should meet the following attributes (Saunders et al, 2000, p.15):
1. Does the topic contain the specifications and meet the standards set by the
examining institution?
2. Is the topic something with which you are really fascinated? (Interest)
3. Does your research topic contain issues that have a clear link to theory?
4. Do you have and can you develop within the project time frame, the necessary
research skills to undertake the topic?
5. Is the research topic achievable within the available time?
6. Is the research topic achievable within the financial resources that are likely to be
available?
7. Are you reasonably certain of being able to gain access to data you are likely to
require for this topic?
8. Are you able to state your research question(s) and objectives clearly?
9. Are the findings for this research topic likely to be symmetrical that is similar value
whatever the outcome? (I.e. whether your hypothesis is proved wrong or right?)
10. Does the research match your career goals?

10.2 Generating and refining research ideas

Two major techniques are used to generate research ideas which are Rational Thinking and
Creative Thinking (Saunders et al, 2000)

10.2.1 Rational Thinking

This will involve the following:
Examining your own strengths and interests
Looking at past projects
Discussion with colleagues, possible beneficiaries, professionals, etc
Searching the literature to identify gaps or areas that need further research.

10.2.2 Creative thinking

1) Involves the following
2) Keeping a note book of ideas

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3) Exploring personal preferences using past projects i.e. what you like and do not like
about certain past projects.
4) Relevance trees
5) Brainstorming

10.2.3 Turning project ideas into research projects

Writing research questions
This is a very important aspect of research that should be made clear at the beginning of the
research. Research questions help in drawing conclusions for the research conducted. The
research questions should ideally come from your defined area of research as illustrated
below.

10.2.4 Project idea: The reduction of interest rates in Zimbabwe

10.2.4.1 Research question:

What effect has the recent reduction in interest rates and on small to Medium Enterprises
(SMEs) in Zimbabwe?

Project idea: Marketing in the airline industry

Research questions: Is there a difference between what air travellers want and what
promoted to them?
The generated research question should not be too simplistic that it might end up negating
the need for research neither should be too complex that it makes inquiry and investigation
difficult.

Ideally the research questions should help focus the project idea.

It is possible to develop further detailed research objectives or specific areas of information

required once the major research question has been developed

11 Writing research objectives

As stated above, these can be derived from the research questions. They are important in as
far they specific the finer details of what is to be researched. The following table illustrates
typical research questions generated for a study on team briefing and the corresponding
research objectives.

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Research questions Research objectives

Why have organizations introduced team To identify organization’s objectives of
briefing? team briefing schemes
How can the effectiveness of team briefing To establish suitable effectiveness criteria
schemes be measured? for team briefing schemes
Has team briefing been effective? To describe the extent to which the
effectiveness criteria for team briefing have
been met
How can the effectiveness of team briefing To determine the factors associated with
be explained the effectiveness criteria for team briefing
being met
To estimate whether some of those factors
Can the explanation be generalized? To develop an explanatory theory that
associates certain factors with the
effectiveness of team briefing schemes.
Table 6 Research Questions and Objectives

Source: Adapted from Saunders et al (2000) Research Methods for Business Students, 2 nd
Ed. Financial Times Prentice Hall, England. P.25

12 Comparison between report or dissertation or thesis

When you register for the Diploma or Postgraduate Degree, the function of the college
university where your registration will take place, will be to educate you to do research under
supervision. You will therefore work under the guidance of a supervisor. The results will be
reported in a dissertation. When the dissertation is examined, the function of the examiners
will be to evaluate whether you:

 Understand the nature and purpose of your investigations. You must be able to
formulate a research project proposal, execute the project and report on the
outcome of the investigation;
 Are sufficiently acquainted with the relevant literature. You must be able to relate
the existing knowledge to the problem at hand, demonstrate the ability to use the
available information systems, for instance the library, patent journals, product
catalogues and even labels on containers to design a project, gather data and
validate results; have mastered the necessary techniques to capture, process and
report data. You must, for example be able to identify appropriate measuring
instruments or statistics to collect data and to make decisions regarding their
reliability and validity;
 Are able to relate the results to some form of application or theory;
 Display adequate, applied and critical insight.

When you register for the Diploma, study, the emphasis shifts. You will have to demonstrate
your ability to do independent and original research, and the research findings will be
reported in a thesis. To oversee this study a promoter is appointed. When the thesis is

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examined, the function of the examiners who are appointed by the college or university will
be to evaluate how well you have used the tools of research while working independently.

12.1 Comment
The focus on the postgraduate qualification training is on making you au fait with the
research process. Although the applicability of results in the environment features during the
entire programme, students are not expected to indicate exactly how the findings are to be
implemented. However, the focus of the Diploma research within the college environment
should shift from applicability to implementation where relevant. Such a student should not
only make a contribution to the pool of knowledge, but also investigate the management of
the implementation of research findings. In doing this the student becomes aware of how
interdisciplinary as well as multi-disciplinary forces interact to make implementation of the
results possible. This training makes a person invaluable to his company, especially in a
highly competitive business environment.

Exhibit: Criteria to be satisfied by reports on student research. The indication of the time
required to complete the research is based on the assumption that 100% time is available to
conduct the investigation (Source: Howard and Sharp, 1993:177)

LEVEL DESCRIPTION CRITERIA

Higher Diploma, B-Tech
Degree, Honours Degree
Which require the completion of a project

Minimum time: three

Months

Table 7 Education Levels

13 The tools of research

When a company advertises for a technician or technologist to run the research and
development operations of the company, it must be assumed that the prospective employer
not only wishes to employ a person who knows how to use the tools of his profession but
also one who can use the tools needed to do research effectively.
Just like the tools of the professional characterise the profession, for example a microscope
the medical technologist or overhead projector for the lecturer, research is also
characterized by the tools needed for the operation. Five general tools are needed for
research. The list shown below slightly adapted from Leedy (1989:14) suggest:
 Information systems
 Measurement techniques
 Statistics
 Language
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 Computer and its software

13.1 Comment
Since the study towards the Masters qualification gives the student the introduction to the
“tools” of research, it can be expected that one aspect of the dissertation that will be
examined is the ability of the student to use the tools of research to conduct the
investigation effectively and efficiently.

13.2 Information as a tool of research

No matter how well you write, no matter how good your style, arrangement, and mechanics,
without adequate information you will not be convincing. Most of the papers you write –
proposals, feasibility reports, process descriptions – presuppose access to additional
information. Because many problem-solving operations or research and development
projects are industry – based, many large companies have in-house libraries or information
centres where information on previous projects or reports is stored. In such a situation any
creative researcher has the opportunity of establishing what is already known in any area of
operation in which the company is involved before a new project is started.

The importance of consulting the latest or the correct information cannot be overstressed.
For instance, if you are that innovative person or entrepreneur who wishes to patent an
invention, the onus will be upon you to prove that element of novelty you wish to patent.
Registration can only take place once the difference between the old and the new has been
demonstrated. The speed and efficiency of the process depends on your ability as well as
that of the patent attorney to use the information systems to do a patent search. The penalty
for ineffective information scanning and reporting may be costly in term of lost opportunities.

13.2.1 Comment
Many research projects associated with institutions involved with a vocational education
mission will be conducted in industry. In many instances, the information or literature that
neither is used will under normal circumstances nor be readily available. The in-house
libraries of many large corporate enterprises, for example ZESA, ZISCO or DELTA etc
have every specialized literature and other types of information in many instances will not
be found in college or university reference libraries.

13.3 Sources of information

One of the major tools for research and innovation is information. The dynamics of our
technological environment demands that the correct information must be available timeously.
Before the development of our computerized information scanning systems, information was
available, but because it was often difficult to locate, it was relatively scarce. The rapid
development of our communications infrastructure (for example fax machines and modems
for computers, Internet and E-mail) and computerized information scanning systems

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changed the situation. The literature, previously difficult to locate, now can be made
available in a very short period of time. Unfortunately it casts money to make that happen. If
we direct our search in the wrong direction we will pay dearly for information we cannot use.
We therefore have to:
 Develop the technique of locating and recognizing the relevant information without
going off at a tangent.
 Learn that a pre-planning before we actually spend energy to collect information
saves us a lot of time and money, and as a consequence enjoy the satisfaction of
being able to exploit the available opportunities.

13.4 Subject libraries and library staff

Subject library staff is highly trained and able to give you very effective assistance in tracing
literature. Our libraries are also linked to several computerized literature data bases and can
undertake information searches on your behalf. Most colleges and universities libraries have
subject librarians to assist you. On the other hand, the State Library also has a lending
scheme and the details concerning the costs to loan books or to verify photocopy or fax
information.

On the other hand, as a scholar you should be self-sufficient in the library. You should know
its principal resources; understand its classification system, for example the Dewy decimal
classification system. You should also be able to find the shortest route to the information it
contains. This implies that you should be able to use the card literature you need. If you are
employed by a company who has an in-house library onsite, it is your responsibility to
acquaint yourself with its contents and know its layout. Every reference library will have a
manual which can give you information on the location for the specialized collections,
microfilms, microfiche, audio-visual material, research journals, periodicals, abstracts and
compact disk.

Fenner and Armstrong (2001:72-87) in their book, Research: A practical Guide to Finding
Information, give a comprehensive list of available sources of information. They do not claim
that the list is complete, but most reference works available in the various reference libraries
are listed.

13.4.1 Books
When embarking on any research, project or problem-solving exercise, general subject
literature such as textbooks should be consulted, especially if no literature of any other kind
has been obtained. It is advisable to avoid encyclopaedias and textbooks older than three
years, especially in respect of rapidly changing technologies, such as the development of
electronics, computers or even the statute.

Books generally contain a bibliography which the author consulted during the compilation of
the text. It is a very useful source of information when you are looking for references
pertaining to your project, especially if you are exploring new topics for investigation. When

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you scan such reference lists pay particular attention to the journals and technical
periodicals listed in the reference list.

13.4.2 Journals and technical periodicals

Unless it is the topic of your investigation, avoid information in popular magazines, for
example PARADE or UMTHUNYA. On the other hand magazines like the INDUSTRY
magazines like from CZI, Mining magazines and GOVERNMENT GAZZETE contain relevant
information on the dynamics of the market forces which can serve as indicators to search for
more pertinent information in scientific journals. Scientifically acceptable information is to be
found in journals (unless the subject of your study is articles in daily and weekly
newspapers). Journals and technical periodicals are available at the companies, college,
university and public libraries.

Currently almost every discipline has a publication containing suitable article on, abstracts
from or discussions of the latest subject literature. For instance, Chemical Abstracts and
Biological Abstracts. A few years ago a systematic and intensive search of the volumes of
abstracts used to be a taxing job, but today most libraries have them on microfilm or
microfiche. The latest developments in computer technology include a comprehensive
collection of journal literature on compact disks and by upgrading your PC with a CD-ROM it
is possible to read the information at your desk.

14 Consultation
14.1 Your employer
If you are one of the students who will be conducting your research while you are working,
never under estimate the wealth of knowledge and contacts your employer and colleagues
possess. They do not only have knowledge in their particular field, but through experience
have built up contacts through the Chamber of Industries, Chamber of Commerce and other
professional organisations. Many of them belong to a social club, for example the Bulawayo
Country Club which network throughout the Republic with other country clubs and by virtue
of the membership, a door may be opened if you need information. Do not forget the
international network of ROTARY or THE ROUND TABLE and more locally available links.
Discuss with your employer about possible sources of data or even about other persons they
know in the country or overseas who have worked or are working in your field.

14.1.1 A word of caution

What happens if your research project is company-based and the source of information you
need is in the hands of your company’s major competitor?
A request for specific information may alert your rivals of new developments and the
opportunity to gain the competitive advantage may be lost. Your employer will not feel too
happy about that and the desire to make a trade-off will become evident.

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14.1.2 Comment
It is important to record the date, telephone number as well as the details of the
discussion whenever you consult with experts on matters concerning your project. The
personal communicated information must also be recorded in the reference list of your
dissertation as well as the appropriate place in the text.

14.2 Your supervisor or promoter

Your supervisors or promoter has been appointed to help you. Consult him first about
possible sources of information. All research projects that are undertaken as a fulfilment or
partial fulfilment of a diploma or degree programme are always assigned an academic
supervisor. The supervisor’s role is to give guidance on topic selection and/or wording and
all methodological aspects such as scope, sampling methods and sizes, data collection
methods and instruments; literature; data analysis; writing up and other considerations.

It must be emphasized that the supervisor is NOT there to do the work for you and is largely
not responsible for the quality of your final output. The duty to perform and produce a
meaningful document squarely remains the student’s. In British Universities each student
may only expect eight hours of consultation time throughout the whole dissertation work as
the research is supposed to be largely independent. However you should always keep your
supervisor posted of your progress and communicates any difficulties being encountered as
experience has proved that some students always leave this until too late.

Your supervisor should be somebody who has expertise and interest in your area of
research. You should therefore be able to respect and value his comments and views about
your work.

14.3 Other lecturers at the University or College

If you plan to register as a full-time student for your Diploma or Postgraduate study, then a
unique opportunity exist to interact with fellow students and lecturers on an on-going basis.
Many hours of exiting academic debate regarding aspects of your research may result. It
may be advisable to liaise with other lecturers in other academic departments through your
supervisor, especially if you intend using techniques outside your supervisor’s area of
specialization. For example, dental technologists use various soldering techniques when
bridges for restorations are made. Likewise electronic engineers also use the soldering
techniques for constructing electronic circuits. Both professional seek to achieve the perfect
bonding when two pieces of wire are soldered together. By exchanging information new
techniques can be experimented with when alternative methods for solving a particular
soldering problem are investigated.

14.4 Other experts outside the University or College

Establish which other scientists (even worldwide) are experts in the field. Local and
international bodies connected with your project may be approached in writing,
telephonically, in person or by means of INTERNET and E-mail. It is strongly recommended
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that you approach as many institutions as possible in person for information about their
experts or the role they can play. Think of the Training Boards such as HEXCO, Apprentice
Training Board Large corporate institutions for example, IPMZ, Zimbabwe Institute of
Bankers, DELTA, NRZ, Zimbabwe Institute of Engineers have their own research and
development departments and subject to the request can also make meaningful
contributions. Remember to write down who said what as well as the date when it was said.
This information must be listed in the reference list of the research report under the heading
“PERSONAL COMMUNICATION”.

14.5 Computerised Information services

14.5.1 The CSIR computer services
Many companies do not have the expertise or infrastructure to make an on-going
analysis of all the patent or other technical journals available. If they are product
leaders, they need up-to-date information on the state-of-the-art, or they stand to lose
their competitive advantage. Agencies specializing in the collection of technical and
patent information provide on-going services to their clients in this respect.

The CSIR now has a unique service to locate scientific literature world-wide in a short
time – within two weeks instead of months or years –even in countries such as the
USSR and Japan. They provide two types of service for science literature:

1. The retrospective service (SARIS) where a few key words are used to obtain
references to numerous articles published in periodicals and journals over a
number or years, or
2. Monthly updates on material pertinent to your field of interest (SASDI) the CSIR
also provide a transfer of technology service through their SA Technology
Information System (SATIS). Consult the subject librarian at the library or
telephone the CSIR’s library in Pretoria for additional information.

14.6 The Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) information service

Information is also available from the Human Sciences Research Council which makes use
of the KWICK index, a keyword system that is accessible at any time. Arrangements can
also be made to obtain computer printouts.

In addition, there are the computerized details of surveys undertaken by means of

questionnaires.

14.7 SABINET and other information services

Most college and university libraries have a computer link with the SABINET, EBSCO horst,
EMARALD network, as do most reference libraries in Zimbabwe. This means that sources
for information available on a particular subject in all the other libraries in Zimbabwe are
rapidly accessible by means of a literature search through SABINET.

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Many libraries are also linked to DIALOG. This on-line information system includes more
than 100 data base files world wide – a total of about 30 million separate records. Access to
the system is via any “dial –up” (telecommunication-system linked) computer terminal. This
may be used at home, in the laboratory, in the office or factory. Records available are from
books, periodicals, reports, descriptions, patents, conference proceedings, bibliographies,
pamphlets, reviews, manuals, legislative documents and many other sources of information.
Because the technologies DIALOG use telephone lines to access the data base, a long
extensive search can be very costly.

14.8 Electronic mail (E-mail)

Electronic mail (E-mail) refers to a computerized system for sending messages between
users along the same lines as paper mail allows writers and users of the conventional Post
Office to exchange messages. You type the message at your PC, specify the address of the
person to whom it must be sent and post it. The difference is that you send the message
directly from your PC (via communication networks) to the PC on the recipient’s desk. Mail
can only be sent amongst users connected to a common network either by cables
connecting PC’s or by telephone lines. For example, Technical Colleges are connected to a
world –wide network of computers which allow computer users to send and receive
messages and files internationally. It is difficult to imagine that are campuses in Zimbabwe
who are not on line. Other established research organizations, for example the Zimbabwe
Foundation for Research and Development are able to communicate to academic staff,
students and researchers throughout the Republic on any conceivable topic.

The advantages of the E-mail system is that its response time is much quicker than paper
mail systems (messages sent from Zimbabwe can be received in the United Kingdom to the
USA within 10 minutes of the message being sent), is free to the campus users and allows
users to easily exchange files.

14.9 Comment
It is interesting to note how an effort to enhance effective communication has changed
over time. Initially the letterheads of various institutions made provision for the street and
post box address plus the telephone and telex number. Later a step technology
developed the facsimile (fax) superseded the telex machine. Today it is not strange to
see letterheads or business cards which makes provision for an e-mail address for
example:
The foundation for Research Development

15 CRITICALLY REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

Conducting a literature review in the area of your research is viewed important because of
different reasons. It is always a starting point once you have identified the area that you
need to carry out your research on. This is because knowledge does not exist in a vacuum.

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The significance of your research findings may be a function of how similar or different they
are from other researches.

In academic researches, literature review is so important that it may all be where the final
decision rests on whether to go ahead with the research or try another area altogether.
Some of the specific purposes of conducting a critical review of the literature are discussed
in the following section.

15.1 The purpose of the critical review

This is given as follows by Gall et al (1996) in Saunders et al (2000), p.45:
1. To help you to refine further research question(s) and objectives;
2. To highlight research possibilities that has been overlooked implicitly in research to
date;
3. To discover explicit recommendations for further research. These can provide you
with superb justification for your research question(s) and objectives;
4. To help you avoid simply repeating work that has been done already.
5. To sample current opinions in newspapers, professional and trade journals thereby
gaining insights into the aspects of your research question(s) and objectives that are
considered newsworthy;
6. To discover and provide an insight into research strategies and methodologies that
may be appropriate to your research question(s) and objectives.

15.2 The content of the critical review

In the critical review, there is need to discuss critically the work that has been undertaken in
your area of research. It should highlight any key points and trends and mentioning any
omissions and biases. In the critical review of literature there is therefore need (Saunders et
al 2000, p.46)

1. To include the key academic theories within your area;

2. To demonstrate that your knowledge of your chosen area is up to date;
3. Show how your research relates to previous published research;
4. To assess the strengths and weaknesses of previous work including omissions or
bias and take these into account in your arguments;
5. To justify your arguments by referencing previous research;
6. Through clear referencing, to enable those reading your project to find the original
work you cite.

15.3 The structure of the critical review

The structure of literature review will depend upon the type of research being undertaken
and or the examining board for which study are being pursued. There are however three
common structures (Saunders et al, 2000, p.46):

1. A single chapter (most common for undergraduate researches)

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2. A series of chapters
3. Throughout the project report as you tackle various issues
It is of importance to link your conclusions with major issues emanating from your literature
review.
Saunders et al (2000, p.47) proposes the following “funnel” structure:

1) Start at a more general level before narrowing down to your specific research
question(s) and objectives;
2) Provide a brief overview of key ideas;
3) Summarize, compare and contrast the work of the key writers;
4) Narrow down to highlight the work most relevant to your research;
5) Provide a detailed account of the findings of this work;
6) Highlight those issues where your work will provide fresh insights;
7) Lead the reader into subsequent sections of your project report, which explore these
issues.

16 Evaluating your literature review

Use the following checklist for the evaluation of your critical review of literature (Saunders et
al 2000, p.47)
1. Does your literature start at a more general level before narrowing down?
2. Does the literature covered relate clearly to your research question and objectives?
3. Have you covered the key theories?
4. Have you covered the key literature or at least a representative sample?
5. Are those issues where your research will provide fresh insights highlighted?
6. Is the literature you have included up to date?
7. Have you been objective in your discussion and assessment of other people’s work?
8. Have you included references that are counter to your opinion?
9. Have you justified clearly your own ideas?
10. Is your argument coherent and cohesive – do the ideas link together?
11. Does your review lead the reader into subsequent sections of your report?
12. A clear and practical timetable
13. Budget considerations

Before you put your proposal together, you must be clear of what you want to do, why you
want to do it and how you are going to do it. It is on the strength of your proposal that ideally
supervisors will make a decision whether to sign you up or not. You, however, can still have
an audience with your prospective supervisor to verbally clarify certain points of your
proposal if need be.

17 Literature search and review

This is a very important component of nay academic piece of research. A literature review
acts as evidence of how much you have read and know about your area of research. A

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careful survey of the existing body of literature will always help you carve your own area of
research, define objectives, and get cues on methodology and other important
considerations. Supervisors put a lot of importance to this, as most often as not, students
produce sub-standard work if they attempt to undertake research in areas where there is no
adequate literature.

The nature of literature review is such that it demands a lot of reading and perhaps more
than is necessary as you may find out that you may end up not using all your consulted
sources for the final write-up. Other than the contents of your literature review chapter, your
bibliography will always show the depth of your literature search. A bibliography with only
min texts of courses taught on the programme will act as evidence of somebody who did not
engage into any meaningful outside reading for the research. Therefore shortcuts for your
literature review are just not possible and the thing to do is to read, read, read and read!!!

18 Planning the literature search

In searching for literature, it is important that you access literature that is relevant to your
study. This often means starting with your research question or topic to guide the literature
search.

Next it is important to define your search parameters, in terms of time (e.g. no more than ten
years old literature), type of material i.e. specify whether you need academic journals and
books only or anything will do as long as it is in the subject area.

It is also then critical to list your possible search terms or key words especially for electronic
sources such as CD-ROMs and the Internet. This will avoid you accessing irrelevant data,
which might result in a serious data overflow.
In our setting however, you will almost always experience a dearth of literature in most areas
of research so the choice is indeed limited.

18.1 Carrying out the literature search

Once the planning has been properly executed, then the actual searching for the literature
may be done as follows:

1. Searching tertiary literature sources – these will lead you to the actual article or book.
2. Obtaining relevant literature referenced in books and journal articles already read.
This can be a quick way of getting more literature without having to necessarily
consulting tertiary sources.
3. Scanning and browsing secondary literature in the library. This will include your
different course texts, which can be a good starting point in trying to gather literature
4. You may use the internet although you need to be careful to manage the data
overflow that may result.

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In the process of searching for your literature, it is important to always keep a note of all the
materials consulted so that it will be easy to reference it in your write-up either as text
reference or bibliographic citations (see appendix for a detailed discussion of citations).

19 Other sources of information

Research or nay problem-solving activity within the environment of a company may demand
information other than the ‘normal’. Manufacturing businesses would for example have
detailed information on:

 Maintenance. The standing operational procedures (SOP’s), records of actual

maintenance programmes may for example be of critical importance when
investigating the efficiency of the maintenance programme labels on containers.
 Labels on containers. These types of information are for example important when
research is conducted into the safe handling of toxic materials and their effect on the
workers. The same applies to the type of information which is displayed on posters
on the factory walls.
 Minutes of meetings. Much information regarding organisational culture and climate
can be gleaned from an analysis of the minutes of meetings. The documents are
legal and valid simply because the minutes are approved by the body present.

19.1 Comment
When material is transported in bulk, the technical information is often spray painted on
the containers. If this information is used then it will have to feature in the reference list
of the report. During the planning of the project provision will have to be made to
accommodate this peculiarity

20 Measurement
20.1 Definition of measurement
In every day usage, we measure when we determine the extent some variable takes on
a new value. To do this some established yardstick is used for example, to determine the
height, mass, speed or some other feature of a physical object. We also measure when
we judge how well like a particular song, painting, and personalities of our friends. We
can measure in a rather casual manner in our daily life, but in the research, business,
academic, industrial environment the requirements for measurement are much more
rigorous. As a consequence, the measurement process can be a complex and
demanding task. In research accurate and appropriate measurement methods lead to
the exposure of new knowledge and know-how. In industry it affects the survival of the
company as its status and acceptance in the community.

We say if something is to be researchable, then it must be measurable. Data must be

quantified and evaluated against a standard of one kind or another; otherwise the data
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are useless to the researcher. In context Leedy (9189:20) defines measurement as

follows:

“Measurement is the quantifying of any phenomenon, substantial or insubstantial,

concrete or abstract, and it involves the comparison of the data being measured to a
pre-established standard”
It is important to realise that when we quantify a particular phenomenon we are in fact
assigning a number to some characteristic of the phenomenon, be it an object, person,
state, or vent. We never measure people, only their age, height, weight, ability to read or
some other characteristic. Furthermore, the term number does not always correspond to
the usual meaning given by the general public or non-researcher. Tull and Hawkins
(1987:208) in their book “Marketing Research: Measurement and Method” discuss the
process of assigning numbers. They state that assigning numbers does not necessarily
imply that the numbers can be added, subtracted, divided or multiplied. Numbers are
used as symbols to represent certain characteristics of the objects being measured.
These numbers depend on the nature of the characteristics they’re to present and how
they are to represent them. Certain rules specify how the numbers are to be assigned to
the characteristics to be measure. Once a measurement rule has been created and
agreed on, the characteristics of vents, persons, states or objects are described in terms
of it. We must be aware of the fact that the process of selecting a measuring scale can
also evoke emotional reactions by the potential users which suggest that the measuring
process will always be a matter of scrutiny by its users

20.2 Comment
It is important to remember that the rules that specify how to assign numbers to the
characteristics to be measured are arbitrary. Consider the following. We want to
measure ‘sales’. When is an item considered to be sold? When the item is dispatched,
when we send the customer the invoice or when the customer pays? Do we express
sales in number of units sold or in Dollar value? Are the Dollar sales in current Dollar
units or is it deflated to some base year? Each of these alternatives implies a different
measurement rule, and unless we know which rule is being applied, a monthly sales
figure is not completely understandable.

20.3 Types of measurement scales

20.3.1 What is measured?
When we measure we devise some form of scale or yardstick and then transfer the
characteristic pointer or indicants of the observation onto this scale. Several types of scales
are possible in such a situation and the appropriate choice depends on what you assume
about the relationship between the pointer and the scale. Each scale have its own set of
underlying assumptions about how the numerals correspond with the real life situation and
when you make a choice, sooner or later you will have to defend your choice. This is part of
the process of achieving face validity, a topic which will be introduced shortly.

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We often fall in the trap of thinking too narrowly about observations which signals the
presence of problems which require some form of measurement. The reason for this is
obvious. Since school days the syllabus of each subject ensured that everything we learnt
was wrapped up in a neat package – Geography, History or mathematics. When you started
to work, you were assigned to department A or B and your job description spelled out in
great detail what you are supposed to do. It is therefore not surprising that we expect that
everything in life can be found in neat compartments. Leedy (1989:82) suggests that instead
of thinking according to departmentalised knowledge, you might do better to think of
problems which will require some form of measurement as arising out of broad general
areas within whose boundaries all research falls. These boundaries are people, things,
records, thoughts and ideas, dynamics and energy.

20.3.2 Types of measurement scales

All measurement scales do not have to have at least two different possible measurement
categories, or values. For example, the student’s perception of the service in the cafeteria
can either be “good” or “bad”, “positive” or “negative”. It is vital that the choice of scaling
must be made at the start of the project, so that all the characteristics can be measured with
the appropriate scales under the guidance of the same measurement rules. The choice of a
scale also determines the statistics that will be used to analyse the data. This knowledge will
keep you aware of the kinds of questions the investigation will and will not be able to
address because the statistical procedure must be appropriate for the investigation and the
level of the data.

20.3.3 Nominal scale

The most primitive and least precise measurement scale from the traditional scientific view
point is called a nominal scale – a scale for nominal data. Nominal (or “naming”) scales
arbitrarily assign some number to represent the categories into which an attribute or quality
can be sorted. An example of the sue of the nominal scale measurement is the case of the
student advisor at the college who wants to determine whether students embark upon
tertiary study because they are sponsored or whether they are self-financing. The student
advisor randomly selects and questions 100 students.

Measuring is done by assigning the numbers 1 = sponsored students and 2 = self-financing

students. The student advisor has formed a two-category scale. All he has to do now is to
count the number of cases in each category. In this instance he finds that 70 are sponsored
and 30 are self-financing.

20.3.4 Comment
When we use the computer to do the sorting of the data and we assign the number 1 = sponsored students,
we created our first category. And 2= self-financing students becomes the second category. After the sorting
we will end up with a count of 70 in the first category and a count of 30 in the second category. We know
that the first category represents sponsored students and the second self-financing students. We make the
conversion and report the data as shown in Table below. All we can conclude from this nominal scale used
is that data sorted into different categories are non-convenient.

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If the student advisor also noted the gender of each respondent, he could display the data
as shown below. Without doing any formal statistical analysis, it can be seen that males are
sponsored to study to a much greater extent than the females while more females have to
finance their own studies than males.

Fund source Male Female Total

Sponsor 56 14 70
Self-financing 4 26 30
Total 60 40 100
Table 8 College students

It must be emphasised that any arithmetic operations performed on nominally scaled data
can only be carried out on the count in each category. How many categories do you see in
Table?
There are four:
 Sponsor – 70 students are sponsored
 Self-financing – 30 students are financing themselves
 Males – 60 students are males
 Females – 40 students are females
Note the information does not give us any indication of order or distance nor arithmetic
origin. From the information in Table 8 we cannot get any indication of the attitude or
perception of males or females on the topic of sponsored studies. We cannot even calculate
a mean or a median to indicate on average, how funding takes place. The best we can do is
to use the mode to express central tendency, namely by stating that self-financing is more
common among females and that sponsors allocate their funds to males. We can also
calculate percentages on the counts falling in each category by stating that 65% females are
self-financing and 93% of the males sponsored.

Remember, the nominal scales are considered examples of scientific measurement because
two rules apply in the assignment of numbers:
1. All responses that are sorted into the same qualitative category are given the same
numbers;
2. No two categories can be assigned the same number

Nominal data can be represented by certain graphic and statistical devices:

 Bar graphs, for example represent the comparative measurement of nominal
data.
 Mode determination
 Percentage value determination e.g. demonstrating the percentage
relationship of one sub group to another
 Chi square determination, for example to illustrate that one sub group is
significantly different from another.

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20.4 Ordinal scales

In the ordinal scale of measurement, we think in terms of the characteristics of the
nominal scale plus an indicator of order or symbols > or <. The ordinal scale implies that
an entity being measured is quantified in terms of being higher or lower or a greater or
lesser order than a comparative entity. We use ordinary scales on a daily basis. We
grade, for example our workforce by calling then unskilled, semi-skilled or skilled. They
all share the characteristic skill but some workers have more or less of the characteristic
skill. However, the measuring scale use to measure the skill levels will differ from
company to company. Such as scale will indicate the relative positions of the skills of the
workers within the company and not the magnitude of the difference between the skills.

20.5 Comment
The use of nominal and ordinal scales is almost a daily occurrence. Let us suppose that
three promotion posts in a very large corporate establishment must be filled. Each post
will have its own characteristic requirement and the nominal scale is used to group the
number of applications into three categories, namely “post 1”, post 2” and “post3”. This is
followed by assigning an attribute to the candidates which must fill the post and these
results in a ranking process where candidates are placed in “not suitable’, “suitable” or
“very suitable “categories. After this had taken place we now produce a ‘short list’ and
the candidates can be invited for the interviews.

An ordinal scale allows us to rate or rank “low”, “medium”, and “high”, but it does not tell
us anything about the distance between low and medium and medium and high.
Therefore, although we can rate a variable on an ordinal scale, our measurement
categories cannot be presented or treated as having equidistant intervals, even if the
number we assign to it suggest it. We cannot even perform much common mathematical
operation (addition, subtraction) because they will produce misleading results.

Ordinal data expands the range of non-parametric statistical techniques that can apply to
the data:
 Bar graphs, for example to illustrate the relative state of one category to the
other;
 Mode and median determination;
 Percentage or percentile rank determination and test by chi square;
 Relationship determination by means of rank correlation.

20.6 Interval scales

The interval scale or the scale for interval data ha two distinct characteristics:
 It has equal units of measurement
 Its zero point has been set arbitrarily.

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These characteristics make it possible for a researcher to make statements about the actual
differences between measures rather than just saying that something has more or less of an
attribute than something else. The numbers we assign begin to match the number system
we use more closely. Equal differences in the magnitude of events are now associated with
equal intervals between the numbers they have been assigned. For example, the difference
between 10◦ and 20◦ on our Celsius thermometer is the same as that between 50 and 60 or
80 and 90. Furthermore, 0◦C on this scale is not the true zero point for the scale because the
temperatures in various places in the world fall below the zero point, namely 0◦C.

The use of measuring scales is commonly used in many businesses, marketing research
groups and professional teaching institutions. Attitudes can be measured on an interval
scale of 1 to 10. The performances of students are measured on an interval scale of 0 to
100, and they need an average mark of 50% to pass, in some instances 60% to pass. Blood
pressure readings are expressed on a “double barrel” interval scale. Readings of 140/90 and
120/90 or 120/80 and 130/90 imply in each instance that some physiologic event is taking
place. Remember, the zero point in all these examples is set arbitrarily.

Interval data expands the range of statistical techniques that can be applied to the data:
 Arithmetic means, the mode, median and range can be calculated to give a measure
of central tendency while the standard deviation is used to indicate the dispersion of
the values around the mean;
 Histograms to display the data graphically;
 Parametric t-tests and F-tests, product movement correlation, analysis of variance
are techniques used for the purposes of drawing inferences.

20.7 Ratio Scale

The highest level of measurement is the action measurement and the ideal scale for this
measurement is the ratio scale. The ratio scale does not only possess all the
characteristics of the nominal, ordinal and the interval scales but it also has an absolute
or natural zero that has empirical (experimental or hypothetical) meaning. It reflects the
actual amounts of the variable. If a measurement is a zero on a ratio scale, then there is
a basis for saying that the true zero is the total absence of the quantity that is being
measured. For example, the mass of an object can be scaled with real numbers so that 0
scores truly mean the absolute absence of the object that is being measured, the true
zero point. However, 30kg of anything is twice as much as 15kg and 69kg is 4 times as
many as 15kg. The ratio scale can therefore express values in terms of multiples and
fractional parts and the ratios are true ratios.

All statistical techniques mentioned for nominal, ordinal and interval scales are usable for
ratio scales. In addition, ratio scales can be used for determining:
 The geometric and harmonic mean;
 The percent variation and all other statistical determinations.

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20.8 The characteristics of sound measurement

What are the criteria for good measurement? Wilson (1993:142) in her book “Introducing
Research in Nursing” give a good overview of the characteristics of sound measurement tool
in the research process. Such a tool should:
 Be explicit enough that observers can use them to come up with the same measures.
 Be applicable to more than one individual
 Occur according to a well-specified, reasonable set of rules for assigning numbers to
represent the qualities or attributes being measured;
 Attempt to isolate one attribute at a time in complex concepts like quality or creativity,
correspond as precisely as possible to the reality being measured;
 Reflect the researcher’s awareness that most of the time one can tap only a small
percentage of the possible data relevant to the attribute being measured;
 Use the highest level of measurement scale possible given the phenomena being
measured.

21 Reliability and validity

Reliable measurement is imperative in research. Reliability is a matter of whether a
particular technique, applied repeatedly to the same object, would yield the same result each
time under comparable conditions (Babbie and Mouton, 2001, 119). The measuring
technique must give the same result for the same object consistently. Reliability is about
consistency in measurement. Different ways exist to ensure more reliable research: compare
results of different methods with each other, ensure anonymity, and obtain rapport, control
groups, proper training and selection of field workers, ensuring measurement instruments
reliability and using constructive replication.

Validity refers to the extent to which an empirical measure adequately reflects the real
meaning of the concept under consideration (Babbie and Mouton, 2001, 122).A valid
measuring instrument measures what it is intended to measure: (1) it measures the concept
in question and not some other concept and (2) it measures the concept accurately.
Reliability can be improved if the external sources of variation are minimized.
This can be done by:
 Standardizing the conditions under which the measurement take place, using
only well trained, supervised, and motivated persons to conduct the research;
 Broadening the sample of items used, for example by adding similar questions to
the questionnaire or by increasing the number of questions.
 Eliminating those items that have low discriminatory power from the test.

21.1 Validity
Validity refers to the extent to which an experimental model measures what it intends to
measure. It is important to realise that is the model itself that is being validated but it is the
purpose for which the model is being used that is submitted to validation procedures. In
other words, it is not the test that is being evaluated but the interpretation of the data arising

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from the specified procedure. Validity is concerned with soundness or the effectiveness of
the measuring instrument. It looks at the end results of the measurement and it comes into
effect after the method or procedure chosen has been applied. The measuring instrument in
this instance could be a ruler, stop watch or even information reported in the literature on the
research of other researchers. Take a standardized IQ-test, for instance. Validity would raise
such questions as:

What does the test measure? Does it, in fact, measure what it is supposed to measure it?
The principal question here is: Are we really measuring (introducing, reporting, discussing)
what we think we are measuring (introducing, reporting, discussing)?

The literature describes different types of validity. Leedy (1989:27) list six of the common
types of validity which are discussed below. It must be stressed that the different types of
validity which are neatly discussed under specific headings do not present themselves in
neat packages throughout the research publication. They are all interrelated, both
theoretically and operationally. The mere fact that we formulate a hypothesis (a topic to be
discussed later) right at the start of the project and only test it for acceptance or rejection at
the end of the investigation illustrates the extent one aspect of content validity must travel
before we can judge the correctness of our initial decision.

Emory and Cooper (1991:179) furthermore indicate that three major considerations are also
used to evaluate a measurement tool. These are reliability, validity and practicality. The
criteria of reliability and validity are used to evaluate the measurement of a theory specified
by a particular operational definition. If measurement is not reliable and valid, the data
obtained in this way is worthless and should not be admitted as scientific evidence. The
criteria of practicality ha specific bearing on students who are conducting their research “on
site” in the company where they are employed because practically refer to the operational
requirements of the project. It will be influenced by the budget, permission, administration of
project and the potential to implement the results after interpretation. In fact, the concepts
reliability, validity and practically should permeate the entire research process. When writing
the research report, selecting a method, reporting the results or v even discussing the
results, the reliability, validity and practically of processes should be taken into account.

21.2 Reliability
In every organization, a reliable employee is one who can be depended on to be on time and
whose work performance is consistent. The employee’s future behaviour can be expected to
be the same as his past behaviour – in other words, it should be predictable. Similarly, with
tools of measurement, a reliable scale or instrument for instance, a questionnaire is one that
is consistent and predictable.

Reliability is concerned with estimates of the degree to which a measurement is free of

random or unstable error. A reliable scale or measure produces more or less the same
results every time it is applied. The same results can be expected even when different
persons apply the measurement. Furthermore, reliability is related to the method and the
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accuracy of a particular measurement. If it is not accurate it is not reliable which implies that
the method is not repeatable. Reliable instruments are robust. They work well at different
times under different conditions. Emory and Cooper (1991:185) indicate that this distinction
of time and condition is the basis for frequently used perspectives on reliability – stability,
equivalence and internal consistency.

21.3 Stability
A measure is said to be stable if you can secure consistent results with repeated
measurements using the same instrument. In an experimental situation where physical
studies or surveys are done where persons and situations are involved, it is at times difficult
to repeat the study in order to test for consistency. The major problem in these types of
studies is that certain time elapses between measurements. Quite often situational factors
change which in turn influences the persons involved and these two factors affect the
consistency.

21.4 Equivalence
In a multi-disciplinary research set up or where trained specialist interviewers are used to
collect data the opportunity exist to introduce error by the investigators. Equivalence is
concerned with variations at one point in time among observers and samples of items. This
implies that the scoring of the same event must be compared for the purpose of testing
equivalence of measurement.

21.5 Comment
The easiest manner to appreciate the impact of equivalence is to imagine that a school
pupil writes English essay in an examination. Ten teachers, all teachers of the language
English, mark the essay and allocate a mark. The test for equivalence will be when the
mark allocation (scoring) of the teachers (investigators) and the range in variation are
compared.

21.6 Internal Consistency

Internal consistency assesses the correspondence among the items written into the
measuring instrument, for example questions in a questionnaire. Similar questions or
statements are given to the respondent and the level of correspondence between questions
give an indication of the degree of internal consistency.

21.7 Face validity

Face validity depends on the subjective judgment of the researcher. Two questions
arise which the researcher must finally answer according to his judgment:
a) Is the instrument measuring what is supposed to measure?
b) Is the sample being measured adequately representative of the behaviour or trait
being measured?

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21.7.1 Comment
Any problem-solving project conducted in industry or R&D will have to contend with the
implications of face validity. For example, the design of a project that will interfere with
the continuous operation of a production line will have to accommodate constraints like
“units produced per hour”, “down time” and “bottom line”. On completion of the project,
the researcher must be confident that he has measured what he has set out to measure
in spite of all the operational constraints imposed on the project.

21.7.2 Criterion validity

Criterion checks the accuracy of the first measurement. The essential component in criterion
validity is a reliable and valid criterion – a standard against which to measure the results of
the instrument doing the measuring. The data of the measuring instrument should correlate
highly with equivalent data of the criterion. In this context Tull and Hawkins (1987:226)
indicate that criterion validity takes on two forms, based on the time period involved:
concurrent and predictive validity.

21.7.3 Concurrent validity

Concurrent validity refers to the extent which one measure of a variable can be used to
estimate current score on a different measure of the same, or a closely related variable. For
example, a human resources (HR) manager in a large corporate establishment may be
trying to relate absenteeism of employees with their ability to adapt in their working
environment. In the pilot study, the HR manager finds a useful relationship between attitudes
towards work, supervision and pay as defined by the Job Description Index (JDI) scales. He
wishes to test this relationship further in the organization in an internal mail survey.
Unfortunately, the JDI is difficult to use in an internal survey and he develops a brief verbal
descriptions of each of the five JDI job classes. Employees respondents are asked to
indicate the index items which best describe their job orientation. However, before the HR
manager can use this measure, he should assess it concurrent validity with the standard JDI
scale.

21.7.4 Predictive validity

Predictive validity is the extent to which a future level on some variable can be predicted by
its performance on a current measurement of the same of different variable. An opinion
questionnaire which correctly forecasts the outcome of a national election has predictive
validity.

21.7.5 Counter validity

Content validity of a measuring instrument is the accuracy with which an instrument
measures factors or situations under study. The measurement process cannot take place
accurately unless the content of the indicator corresponds to the content of the theoretical
concept it is designed to measure. For example, when questions are being asked about the
health beliefs of factory workers, content validity is concerned with how accurately the
questions asked tend to elicit the information sought.

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21.7.6 Construct validity

Content and criterion validity are concerned with some specific practical use of the test
results. They help us to determine how representative the sample data is and well the data
predict or estimate a particular performance. We also need to understand or explain the
factors that underlie the obtained measurement and this concern the construct validity.
Through interpretation an explanation of why a specific relationship between variables or
constructs exist. A prerequisite for construct validity is that you must have a thorough
understanding of the underlying theory of the concept being measured.

Construct validity involves convergent and discriminant validity. The evaluation process
usually begins when we look at the constructs or variables entering into relations. The
problem is to establish whether our test items really comprise the construct – whether we
can work out a set of items that define the construct. To this extent the Multi-trait Multi-
method Matrix procedure developed by Campbell and Fiske (1999) is significant.
Convergent validity on the one hand evaluates the focal effect or correspondence of the
various methods of measuring a construct, while on the other hand the ability of the
measuring instrument to discriminate the construct (theory) being studied from other similar
constructs is also measured (discriminability). We must not forget that every time we make a
measurement two processes make a contribution to the quality or standards of the
recordings, namely the characteristics of the subject being measured and the measuring
instrument itself. Both contribute to the variation we observe in the results and influence the
manner in which we indicate how the measuring instruments discriminate one construct from
another.

21.7.7 Internal validity

Any problem solving process starts with an observation. In any given problem situation
aspects of the problem will draw the attention of specific persons for different reasons
because each individual has their own specific focus or reasons why the phenomenon would
stimulate their interest suppose a problem has arisen in a nuclear power plant. On the one
hand a nuclear scientist would see the opportunity to extract information which can
contribute to a better understanding of the forces that influence power generation in a
nuclear power station. The reward for explaining the phenomenon is the acceptance of the
results in a research publication and perhaps international recognition of the scientific
community. The Managing Director of the nuclear power station on the other hand would see
the opportunity to define long term strategic objectives which can relate to the survival of the
power plant and the reward could be the re-appointment as Managing Director – a different
form of recognition for a job well done. The point being made here is that we all have some
reason why we get involved in a project and that we must never underestimate the subtle
impact of the reward on completion of the project because this may cloud our objectivity.
After all, students get a Postgraduate or Doctor’s qualification when they complete their
research to the satisfaction of the examiners. Internal validity therefore, is the freedom from
bias in forming conclusions in view of the data and other factors.

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When we design a project, we attempt to create an ideal environment where the

relationships between independent and dependent variables can be demonstrated. In real
life such an ideal situation never exist and unfortunately the investigation will be complicated
by the influence of external variables. Their relative impact needs to be highlighted and this
is done by the researcher. The researcher seeks to confirm that the changes in the
dependent variable are caused by the independent variable rather than the manner in which
the research was designed.

There are a number of factors that threatens internal validity and which can complicate the
objectivity of the researcher. Of these, Emory and Cooper (1991:424) list seven major ones.

21.7.8 History
During the time that the investigation is taking place, events that has taken place between
the first and the second measurement can confuse the relationship being studied. For
example, if the appropriateness of a training programme of a group of apprentices is tested
and the apprentices experience stress as a result of an independent external happening (for
example, a strike to change wages or working conditions), then the final measurement will
most probably be distorted by this external historical event. The inclusion of a control group
whom are also exposed to same historical events makes it possible to illustrate that the
differences that are recorded between the measurements are not as a result of historical
influences.

21.7.9 Maturation
Changes may also take place within the subject which are a function of time and are not
specific to any particular event. An apprentice may lose interest in the job situation, pick
up a girlfriend, work overtime or find the programme intellectually frustrating. All these
can affect the results.

21.7.10 Testing
Being exposed to test situation is a learning experience. Humans and animals quickly
sense what is expected from them in a given situation and this ‘pre-testing’ experience
can influence the results of future tests.

21.7.11 Instrumentation
We use instruments to collect data. The instruments can be:
 Expensive sophisticated equipment, for example an atomic Absorption
spectrophotometer which can be operated by the researcher or a laboratory
technician;
 Questions in a questionnaire, administered by the researcher;
 Interviews conducted by the researcher or trained interviewers, for example the
interview teams of the HSRC;
 Observation by the researcher or different observers.

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All these data collection techniques can be a threat to internal validity. If we for example
change to observe, inconsistencies in the manner in which questions are phrased can arise.
If we do not, observe boredom, fatigue, experience, or anticipation of results can distort the
results, of separate observations.

21.7.12 Selection
The manner in which we select the subjects to be included in control or experiential groups
can be a threat to internal validity. In any experimental situation, validity considerations
require that the groups be equivalent in every aspect. By assigning subjects randomly to
control or experimental groups, the selection problem can be largely overcome. By matching
the member of the groups on key factors, for example sex, age, or IQ, the equivalence of the
groups can be enhanced.

21.7.13 Statistical regression

Statistical regression plays a role especially when study groups are selected on the basis of
their extreme scores, for example a very low or high IQ. When we re-test the group, a
tendency for the average of the high score to decline and the low score to increase is
observed. All the scores seen to converge closer around the average score without changing
anything in the experimental setup. This tendency results from imperfect measurement
which records some persons abnormally high and other abnormally low during the first
measurement.

21.7.13.1 Mortality
Mortality affects internal validity of an investigation when the composition of the study group
changes during the test. In any longitudinal study the ideal is to re-test the original subjects
but in practice it is not always possible. For example, if spray painters were the subject of
study, it would be difficult to re-test all the subjects two years after the first test. Spray
painters can resign and can be employed elsewhere. Quite often they use new or different
type of spraying booths. Others change their profession or stop working as a result of health
considerations. Under ideal situations, the problem can be overcome by choosing a much
larger sample to compensate for the attrition during the investigation or by random
assignment. However, mortality can also take place without losing one subject during the
investigation and this situation complicates internal validity. Emory and Cooper (1991:426)
list five additional factors which are an added threat to internal validity.

21.7.14 Diffusion or imitation of treatment

It can happen that the people in the control and experimental groups can communicate.
They can discuss the treatment and in the process eliminate the difference between the
groups.

21.7.15 Compensatory equalisation

The design of the investigation may be such that the experimental treatment is more
desirable and administratively there may be a reluctance to deprive the control group
members. Such compensatory actions may confound the investigation.

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21.7.16 Compensatory rivalry

It can also happen that the members of to control group also know that they are the
control group. This may generate competitive pressures, causing the control group
members to try harder.

21.7.17 Resentful demoralization

When the design of the investigation may be such that the treatment is fascinating and
the experiment is prominent, the control groups may become resentful of their
deprivation and lower their cooperation and output.

21.7.18 Local history

The method used to assign persons to sessions where the assessment will be made
can also confound internal validity. If all experimental persons are assigned to one
group session and the control group to another, there is a chance for some idiosyncratic
event to complicate the interpretation of the results. The problem can be overcome by
administering treatments to individuals or small groups that are randomly assigned to
experimental or control sessions.

21.7.19 External validity

External validity is concerned with the conclusions reached through observation of the
sample and how much of it we can relate to the population in the real world. This is done
through induction or reasoning. Zimbabwe with its complex population distribution
associated with specific geographic areas implies that the generalisation of specific
results – technological, socio-cultural, and educational – must be treated with the
necessary caution. In many instances it is not possible to expose the total population to
the research situation. To compromise a representative sample is taken from the
population for the purposes of the investigation. But we must keep in mind that our
systems are dynamic and the sample population continuously interacts with other
populations in a specific environment. Because we are aware of these interactions, we
can broadly speaking, say that there are two types of external validity, namely
population and ecological validity. Neale and Liebert (2006:255) discuss their
characteristics as follows:

21.7.20 Population validity

Population validity refers to the question whether the responses or behaviour in the
actual research sample can be generalized to the target population.

22 Threats to population validity

Neale and Liebert (2006:257) list four threats to population validity. They all relate in
some manner to the interactions between treatment and selection of subjects
(individuals, animals, plants). The threat is there because we can almost never obtain
equal access and compliance from all the members of the target population.

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i. Cost-restricted sampling
As a result of budget constraints many most researchers can only draw their subjects
from a narrow segment of the population. It would for example, be very costly to involve
all schools in Natal in a project where pupils are interviewed on their perceptions of the
appropriateness of the feeding schemes for children at school.

ii. Self-selection and volunteer bias

A fact we cannot ignore is that the moment someone makes himself available for
inclusion in a project, the participation is voluntary. As a consequence we end up with a
group of people who are different from the general population. In studies, for example
homeopathy or chiropractic, in which it is necessary to seek volunteers who are
appraised of, and agree to participate in, certain kinds of treatments; it is possible that
the demonstrated effects will only be applicable to the sample possessing the special
characteristics of the volunteers. Neale and Liebert (2006:25) state that as a general
rule the possibility of drawing invalid generalizations because of selection bias tends to
increase directly as a function of the difficulty involved in obtaining subjects for a study.

It is interesting to note the characteristics of research volunteers. Neale and Liebert

(2006:258) reports on a literature survey done by Rosenthal and Rosnow (1999) on the
characteristics of voluntary subjects. These individuals tend to be:

 Higher in educational level

 Higher in occupational status
 Higher in the need for approval
 Higher in IQ
 Lower in authoritarianism
Ample opportunity therefore exists for any of these characteristics interact with an
experimental treatment to produce results that cannot be generalized safely.

22.1 Misuse of clinical samples

The impact of selection bias is not always obvious. The widespread use of people who
represent themselves as subjects for research invites misleading conclusions about the
traceability of their presenting problem. If we were planning to investigate the factors
associated with people who quit smoking, it might be possible to use clinical records of a
psychologist to establish the profile on people who needed therapy to quit smoking. The
records would most probably reveal the number that have been successful as well as
those smokers who have been unsuccessful and had a relapse before returning to their
smoking habits after a period of time. However, we all know someone, family or friend,
who have quitted smoking, apparently permanently. They cured themselves without
therapy. If we do not include those self-curing individuals in the investigation, can we
truly generalize our results?

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22.2 Animal research and generalisation across species

An experimental situation may, for example be catered that artificially produces a close
parallel between results obtained from animals and those from humans. The question
may be asked whether we can generalize across species. The answer is that such
research findings should be assessed rather than presumed.

22.3 Ecological validity

Ecological validity addresses the question of the degree to which it is appropriate to
generalize from one context to another. In this regard Neale and Liebert (1986:261)
mention six specific issues that influence ecological validity.

22.4 Generalisation across geographic areas

Populations may vary from location geographically. In Bulawayo Metropolitan we would for
example find that the municipal boundaries of Mzilikazi (primarily black residents) are next to
those of Thorngroove Township (primarily coloured residents). The transport methods and
systems of the two residential areas are different in many ways. Mzilikazi has no public
transport system except for school busses which operate twice a day during the week
whereas Thorngroove has taxis, buses and many people walk to their destinations.
Experiments conducted with samples drawn in Mzilikazi might not produce the same effects
had the research been designed to include Thorngroove. The matter may be complicated
when Gwanda is included in the investigation which has its own population mix and transport
systems.

22.5 Treatment by setting interactions

Treatment is associated with interaction between the experimenter and subjects as well as
the environment where the treatment takes place. Treatments can have different effects
because of the type of environment where the measurement is made (for example, the same
young men would react differently in a military camp than on a college campus). Academic
staff doing part time studies falls in the same category. As a lecturer they would discipline
students who do not hand in assignments on time. However, as a student they may also find
themselves appealing for additional time to complete assignments.

22.6 Temporal validity

The impact of time – hourly, daily, seasonal or cyclical – on the potential to generalise the
results to other times, must always be borne in mind. Laboratory animals for example,
demonstrate cyclical variations in bodily functions that make them respond to drug or
environmental treatments very differently at one time than another.

22.7 Generalising across treatments

When subjects are exposed to more than one treatment, the experimental effects may be
limited to persons who in fact have experienced multiple treatments and may not be
generalisable in terms of the effectiveness of the treatments when applied singly. Campbell
and Stanley (1966) in Neale and Liebert (1986:262) call this problem multiple treatment
interference.
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22.8 Generalising from unique contexts

When data is collected on a special day-the inauguration of the state president, a major train
accident, a severe storm has taken place – the ecological validity of generalizations is
seriously threatened.

22.9 Generalisation across experimenter

In most instances where research is done in the natural, medical and engineering sciences
data collection are done using equipment which can be calibrated using international
reference standards. The results of the investigation are comparable and the impact of the
investigator relatively minimal. In the social sciences therefore can be Neale and Liebert
(1986:264) highlights the impact of investigator characteristics on the behaviour of subjects.
Characteristics such as race, sex, and likeability of the investigator have been shown to be
potential influences. Gender and the topic being interviewed also determine the manner in
which the subjects respond to the questions. The importance of controlling possible
investigator effects by making all research personnel ‘neutral’ as possible is stressed. This is
achieved by pertaining all personnel through script writing and rehearsing procedures before
the investigation start.

22.10 Practically
The scientific requirements of a project call for the measurement process to be reliable and
valid, while the operational requirements call for it to be practical. Thorndike and Hagan
(1999) define practically in terms of economy, convenience and interpretability. Their
definition refers mainly to the development of educational psychological tests but Emory and
Cooper (1991:189) stress that their conclusions hold for other measurements as well.

22.11 Economy
When we design a project a trade-off is usually needed between the ideal research
project and that which the budget can afford. Economic realities are the main
determinants for the choices regarding the measurement instrumentation. Consider the
following: experiments involve samples, chemicals and equipment. In each instance
cost will influence the choice regarding the number of treatments, experimental units
and the nature of the observations. Descriptive survey techniques involve
questionnaires, telephonic surveys and interviews. Cost will influence choices
concerning:
 The number of items to be included in the questionnaire or interview;
 The time available to do long distance telephonic surveys
 The potential to re-use test material usage after the initial investigation;
 The use of trained interviewers during interviews;
 The method for data capture and processing. If the need exists for fast and
timeous accurate information, then agencies that specialise data capturing
can be used.

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22.12 Convenience
A measuring device passes the convenience test if it is easy to manage. In this context
Grunewald (1985;179) reports that too many researchers in the new product areas opt
to design research instruments (questionnaires) that are highly structured; lots of
multiple choice, agree or disagree, and checklist type of questions that, in most case,
facilitate ‘testing’, but deter ‘learning’. The objective of using the highly structured
questionnaire is to generate numbers which in turn influences objectivity and the
decision making process at relatively low cost. Grunewald (1985:170) emphasise that
the use of closed-end or tick –off questions are attractive because they are:
 Easy to administer’
 East to tabulate;
 Easy to correlate with other tests,
 Less expensive to both administer and to tabulate
 Easy to understand.
All these elements make the data collection process convenient and of the sample is large
and random, the opportunity exist to introduce a vast variety of statistical analysis
techniques. However, convenience must not impact on the measurement process.
Grunewald (1985:179) mentions that in new product development work, particularly in the
early stages, questionnaires are used to establish the true needs of consumers. In this
process highly structured, close-end questions serve to suppress the respondent, rendering
him or her freedom to only signal when presented with agreeable or disagreeable stimuli.
These questions or statements which relate to the stimuli (usually mock-up versions of the
new product) unfortunately are often based on the assumption that the developers have
learned all there is to know about a new product-and all that is left over from research is to
find out what numbers of people feel this way or that.

22.13 Interpretability
Leedy (1989:103) makes it very clear that research is never a solo flight. It is an activity that
involves many people and often the use of resources which are available in other
departments or localities. It is a process that must be aired, laid out, inspected, and in nearly
every instance, approved by others. The approval depends on the ability of other
researchers or public to be able to interpret the results. If standardized tests are used, then
interpretation of the results can be done over a wide front. When we deviate from the
standard or develop new standards, then we need to introduce a number of aids to assist
with the interpretation. In this context Emory and Cooper (1991:190) suggest that the
following should be included in the research report:

a) A statement of the functions which the test was designed to measure and of the
general procedure by which it was developed
b) Detailed instructions for administering the test
c) Scoring keys and specific instructions for scoring the test
d) Norms for appropriate reference groups
e) Evidence about the reliability of the test.

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f) Evidence on the inter correlations of sub scores

g) Evidence on the relationship of the test to other evidence.
h) Guides for using the test and interpreting the results

23 STATISTICS
Why do we need statistics in research? BECAUSE WE NEED A TOOL TO HELP US TO
MAKE DECISIONS!

When we collect data or facts we must at some stage in the research process decide to:

 Accept or reject the data;

 Indicate the degree of similarity or difference of the data in the view of previous
studies;
 Announce whether the results make a new contribution to the pool of knowledge
or not
In all such instances the decision must be made at some level of confidence. To be able to
do it objectively, the third tool of research namely statistics is needed. Freund and Williams
(not-dated) stress that the sound statistical treatment of a problem consists a good deal
more than making a few observations, performing some calculations, and drawing some sort
of conclusion. Questions as to how the data are collected and how the whole investigation is
planned are of basics importance as elsewhere, you “get nothing from nothing” in statistics,
and unless proper care is taken in all phases of an investigation-from the conception and
statement of the problem (sometimes, the hardest job of them all) to the planning and
design, through the stages of data collection, analysis, and interpretation – no useful valid
conclusion whatever may be reached. No fancy mathematical manipulation of data on the
most expensive computer hardware in the world can salvage poorly designed surveys or
experiments. Statistics is a decision making tool which through its own special symbols and
grammar takes everyday facts and translates them into numerical forms of expression
before the final decisions are made.

In recent years, business decisions have come to depend more and more on the analysis of
very large sets of data. Small businesses need information about the income patterns and
population characteristics in areas they serve; market research analysts must deal with the
views expressed by thousands of shoppers; government statisticians must handle, analyse
and interpret voluminous data collected in census of various kinds. This trend in the use of
mass data is due partly to the increasing availability of high-speed computers and
sophisticated computer software.

Operationally statistics encourages the investigator:

 To summarise mass data by presenting them in condensed form, for example in
tables or charts.

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 To express measures of location, central tendency and of variation to predict

favourable and unfavourable outcomes of an event by utilizing historical information
 To formulate problems clearly, anticipate the consequences to make inferences
about the mean (averages), the measure of variation and also the percentage or
proportion of a population
 To explore the relationships between variables. When the value of one variable is
known, the value of a second variable can be predicted and the strength
(correlation) of the link between the two variables can be demonstrated.

23.1 A word of caution.

Leedy (1989:185) points out that statistics is not the be-all and end-all for the researcher. He
stresses that those who insist that research is not research unless it is statistically displayed
have a myopic view of the research process. One cardinal rule applies: “The nature of data
govern the method that is appropriate to interpret the data and the tool of research that is
required to process those data”.

23.2 Language
We need language to communicate. The ultimate purpose of the research effort is to make
a contribution to the pool of knowledge and this is done by writing a research report. The
research report is a straightforward document that sets forth clearly and precisely what you,
as the researcher, had done to resolve the research problem. Success is related to how
well the document communicates results in your absence. To be able to produce such a
document implies that you must possess the ability to use language to communicate the
findings of your investigation.

In the Zimbabwean academic environment many prescribed textbooks and manuals are in
the medium of English. It is common practice in colleges and universities to invite overseas
guest lecturers from all over the world, arrange international conferences and to exchange
students and staff. When that happens the medium of communication which will be English.
However, for a great number of Zimbabwean students English is a foreign language or
perhaps a second language. Since academic performances of students are closely linked
with their command of the language of instruction, the language barrier may have an impact
on the students’ academic competency and potential development. The problem is
compounded when:
 When research results are reported. In Zimbabwe most dissertations and
findings are written in English or Afrikaans. In both instances reporting research
is adequate to communicate the latest developments in the field of study.
 You do not think clearly. Clear thinking is based upon the ability to think
logically, sequentially, and concretely. Furthermore, to put thoughts on paper
require that you require mental energy. If you operate on the premise that it is
not necessary to do both, the research effort will be doomed to disaster.
 When the target audience is multi-functional. A research and development or
problem-solving operation in the Zimbabwean industrial environment provides

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its own particular challenges. Communication will be a major challenge because

of the diversity of languages of the various cultural groups of our society. When
we think of product development it is important to be able to translate the
language of the market place into production terminology. This alone can be a
major problem. Within the organization, reports such as feasibility studies,
technical notes and memo go from the shop floor to top management. It also
circulates among colleagues at the same level. Many reports are rewritten for
public consumption because profit-earning companies must create and improve
their public image and attract customers, shareholders and applicants for
employment. Their success will depend upon their ability to communicate
effectively.
 Technical language need to be adapted to suit specific operations. Situations
can arise where the research for example addresses the broad social issues in
commerce, industry or our community. As a result of the broadness and
multifaceted nature of the problem area, the participative nature of team who will
be investigating the issues, be highly trans-disciplinary because the objective of
the investigation will be to generate the greatest degree of social accountability.
All team members may not even have adequate research training or
experience. Nevertheless, new knowledge will be produced in the process but
the vocabulary used in the process should be adequate for the environment
where the research will be conducted and where the results will be
implemented.
Changing terms:

 “Problem Statement” to Main Task or Main Objective

 Sub-problems to Phase one and phase two or even sub tasks
 Hypothesis to success criteria, targets or even turnover
May help members of the team as well as target population to associate themselves with the
project. If the participative project was conducted in the factory environment, the use of the
word hypothesis may make technicians feel that you are trying to be superior, whereas
success indicators, targets or turn over are words that are commonly used to a predicting
production and services output.

Attitudes and perceptions of people in a multi-cultural environment are investigated. The

diversity of languages and cultures in the Zimbabwean society places tremendous
responsibility on the researcher when researching attitudes and perceptions of the general
population. If you were to investigate the dietary needs and wants of workers in a factory
canteen then the direct translation of a questionnaire from English into Shona, Zulu or
Kalanga does not guarantee that the same variable will be measured. Religion, culture and
level of literacy may cloud the type of response you get during the survey. In such an
instance you will have to make a concerted effort to demonstrate the validity of the results
and your command of language will determine the acceptability of your account.

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Knowledge is public property and research is information shared by researchers throughout

the world. Many discoveries are reported in the native language of researcher. This fact
places a tremendous responsibility on researchers throughout the world because new
discoveries can only be confirmed by taking cognizance of developments that already exist.
In this context it is understandable that most Diploma programmes of universities have
language requirements, which may require a reading competency in one or two foreign
languages. The choice of the language may be linked to the area of the proposed research
for example; the Japanese have been on the fore front of the development of electronics and
robotics. Any student in these fields will at some stage encounter literature written by
Japanese researchers operating on the thresholds on new development. Operating manuals
are often translated from a foreign language and this can cause interpretation problems later
in the laboratory.

24 Computers and its software

Before discussing the computer as a tool of research, it is recommended that non-typists
seriously apply themselves to learn to type correctly. The rewards are tremendous because
the acquired typing skill makes it possible for the computer user to get more work done in a
given period of time. The computer is a dumb instrument and software is needed to extract
useful information. Personal computers or PCs can accomplish a great variety of tasks, but
their ability to accomplish a function depends on the software used. There are various types
of software packages and most are compatible with the computers available on the market.

Computers may be used throughout the production of a dissertation or theses. For a skilled
computer user this may be obvious. However, the individual who performs everything
manually and who has not been initiated into the world of computers, it may enlighten
following the path of a dissertation to appreciate where and how computers are used.
Computers and its associated software are used:
 In the library. Literature can be scrutinized using the CD ROM (Compact disk)
literature abstracts. For this scanning process an ordinary personal computer (PC) is
used and you can do the scanning on any topic which is related to your research.
The exciting part of the system is that you have the opportunity to experiment with
combinations of keyword because the process is cheap and the time you spend on
scanning the information is not critical. Abstracts of the articles which are of interest
can be down loaded (or copied) on a floppy disk for further processing on the
computer at home. Alternatively, “the on-line computerized services” available in the
library can also be used, for example DIALOG, EBSCO, SABINET, EMERALD. For
this scanning process the assistance of the subject librarian is needed. The searches
and the immediate printing of the relevant information may be costly. A cheaper
alternative is to request articles of interest through inter-library loans and obviously
time may become a critical factor.
 For database or information management. Various software packages are available
on the market. On the one side of the range there is the easy to use PFS (personal
filing systems) databases and on the other side the more complicated Microsoft

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Access and Dbase IV software packages. Microsoft Windows have a facility called
“card file” which is also a simple but effective information managing system.
 For word processing. Word processing software packages for example Microsoft
Word for Windows, Word Perfect and Microsoft Word for grammar checking facilities.
They also have a Thesaurus-lists of words grouped together according to their
connections between their meanings rather than in an alphabetical list. Furthermore it
is possible to create tables, graphical presentations, reference lists, and indexes.
While compiling the text, the dictionaries and thesaurus can be accessed when
necessary. These software packages can be purchased through most computer retail
outlets at most shopping centres.
 For statistical analysis for quantitative data. Three main statistical packages are
SPSS (Statistical Packages for Social Sciences), SAS (Statistical Analysis System)
and Statgraph. These packages are expensive and are usually available on the
computer systems of universities and colleges and are extremely flexible in term of
what you can do with your data. They have the ability to handle a very large data set.
Small less sophisticated packages are also available for use on PCs. However, there
is a limit on the size of the data set it can handle and because simple changes are
very time consuming; their application potential may in the long run be very
expensive.
 For analysis of qualitative data. The analysis of qualitative data can be greatly
facilitated by using computer software which has been developed specifically for use
in the IBM and Apple Macintosh environment. These programmes make provision for
coding of segments of the text which are retrieved at later stage or combinations of
codes.
 To present results graphically for slid shows and publications. The graphical display
of research findings is greatly enhanced by software which was developed
specifically for this purpose.
 To streamline and protect your system. Disk utility or assistance libraries for example
Norton Utilities, PC Tools Deluxe and Microsoft Windows are special software
programmes designed to make living with your computer easier. They allow you to
perform numerous operations that facilitate working with DOS, such as formatting
and copying disks, checking disks and files for errors, recovering files that have been
inadvertently deleted. This software may also have “desktop management” facilities
which inclined a notepad, calculator, appointment scheduler and auto-dialer.
 To communicate with other researchers locally and globally. The development of
internet…..

24.1 Comment
Students usually rave about the electronic tool they have been using for documenting
their research. On the side it is fun to use the computer and on the other side it is
intrinsically motivating as a thinking tool. While it reduces the inauthentic labour
associated with the preparation of the dissertation. It also promotes the
conceptualization, organizing and presentation processes. Because it is so easy to copy

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(pirate) software, the temptation to explore the potential of related programs always
exist. From a moral, legal perspective, this type of activity cannot be conducted.

25 Problem identification and development

When you finally decide to register for a Diploma, postgraduate or Diploma study and you
are fortunate to be accepted at a University or College department where an established
research programme is already in existence, then the identification of a problem for research
is a relatively easy task. The synergy to sustain the respective department’s research
programme already exists and you as the prospective student will definitely benefit from the
department’s on-going research endeavour. During the first interview the head of the
department will most probably indicate that:
 A number of research areas have already been identified which are suitable for
masters or Diploma research
 Supervisors or promoters are available to counsel prospective Diploma or masters
students.
 Funds are available or can be obtained for research and assistantships. The
assistantship creates the opportunity to do your research on campus, virtually on a
full-time basis.
 Other resources for example literature and equipment are available.

But what happens to those many distance education students who are employed on a full-
time basis in rural areas? How do they identify a research problem in the environment where
they work?
1. Start right at the beginning of the research cycle, namely when you make the
observation (O). Write all the details of the observation you made on a black board or
paper so that what you record is visible at all times – to yourself and everybody in the
audience. It is important that your audience become aware of the:
 The background to the problem and
 The implications of what will happen if the problem is not solved.

Keep this information because you will need it later when you the section on the “Motivation
for the study”.

25.1 Comment
Always keep it in mind that the problem only exist because your experience,
understanding and background knowledge suggest that a gap exists between what you
actually observe and what you expected to see in the first place.
2. State the goal (G) to be achieved. This initial goal statement which will be redefined
in step 5 only indicates the direction in which the project will develop. It is possible to
make such a statement at this stage because the observation is as a result of an
awareness of an imbalance that exist and the goal statement is only announcement
of what you believe the situation or explanation actually should be.

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3. Generate questions (Q) on aspects of the observation recorded in step one to identify
the elements which constitute the problem (P). These questions are ‘ideas’ of how
you may want to start the investigation. The following type of questions are often
asked:
 How much will it cost to develop the prototype?
 Who will be responsible for collecting the data?
 Where can I find the information which is required for the investigation?
 How does that information compare with last year’s figures?
Note that the answers to the type of questions are basically straight forward. A phone call or
two will provide the answers needed – almost a “yes” or “no” situation. This is the type of
problem Leedy (1988:47) refers to as being not researchable because they do not demand
interpretation or special techniques to find an answer and will therefore not initiate research.
Remember research is concerned with discovering and explaining the ‘what’, ‘why’, ‘how’
which relates to ‘factors’, ‘elements’, ‘circumstances’ and many other causes. Therefore the
type of questions we ask must encourage us to focus on those elements which will demand
interpretation before we really can understand the ramifications of the solution to our
problem. Ask the following type of questions:
 What is the relationship between bearing damage, fretting and natural vibration in
stationary roller bearings and how can it be demonstrated?
 In what manner do the design characteristics of spray booths affect the working
conditions under which spray painters operate?
 Can we recognize the factors that affect effective personnel recruitment and how
does it relate to cost effectiveness?

There is no limit to the number of questions that can be asked but in the face of the
observation recorded in step one, anything up to fourteen questions can be asked. Because
the questions force us to generate ideas and problem, an important step towards
conceptualizing of the problem situation is made. Remember, ideas and concepts are basic
ingredients of the building blocks.
4. Reduce the number of questions to form constructs. Assume fourteen questions
were listed. Reduce the number of questions to an absolute minimum by identifying the
most important and all-embracing questions and in the process eliminate the other. This
is done through close inspection of the questions. By starting with question one, ask
yourself or the assembled group: “If we can find the answers to questions to question
one of the list, will it also provide the answers to question two? Three? Four...fourteen?
Soon you will notice that the answer of one particular question will be so embracing that
it will also provide the answer to a number of the other questions on the list. Repeat the
process with the remaining questions and eliminate. Normally it is possible to reduce a
number of questions to about two or three and in the process the concepts trapped in the
eliminated questions have become the building blocks of the constructs. These
constructs will in turn become the building blocks of the theory which we will ultimately
test by either accepting or rejecting hypotheses (a topic to be introduced later).

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Furthermore, constructs are also the variables which are needed to indicate how the
problem will be solved.

25.2 Comment
It must be emphasized that once the variables have been identified the method to solve
the problem is indicated. For example, the relationship between the variables
temperature and amphibian heart rate implies experimentation and definitely not a
survey. The relationship between the variables public perception of environmental
management and industrial development implies the use of questionnaires of some sort
and definitely not a laboratory based investigation.

5. Revisit the goal statement and restate if necessary. Because you understand the
ramifications of the problem area, it can happen that the goal which you stated in step
two is not valid anymore. Consequently it must be adjusted and when this takes place
you have conceptualized and distilled the true elements of the problem in the
observation you made.

The amazing part of what has happened in this entire process-from idea generation to the
development of the constructs is that you have now identified the building blocks of a theory
which will be expressed in the problem statement which will be formulated. When you write
that problem statement, you are basically saying: “Our investigation into the relationship
between these constructs will show that this type of outcome is theoretically possible”. Note
that nowhere the words testing or predicting is used. There is a big difference between
theorizing and predicting what the outcome of an investigation will be. This will be explained
when hypotheses are discussed.

25.3 Comment
Every discipline or profession has some theory which attempts to explain some aspects
of its function, structure or organization. That is why we speak of organization theory or
education theory. We want to believe that the purpose of research is to test theory,
deflect a theory, or initiate a new theory. The consequences of reformulating a theory
may for example lead to new construction techniques for bridges or the generation of
new hypotheses.

25.4 Writing the problem statement (P+M→G)

Once the underlying problem, constructs (now called variables) and goal have been
identified, the scene is set to write the problem statement. A basic format is suggested here,
which definitely will change later depending on your experience and circumstances where
you work.

The problem can also be stated in a question form. The question should express the
relation between two or more variables and should imply possibilities for empirical
testing. The same process of conceptualizing and distillation will be followed.

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25.4.1 Problem statement control questions

Test the statement to establish whether it satisfies the requirements for problem statements.
Ask the following six questions:
1) Is the problem to be researched an excuse for achieving self-enlightment or
collecting information?
2) Is the research simply a comparison of two or more sets of data?
3) Will the results of the investigation be used only to find a correlation between two
sets of data?
4) Is the answer to the problem a simple yes or no?
5) Is there a definite indication of a need for interpretations of the data?
6) Has the goal of the research been stated clearly?

Answers to questions 1 to 4 should be “NO” while answers to questions 5 and 6 should be

“YES”; otherwise the statement of the problem is incorrect.
The role variables in the problem statement development

At this stage of the problem statement development it is necessary to give a brief account of
the role of the variables in the variables in the project development process. The relationship
between variables also suggest the method (M) needed to breach the gap between the
problem and the goal. To illustrate, the problem statement in its simplest form can take on
the following format:

P + M → G where:
(Problem) (Method) (Goal)
Method (M) represents the relationship between dependent variable A and independent
variable B. We therefore can re-write the problem statement format as:

P + A/B G
(Problem) (Variable) (Goal)
Once we appreciate the relationship between variables and method we can now explore
various combinations for the variables. After conceptualization of the problem it may become
clear that the solution of the problem will only become clear after the relationship between a
numbers of variables have been investigated. For example we may have the following
combinations:

A+B or A or A+B or A+B+C

C B+C C+D D+E
Each combination of variables suggests a different method for reaching the goal, thus
solving the problem. The scope and implications of this will become clear once we have
discussed the development of sub problems. It also interesting to observe how naturally we
express goal statements in terms of the variables which make up the problem. Politicians,
community and military leaders, businessmen – they all express their long term visions in
terms of the variables that are related to the goals they aim to achieve.

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25.4.2 The sub problems

25.4.2.1 Characteristics of sub problems

Most problems are too large or complex to be solved without breaking it down into smaller,
easier to control units. The strategy, therefore, is to group the variables into groups in order
to focus on smaller, distinctive sub goals. From a research point of view, these units are
easier to comprehend and resolve.

These discrete units are called sub problems. Leedy (1989:54) has the following to say
about sub problems.
1. Each sub problem should be a completely researchable unit. A sub problem should
be a logical sub area research undertaking. Each sub problem might be researched
as a separate sub project within the larger research goal. The solutions of the sub
problems combine to resolve the main problem.
2. Pseudo sub problems are not researchable sub problems. The word pseudo means
false. In any research project there is great potential for confusing the true research
problem with methods or equipment to be used. There are other problems also
demanding answers that will affect the outcome of the research – but they are not
sub problems. They are decisions to be made outside the principal area of research.
Consider the following:
 What measurement tools are available for measuring manual dexterity in the
selection of trainees for dental technology?
 How do I determine the cost for the investigation?
 What is the best way to choose a sample?
Note that the focus of pseudo sub problems is on collecting data or on the lack of knowledge
on the part of the researcher. Answers to these types of questions can be obtained by
scanning the available literature or consulting the right person.

It is also possible to confuse the instrument we use to measure the changing values of the
variables, for example:
 Temperature (variable) and thermometer (instrument);
 Perceptions (variable) and questionnaire (instrument).

3. Within each sub problem the need for interpretation of the data must be apparent.
Note that the words analyse and establish in sub problem one of Exhibit 3-3 indicate
that the results will have to be interpreted before any conclusion can be reached.
They also suggest that a specific method will have to be found to extract the
necessary facts from the environment.
4. The sub problems must add up to the totality of the problem. Refer to the main
problem statement and the sub problem statements. Note the goals of the sub
problems:

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Notice that all the significant areas of the main problem have been covered by the sub
problems one, two and three. By using the words integrate in sub problem four we
indicate how the totality of the results of goal one, two and three add up to the solution of
the main problem.
5. Proliferation of sub problems is suspect. If the main problem has been carefully
stated and the variables clearly identified, it will probably contain two to six sub
problems. If there are more, the problem and its attendant sub problems should be
reviewed. You should study each sub problem to see whether it is truly part of the
main problem or whether it is truly part of the main problem or whether it falls into
one or more of the following categories:
 Personal problems that have been confused with problems for research.
 Inability to distinguish between variables and instrumentation
 A mixture of the above.

6. Beware of unrealistic goals. Be cautious of committing yourself beyond what is

possible to achieve.

25.4.2.2 Comment
This statement is of special significance to students, technologists and mangers
operating at all levels. For example, if a problem needs to be solved in a business where
the technology is limited to hammers and nails only, it will be senseless to formulate a
project that will use resources only available outside confines of the business where the
problem originated. The reasons are obvious – the results will not be compatible with the
situation inside the company and therefore have little or no implementation value. Time
and resources will have been wasted.

25.4.3 Identifying sub problems

The identification of sub problem within the main problem may prove difficult for some
students. With reference to the example in Exhibit 3-2 the following is suggested:
1) Write the main problem statement. Box off the dependent and independent variables
and label them as A, B, or C where applicable.
2) Group those dependent and independent variables whose relationship you wish to
investigate. Each grouping will represent a sub section (P1 and P2) of the main
problem (P) for example:

25.4.4 Problem statement

P + M → G

P + A → G
B+C

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25.4.5 Variable mix

25.4.5.1 Sub problem one

3. Identify the sub goals (G1 and G2) for each variable combination and write the sub
problem statement.
4. Ensure that the last sub problem statement is an integration of the sub goals of the sub
problems. When that is done the whole problem and sub problem statement ‘locks’ and the
project is set to develop on a focused manner.

25.4.5.2 Comment
When we integrate the sub goals of the sub problem we must appreciate that we are in reality
integrating the outcome of the theories which we have tested in the sub problems. The process
involves critical analysis of fundamental beliefs, the one focusing on scientific theory which deals
with issues of fact and the second is your personal value system. Just like idealism and realism
which are constantly interacting and are inseparable parts of a practicing professional, fact and
value are components of our personal working philosophies and they are constantly interacting
with aspects of our general experience.

25.4.6 Writing the sub problems

Writing the sub problems is a relatively straight forward process simply because most of the
work had already been done when the main problem statement had been written and the
sub problem variables had been identified. As stated before, the works that have been
completed becomes the building blocks for the work that still have to be completed. In this
instance the completed problem statement become the building brick for the writing the sub
problems. This is done as follows:

1. Write the main problem statement on a piece of paper for photocopying purposes.
The purpose of this research is to analyse the cooperative education of students at colleges
in Bulawayo (A) with reference to the

In-service training needs of Mechanical engineering students (B)

Level of industrial exposure of academic staff (C ) and

Experience of industry of in-service training programmes (D)

In order to identify key elements needed for establishing a campus industry designed to
satisfy the in-service training needs of Mechanical Engineering students in the Bulawayo
environment (G)
1) Analyse the variables and determine the number of sub problems that need to be
written. S problems can be identified.
2) Make four photocopies of the main problem statement and label the copies sub
problem one, sub problem two, sub problem three and sub problem four respectively.

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3) Use the ‘sub problem one’ photocopy. Since it was determined that sub problem one
will investigate the relationship between variables A (cooperative education
programme of students at colleges in Bulawayo) and B (in-service training needs of
Mechanical Engineering students) it means that the C and D variables can be
deleted from the sentence. This implies that the goal G also change and a sub goal
A/B relationship have to be formed. Formulate this new sub goal G1 and then write
the sub problem.
4) Repeat the exercise with the sub problem two and three. The process will produce
sub goals G2 and G3.
5) Use the sub problem and make four photocopies. Since sub problem one, two and
three addressed the relationships between variables, these can be deleted from the
problem statement sentence. Consequently, only the goal (G) will remain. Since the
last sub problem is to integrate the sub goals G1, G2 and G3 to produce the main
goal G use the sub goal statements of sub problems one, two and three to write the
last problem statement.
A further note on variables and sub problem development
1. Not all main problem statements can be broken down into sub problems.
What happens when the relationships of only two variables are investigated?
Only one main problem statement will necessary. In other words, no sub
problems are necessary.
2. The number of sub problems does not necessarily imply that more time and
finances are needed to complete the investigation. The true determinants of
time and costs are the methods selected to collect and process the data.
3. Be aware of the role of control variables during the investigation. A variable
mix can be broken down in the following manner:

26 The research proposal

David R. Krathwohl (1988:12) says a proposal: "... is a document that presents the case for
an idea and the action one proposes to take with respect to it. Some people think of it as a
sales document. ... Many successful proposals are written from that point of view; and there
are, no doubt, instances where one can justify such a frame of mind. But in general, I tend to
think that the proposer, the reviewer, and the proposal approval system are better served by
viewing the process as one of shared decision-making – one in which the proposer does the
best possible job of enthusiastically setting forth the proposed study, and the reviewers give
the proposal their fullest consideration in judging its chances of success." Locke et al (1993,
7) says: "... it is vital to remember that no universally applicable and correct format exists for
the research proposal." The correct way to start with research is to compile a research
proposal. The proposal serves to communicate the researcher's research plan to concerned
authorities and as a contract with them and as a plan of action (Locke et al, 1993, 3-4).
Lawrence Locke et al (1993, 6) writes: "Simplicity, clarity and parsimony are the standards of
writing that reflect adequate thinking about the research problem."

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The research proposal is a plan or design of the proposed research. Research design is the
planned strategy for obtaining and analysing specific information. This strategy is a clear
formulation of what the desired information entails and of the best way to obtain it. Research
design is the plan of the intended research and research methodology is the chosen way of
implementing the plan.

Johann Mouton (2002, 91) stresses two key tasks in the formulating of the research
problems: first, specifying the unit of analysis (the ‛what' of the study) and second, clarifying
the research objective or purpose (the ‛why' of the study).

For the purpose of this research module the proposal must be in the following format:
This is a detailed outline of what the research is all about and a plan of how the research is
going to be executed.
Your proposal should contain the following information:

1) Name of student and student number

2) Proposed title
3) Background statement or research problem
4) Statement of objectives
5) Justification of the research
6) Proposed methodology
7) A brief literature review, i.e. a citation of literature sources
8) Approach to data analysis
9) Ethical considerations
10) A clear and practical timetable
11) Resources required to carry out the research e.g. computer
12) Budget considerations
13) References consulted in preparing the proposal
Before you put your proposal together, you must be clear of what you want to do, why you
want to do it and how you are going to do it. It is on the strength of your proposal that ideally
supervisors will make a decision whether to sign you up or not. In the case of funded
research, your proposal will also determine whether you will be able to secure the funds for
your research.
1) Purpose of the research proposals
2) Organizing your ideas
3) Convincing your audience
4) Contracting with your client – this is in the case of research undertaken as a
consultancy.

27 Pilot study
Locke et al (1993, 80-81) says: "The pilot study is an especially useful form of anticipation,
and one too often neglected in student proposals. When it comes to convincing the scholarly

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sceptic (often your own advisor), no argument can be so effective as to write, "I tried it and
here is how it worked." It is difficult to imagine any proposal that could not be improved by
the reporting of actual preliminary work. Whether it is to demonstrate instrument reliability,
the practicality of procedures, the availability of volunteers, the variability of observed events
as a basis for power tests, subjects' capabilities, or the investigator's skills, the modest pilot
study is the best possible basis for making wise decisions in designing research."

28 Sampling
The aim of sampling in social research is to produce representative selections of population
elements (Mouton, 2002, 132).

28.1 Sampling terminology

Important sampling concepts and terminology are (Babbie and Mouton, 2001, 173-175):

1) The unit of observation is the object studied. The unit of observation gives
information on the unit of analysis. The units of observation and of analysis are often
the same but that need not be the case.
2) Element is the member of the universe who has been selected to give information.
Sample element and unit is usually the same thing.
3) Population is the broad grouping of elements about which it is intended to make
conclusions.
4) Study population or universe is the elements of the population that can be considered
for sampling. The population and the study population may correspond, but may also
differ.
5) Sampling frame is the list of sampling units from which the sample is compiled. The
sampling units are those elements of the universe that are considered for sampling.
From the sampling units elements are selected from whom information is obtained.
6) Variable is a type of characteristic of a universe in which variation is possible.
7) Parameter is a summary description of the incidence of a variable in a universe such
as an average number.
8) Statistic is a summary description of a variable in a sample.
9) Sampling error refers to the difference that may occur between parameters and
statistics for the same variable in a study.
10) Confidence levels and confidence intervals give expression to the accuracy of a
sample and its representation of the universe.
11) A sample is a subject of a population that is selected by a researcher to be able to
draw conclusions (infer) about that population.
12) A census is an investigation of all the elements making up a population
13) Sampling frame – the complete list of the population (e.g. high density suburbs)
14) Sampling unit – the basic unit containing the population elements (e.g. Nkulumane)
15) Sample elements – the individual elements in a unit (e.g. 12345 Nkulumane)

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28.2 The need for sampling

1) We may need a sample study for the following reasons among others:
2) When the population is too large
3) When destroying sample elements
4) When complete census is:
5) Too expensive
6) Inaccessible
7) Time consuming
8) Not feasible (e.g. blood test!!)
9) Inaccurate!
10) We may conduct a census….
11) When population elements are limited in number (e.g. hospitals in Bulawayo)
12) When electronic data capture has given us a complete census (e.g. laser scanners)
13) Where there are wide variations between population elements (heterogeneity)
14) Sampling design considerations covers the following issues:
15) Define target population
16) Determine sample size
17) Execute the sampling process
18) Issues to do with errors

28.3 Defining the target population

1) Has to do with identifying the relevant population for the study, e.g. grocery
shoppers, TV viewers, exporters, etc
2) Should answer the question “who do we want to talk to?’
3) Certain key characteristics must be used to define the population, e.g. age, product
usage, social class, etc.
4) Screening questions may be asked to qualify respondents
5) Sample size determination issues
6) Looks at issues to do with how large a sample is to draw in survey research.
7) Sample size has an effect on the cost of the research and more importantly on the
results.
8) The following methods are used to determine sample size;
9) Blind guesses – using informal intuition to determine how many units to sample and
the approach is completely arbitrary
10) Statistical precision – using statistical formulae to determine sample size. If for
example, interest is to measure the mean of a particular population, the statistical
formula for sample size determination is as follows:

n = (Zα)² (σ)²
E²
Where n – sample size
Zα - value indicating confidence level
σ - standard deviation

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E - acceptable magnitude of error

E.g. A study on average grocery expenditures at TM wishes to have a 95% confidence level
and a range error of $5. Estimate of the standard deviation is $30.
Note Zα = 1.96 (from normal distribution tables)

σ = $30
E = $5
n = (1.96)² (30)²
5²
= 139

Note: the higher the confidence level and the standard deviation (heterogeneity), the higher
the required sample size (value of n). Also the lower the magnitude error, the higher the
sample size.

28.3.1 The Bayesian Approach

Bases the decision on the sample size on the value of the information obtained and the cost
of taking the sample. Not very common in Business Research.

Cost limitation – determines sample size on the basis of the budget allocated to the project.
Here non-sampling costs are subtracted from the budget and then divide the balance by an
estimated cost of sampling unit to get the sample size.

Industry standards – sample size determined by following industry practice that has become
norm e.g. sample of 1 000 – 1 500 is normally used for opinion polls and 200 -300 for new
product test.
The above methods of sample size determination are not however in isolation, e.g. statistical
approach can be combined with the cost approach.

28.3.2 Sampling technique issues

Sampling design is affected by the technique of sampling to be effected by the researcher.
There are two main sampling techniques i.e. probability and non-probability sampling

28.3.2.1 Probability sampling

“A sampling technique in which every member of the population will have a known non-zero
probability of selection” (Zikmund, 1991, pp 162)
1) The selection process is based on chance i.e. purely random.
2) Results can hardly be predicted because it is based on chance (probability)
3) Probability sampling takes the following terms:
4) Simple random sampling (SRS) – A sampling procedure which ensures that each
element in the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample e.g.
conducting a draw.

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The advantages include:

1) Each element has an equal chance of selection
2) Are easy to understand
3) Enables inference on population (statistically more accurate)

The disadvantages include the following:

1) Requires identification and labelling of all population elements
2) Hence are time consuming and costly
3) Does not guarantee adequate representation of target population.

28.3.2.2 Systematic sampling

“Design whereby the target sample is generated by picking an arbitrary starting point (in a
list) and then picking every element in succession.” (Dillon, 1994, p. 237). Simpler than
SRS as there is no need to label population elements.

28.3.2.3 Stratified sampling

Divides entire population into sub-populations (strata) from each of which a sample is taken,
e.g. suppose NUST is composed of 80% males and 20% female students, a stratified
sampled of 100 student would have 80 males and 20 females i.e. proportionate to size
although it can also be disproportionate. Here the Classification variable is sex; it can be
age, geographical region, product usage etc.

28.3.2.4 Cluster sampling

“An economically efficient sampling technique in which the primary sampling unit is not the
individual element in the population, but a large cluster of elements; clusters are selected
randomly”. (Zikmund, 1991, pp.468). The main purpose of cluster sampling is to sample
economically yet still retaining the characteristics of probability sampling e.g. where the
sampling units are spatially distributed. The problem with multistage cluster sampling is
obviously that the sampling error becomes larger because the errors of the different samples
must be added together. The basic rule of multistage cluster sampling is that each cluster
must be as comprehensive as possible, but that the selected elements in the cluster must be
minimalised by sampling. Although cluster sampling is the most economical, it comprises on
accuracy and can be very complex.

28.3.2.5 Non – probability sampling

“A sampling technique in which units of the sample are selected on the basis of personal
judgment or convenience; the probability of any member of the population being chosen is
unknown”. (Zikmund 1991, p.462)
Non – probability sampling takes the following approaches:

28.3.2.6 Convenience sampling

Obtaining those respondents or units, who are more conveniently available, e.g. a lecturer
using his students as survey respondents, or mall intercept surveys. Quick and economical,
but not entirely representative, hence best for exploratory research (pilot surveys).

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28.3.2.7 Judgemental (purposive) sampling

Studies in which respondents are selected because it is expected that they are
representatives of the population of interest and/or meet the specific needs of research
study” (Dillon et al, 1994, p.244). For example test market cities are chosen because they
are reviewed as representative of the entire market.

28.3.2.8 Quota sampling

Ensures that various sub-groups of a target population with certain characteristics of interest
to the researcher are sufficiently represented in the sample. Perhaps random sampling
would result in an under or over presentation of certain subgroups. Differs from stratified
sampling since here, interviewer (researcher) has a specific quota to achieve of each
subgroup.

Quota sampling may result in a high level of bias due to the haphazard selection of
respondents and also that in the case of research conducted by agencies, interviewers may
be more interested in filling their quota. The advantages are speed of data collection, lower
costs and convenience.

28.3.2.9 Snowball sampling

An approach which obtains initial respondents using probability methods and then asks
these to provide further respondents who then can be contacted e.g. as in life assurance
policy selling. May become handy in locating members of a rare population. The other
advantage is the resultant increase in sample size and hence cost. However, bias can also
be high as the referee is most likely going to be similar to the referrer in characteristics.

28.3.2.10 Sample size

Sample size is influenced by (1) the size of the population, (2) the homogeneity or
heterogeneity of the population and (3) the degree of reliability desired for the purposes of
the investigation. A.S. de Vos (2002, 201) offers the following table of D.J. Stoker as a
possible guideline for sampling:

Population Percentage suggested Number of respondents

20 100% 20
30 80% 24
50 64% 32
100 45% 45
200 32% 64
500 20% 100
1000 14% 140
10000 4.5% 450
100000 2% 2000
200000 1% 2000
Table 9 Guidelines for Sampling
It must be remembered that non-response can decrease the number of respondents

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significantly. It is therefore usually necessary to draw a larger sample than may eventually
be needed.
There are a number of facts to take into consideration.

28.3.2.10.1 Degree of accuracy

This will vary depending on the researcher and perhaps the project at hand. Probability
sampling will yield more accurate results than the other technique.

28.3.2.10.2 Resources
The two techniques call for different levels of resources commitment. Probability sampling
(simple random sampling) will cost more than non-probability sampling e.g. Quota sampling

28.3.2.10.3 Time
Time commitment varies according to the specific approach adopted in either of the two
techniques. Nevertheless, non-probability approaches are more time saving than their
counterparts.

28.3.2.10.4 Population characteristics

Certain characteristics about the target population will have an effect on the sampling
design.
Some population might not be easy to come up with a sampling frame hence SRS will be
ruled out.
For a homogeneous population, simple approaches such as convenience or judgmental
sampling may also yield good results.

28.3.2.10.5 Geographical breath of project

Where a project covers the whole country, cluster sampling might be most appropriate as
compared to one on a local level

28.3.2.10.6 Need for statistical analysis

Probability samples will be more appropriate where inferential statistics are of concern.

28.3.2.10.7 Issues to do with errors

In any piece of research, there is bound to be some errors which emanate from different
sources. Some arise as a result of the sampling process (sampling errors) while others have
nothing to do with sample drawn (non-sampling errors)

28.3.2.10.8 Non-sampling errors

These may arise even if a census study is carried out. They take the following forms:

28.3.2.10.9 Response errors

1) Interviewer (researcher)errors
2) Non-response errors
3) Processing errors

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Response errors – Come as a result of asking people questions and for one reason or the
other respondents give “wrong” answers through:
1) Dishonesty
2) Forgetfulness
3) Failing to properly remember
4) Misunderstanding questions being asked

28.3.2.10.9.1 Interviewer errors

Errors on the part of the interviewer himself e.g. ticking the wrong answer, cheating, etc

28.3.2.10.9.2 Non-response errors

Where people refuse to answer questions or complete a questionnaire from certain reasons.
Non response may arise as a result of the following:
1) Outright refusal by respondent
2) Respondent wrongly included in sample
3) Non contactability (death, change of address etc)

28.3.2.10.9.3 Processing errors

Will occur when analysing the data, especially where a computerized data capture is used
e.g. certain entries may be duplicated or wrongly entered.
Non sampling errors cannot be reduced by simply increasing the sample size. In fact, some
kinds of errors will increase with more interviewers, questionnaires, etc

28.3.2.10.10 Sampling errors

1) Arise due to the sampling procedure
2) Represent the difference between the sample study results form a census study
results due to over or under representation of certain groups.
3) Sampling errors are of two main types.
4) Systematic error (bias)
5) Random sampling error

28.3.2.10.10.1 Systematic error

Arises when the sampling procedure has some over or under representation, which results
one direction sampling. This may be due to the fact that:
1) The selection procedures are not random
2) The selection is made from a list that does not cover the population or uses a
procedure that excludes certain groups.

Random sampling error- the degree of fluctuation that is prevalent from one unbiased
random sample to another drawn from the same population. Random sampling error will
depend on the sample size for the bigger the sample size, the less the error as it tends to
cancel out with increasing sample size (marginally though). However, the higher the target
population heterogeneity, the more prevalent is random error.

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28.3.2.10.10.2 Total survey error (TSE)

An aggregation of both sampling and non-sampling errors in a survey. Research has shown
that 94% of TSE is composed of non-sampling error.

28.3.2.11 Exercise
For your topic that you have been working on, state with justification, what sampling
technique you are going to use to draw your sample. What is your estimated sample size?
Why?

28.3.2.11.1 Questions and statements

In questionnaires and interview schedules questions and statements are used. Questions
ask for information and statements test attitudes and views, especially by means of a scale
(definitely agree, agree, uncertain, disagree, definitely disagree). An example of a question
is: “Age?” An example of a statement is: “Song should play a greater role in church services
than at present. Please comment."

28.3.2.11.1.1 Open-ended and closed-ended questions

Open-ended questions do not have any answer categories. The respondent
verbalises his or her own answer in the space provided for it. Example: “Which
practical recommendations do you wish to make for the improvement of service at
the clinic?”
Advantages of open-ended questions (Bailey, 1994, 120-121):
1. Can be used where categories are unknown.
2. Respondent can reply fully.
3. Can be used where there are too many categories.
4. Can be used for complex subjects.
5. Give more opportunity for self-expression.

Disadvantages of open-ended questions (Bailey, 1994, 121):

1. Give irrelevant information.
2. Answers are not in a standardised form.
3. Coding is difficult.
4. Not all people are able to write.
5. Answers may be too general.
6. Are more time consuming.
7. Make questionnaires lengthy.

28.3.2.11.1.2 Closed-ended questions

Closed-ended questions are questions with fixed answer categories. The respondent
must therefore only indicate which answer category is his or her answer to the
question. Example:
"Are you: Married □, Never married □, Divorced □, Widower/widow □."
Advantages of closed-ended questions are (Bailey, 1994, 118-119):
1. Standard questions are easily comparable.
2. Easily coded.
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3. Respondent knows what is meant by the question.

4. Answers are complete. Irrelevant information is not given.
5. Sensitive questions are answered more honestly, for example
questions about income.
6. Easy to answer.
Disadvantages of closed-ended questions are (Bailey, 1994, 119-120):
1. Respondent can choose a category, even if he/she did not have a
response.
2. Answers do not necessarily fall into categories.
3. Too many possible categories.
4. Different interpretations are not visible.
5. Answers are forced because of categories.
6. Writing errors are more easily made.

28.3.2.11.1.3 Contingency questions

Questions are sometimes in series. Contingency questions often follow a specific
answer. Such a contingency question should be clearly indicated, so that
respondents will definitely know whether the questions are applicable to them.
Example:
"15. Have you ever left your church for another?
Yes □ Answer questions 15.1 to 15.2.
No □ Go to question 16."
iii. Matrix questions

Matrix questions are questions with the same set of answer categories listed below
one another. The danger of matrix questions is that they can lead the respondent to
answer according to a certain pattern.
Example:
"Assess the service of the CSC in respect of the following:
Service rendering Excellent □ Good □ Average □ Below average
□ Poor □
Effectiveness Excellent □ Good □ Average □ Below average
□ Poor □
Helpfulness Excellent □ Good □ Average □ Below average
□ Poor □
UnderstandingExcellent □ Good □ Average □ Below average □ Poor□"

iv. Make items clear

The respondent must know exactly which information is required by the question.

v. Avoid double-barrelled questions

Questions must not be two questions in one. “And” must not occur in a question. "Or"
must be used carefully.
vi. Respondents must be competent to answer.
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The information asked for must be of such a kind that it is possible for the respondent
to provide the information.

vii. Respondents must be willing to answer.

People must be willing to provide the required information.

viii. Questions must be appropriate

Questions must be appropriate for most respondents. Respondents often answer
questions which are not appropriate to them. Those answers are invalid.

ix. Short items are better

Short items (questions and statements) are best.

x. Avoid negative items

Items (questions and statements) should preferably be positive and not negative.
Avoid “not”.

xi. Avoid biased items and terms

Items (questions and statements) and terms must not contain biased opinions of the
researcher. It influences the answers of respondents.

xii. Translation
Translation may cause differences in meaning between the same items in the
questionnaires in different languages. It should therefore be handled very carefully.

29 DATA COLLECTION METHODS

29.1 Choosing an applicable method
To obtain information from the social world, a specific population must be identified and then
the most applicable methods, instruments and measures must be chosen to get information
from the selected population. Important in this choice is two matters: (1) Reactivity is a great
problem in the social sciences. The fact that human beings are the ‛objects' of inquiry in
social research creates problems that are not encountered in the physical sciences. Human
beings normally react to the fact that they are being studied and investigated. Reactivity is a
function of the kind of data source used and of the measures of control that the researcher
uses. (Mouton, 2002, 141) Three main kinds of observation effects are sources of error
during the process of data collection. These are effects associated with the researcher
himself, effects that originate with the participant or research subject, and context effects,
which originate in the research setting (Mouton, 2002, 148). (2) The degree to which
controllability is desired in the collection of information also influences the choice of
methods, instruments and measures. They differ in the degree of controllability they offer
and it will therefore influence the choice that will be made.

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29.2 The time dimension

Observation in research may be done at one time or over a long period.

29.2.1 Cross-sectional research

Exploratory and descriptive research usually focuses on a condition that prevails at a
particular time. A census is a good example of this. Explanatory research may also be cross-
sectional research. A problem of cross-sectional research is that it is difficult to draw
conclusions from it. Inferences about the influence of time may, however, be made from
cross-sectional research. Logical inferences or time-related information may be used in
studies to estimate the influence of time.

29.2.2 Research over time (longitudinal research)

Research over time gathers information in the course of time. There are three kinds: (i)
Trend studies focus on the changes that occur within a selected population, (ii) cohort
studies focus on changes within an identified sub-population over time and (iii) panel studies
gather information about exactly the same group of people at different times. Research over
time is expensive and time consuming. Panel studies are hampered by members of the
panel who die or with whom contact is lost.

30 Methods available
Table below suggests applicable data collection techniques for each research design:
Research designs Data collection techniques
Survey Questionnaire (self-administered), Structured interview
Semi-structured interview, Focus groups, Group interviews
Experiment Structured observation, Semi-structured observation
Unstructured observation, Questionnaire , Structured interview
Unobtrusive research Content analysis of documents, pictures and photographs
Historical/comparative analysis, Secondary analysis of retrieved data and
statistics , Analysis of captured video and audio data , Physical remnants
of social behaviour
Case / Qualitative study Structured observation, Semi-structured observation
Unstructured observation, Participant observation
Oral/life histories, Focused interview, In-depth interview, Focus groups,
Group interviews, Biography
Participatory action research Self-survey and self-case study techniques
Conceptual research In-depth literature review, Focus groups
Topical questionnaires (self-administered), Structured observation,
Content analysis of documents
Intervention research Questionnaire , Structured interview
Semi-structured interview, Focused interview
In-depth interview, Focus groups, Group interviews
Content analysis of existing documents, Secondary analysis
Evaluation research Questionnaire , Structured interview, Semi-structured interview, Focus
groups, Group interviews, Content analysis of existing documents,
Secondary analysis
Table 10 Research Design and Data Collection Methods

The following sections discuss some important aspects of the research designs and data
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collections techniques.

30.1 Survey
30.1.1 Introduction
Although surveys are generally used, it is a problem in South Africa, because researchers
using interviews often differ from their respondents with regard to culture and language. This
may easily lead to unreliability in the survey because the items of the survey are interpreted
differently by the respondents. For this reason it is important to understand how reliable
instruments must be designed to obtain valid survey results.

Survey research can be used for descriptive, explanatory and exploratory research. It is a
useful way to obtain information, especially from a large population. It has great advantages
in respect of cost and time.

Questionnaires are the most important instruments used in surveys to gather information. It
is therefore important to take careful notice of the nature of a questionnaire. The questions in
a questionnaire are used to measure the chosen concepts (variables) of the study. In the
following sections an indication is given of what a questionnaire consists of and how it
should be handled when compiling a questionnaire.

30.1.2 Questionnaire construction

Questions may be identified by asking in respect of the problem statement: “What causes
it?” If, for example, the incidence of famine is studied in an area, it may be asked in respect
thereof, what causes it? It may be caused by a shortage of food or malnutrition. This can be
followed by asking in connection with food shortage, “What causes it?”, and the same in
respect of malnutrition. It may be proceeded in this way until a number of items have been
identified which provide comprehensive information concerning the problem of famine which
is being studied. It is further also important to keep the following in mind when compiling a
questionnaire.

30.1.2.1 General questionnaire format

The format of the questionnaire must be reader friendly. The questions should be spread
out, so that the reader can easily identify each question.

30.1.2.2 Formats for respondents

In closed-ended questions, respondents should preferably mark a box or circle an
appropriate number.

30.1.2.3 Ordering items in a questionnaire

Questions should be ordered in such a way that they do not influence one another. In the
case of posted questionnaires, the interesting questions should appear early, while in the
case of interviews the first questions must be non-threatening.

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30.1.2.4 Instructions
Questionnaires must contain clear instructions for respondents or interviewers. Each section
should be illustrated and the way to answer this type of question must be explained.

30.1.2.5 Pre-testing the questionnaire

Questionnaires must be tested before use. A number of people representing the target
group must complete the questionnaire and afterwards they must give feed-back about their
impressions of the questionnaire.

30.1.2.6 Follow-up letters

Researchers handle the question of encouragement as they deem it necessary and there
are no fixed rules in this regard. Usually a reminder, together with a questionnaire, is sent
between the second and fourth weeks to respondents who did not reply to the original
questionnaire. A further reminder can be sent a week later. This can later be followed up by
a telephone call.

If anonymity in respect of the questionnaire is guaranteed, a reminder to respond cannot be

sent, because no record is kept to link questionnaires to respondents. This problem can be
overcome by the following methods, for example:
i. Send a reminder to all. (Causes resent among those who have already
returned the questionnaire.)
ii. Not using anonymity. (Losing advantages of anonymity).
iii. Provide a card which has to be returned. (Card may be returned without
questionnaire!)

30.1.2.6.1 Acceptable response rates

Experience has shown that posted questionnaires without follow-up have a response rate of
50-60%. Posted questionnaires with reminders following have a response rate of about 75%.
These percentages vary from study to study.

30.1.2.6.1.1 Interviewing
Interviewing is an important method available to the researcher to gather information. During
interviews the researcher has direct contact with respondents, while with posted
questionnaires the researcher has no contact with respondents. Interviews are especially
used to overcome the problem of illiteracy among respondents or to obtain more in-depth
information.

30.1.2.7 The role of the interviewer

Because the interview is an interaction process between two people, it is possible that a
number of factors may, consciously and unconsciously, influence the interaction process,
whereby the flow of information between the two persons may fail or may be hampered. The
respondent may, for example, deliberately lie, unknowingly give incorrect information,
accidentally give wrong information, or simply forget information. The interviewer may
formulate the questions incorrectly, ask searching questions erroneously, interpret answers

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incorrectly, or deliberately distort the information.

A person will reveal his/her deepest feelings in a primary relationship with other people. This
is a relationship in which people know each other intimately. In secondary relationships, in
which people do not know each other well, people are not prepared to disclose their deepest
feelings. The person is only prepared to disclose as much of him/her as he/she considers
being expedient in the relationship with the other person not intimately known. It is therefore
unlikely that the respondent will reveal his/her deepest feelings to the interviewer during
interviews.

30.1.2.8 General rules for face-to-face interviews

i. Characteristics of field worker
The field worker must preferably be able to speak the respondent’s home
language and be similar in respect of culture, gender and age. Such a match
is impossible in a heterogeneous society.

ii. Appearance and demeanour

The field worker must be clean and neat. Clothes must be inconspicuous. The
field worker must be relaxed and friendly.

iii. Familiarity with questionnaire

The field worker must know the instructions and the questions of the
questionnaire well and be able to read them with ease.

iv. Following question wording correctly

The field worker must ask the questions exactly as they are phrased in the
interview schedule.

v. Recording responses exactly

Field workers must record respondents’ answers as precisely as possible.
Field workers may also write comments on body language and other non-
verbal signals with the answers.
vi. Probing for responses
Probing questions are used to persuade the respondent to answer more fully
or to formulate his/her answer more clearly. It is also used to eliminate
unnecessary information and to ensure that everything is covered in the
answer. The following are examples:
1. Repeat the question.
2. Repeat the answer.
3. Show understanding and interest.
4. Wait.
5. A neutral question or statement.

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30.1.2.9 Telephone interviews

Interviewing by telephone is an important way of gathering information from a selected
population with access to telephones. The advantages of telephone interviews are:
i. Speed.
ii. Cost-effective.
iii. Anonymous.
iv. No geographical limits.
The disadvantages are:
i. Limited motivation of respondents to participate.
ii. Confidence of respondent during interview is low.
iii. No visual material can be shown to respondent.
iv. Non-verbal responses cannot be observed.
v. Interviewer does not have full control over interview situation.

30.1.2.10 Experiments

30.1.2.10.1 Independent and dependent variables

In classical experiments the relationship between two variables is tested, one variable being
regarded as the cause (independent variable) of the other (dependent variable). Example of
statement: Racial prejudice (dependent variable) is caused by a lack of knowledge of the
history of black people in South Africa (independent variable). In an experiment,
respondents’ racial prejudice will therefore first be measured, after which they will be
exposed to an information session about the history of black people in South Africa, and
then their racial prejudice will be measured again. If their racial prejudice is less than before,
the conclusion can be made that the original statement (hypothesis) was correct.
b. Closeness of the experiment

The experimenter must identify the independent and dependent variables. In addition, all the
other possible variables which may influence the independent and dependent variables must
be determined, and these other variables must then be checked so that they do not play a
role during the experiment. The degree to which this is accomplished is called the degree of
closedness of the experiment.

30.1.2.11 Pre-testing and post-testing

Pre-testing and post-testing are the second and fourth steps in experimenting.
i. Step one is the formulation of a causative statement (hypothesis) which
states that change in one variable will result in change in another variable.
ii. Step two is the measuring of the dependent variable before the independent
variable is applied in the experiment (pre-testing).
iii. Step three is the application of the independent variable in the experiment
(stimulus).
iv. Step four is the measuring of the dependent variable after the independent
variable has been applied in the experiment (post-testing).

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An experiment itself usually has an influence on the subjects involved. To measure this
influence, control groups are used. A control group is a group which only does the pre-test
and post-test. They do not receive the stimulus. In this way the range of influence of the
experiment can be measured by means of the difference between the pre-test and post-test
in the control group. This may then be deducted from the change in the experimental group
between the pre-test and post-test.

The control group is therefore used to determine the influence of external factors. The
influence of external factors in the change observed in a group during an experiment
depends upon the closedness of the experiment. The more closed an experiment is, the
smaller the influence of external factors should be. The influence of external factors can be
gauged by means of a control group in which the independent variable is not applied. In the
control group the pre-test and post-test should be the same. If differences do occur, these
changes may be ascribed to external factors and be taken into account in the analysis of the
information obtained with the experimental group.

30.1.2.12 Advantages and disadvantages of experiments

30.1.2.12.1 Advantages
1. Experiments are the most suitable technique for testing causation.
2. In experiments the researcher has more control over the factors influencing the
observation.
3. Change occurring over time can be studied by means of experiments.

30.1.2.12.2 Disadvantages
1. The artificial environment (laboratory) in which the experiment is performed
may influence the actions of participants in the experiment. Ethical
considerations also limit the extent to which people may be exposed to such
an artificial environment.
2. The experimenter’s own convictions may influence his/her observations during
the experiment.
3. The experiment cannot be performed in the environment in which the subjects
usually live, because proper control over external factors is not possible there.
4. Only a small number of people can be involved in an experiment.

30.1.2.12.3 Selecting subjects

Two matters are important when selecting subjects for experiments. Firstly, for the sake of
generalisability, they should be representative of the selected population and, secondly, the
members of the experimental group and of the control group must be similar in respect of the
characteristics relevant to the experiment.

30.1.2.13 Representative members

Ordinary probability sampling is seldom used in experiments, because a
representative sample from a large selected population must comprise at least 100

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members. This is too many for an experiment. For this reason, other forms of
selection are usually employed to obtain representative members from a population.
Therefore non-probability selection is used for this purpose.

30.1.2.14 Designation of subjects to experimental and control groups

When a representative group has been obtained for the experiment, probability
selection or other techniques can be used to designate group members to the
experimental and control groups.

30.1.2.14.1 Random selection

Members can be designated to the experimental and control groups by
random selection from the sampling frame. Differences between the
experimental and control groups should then be coincidental. (It is therefore
assumed that the Pre-test Experimental group ≠ Pre-test Control group. The difference
is, however, ascribed to coincidence.)

30.1.2.14.2 Matching
By means of simple matching it is attempted to find a member for the control
group who is similar to the member found for the experimental group. The
problem with this matching is to find such similar members for the groups and
to determine which characteristics ensure similarity. (The assumption of
“simple matching” is that the Pre-test experimental group = Pre-test control group. The
characteristics of members of the two groups will therefore be the same.)

30.1.2.14.3 Frequency division control

By this method of designating members to the experimental and control
groups, it is ensured that the average of a certain variable is the same in the
two groups. So, for example, one may ensure that the average age of the
members of the experimental group is the same as the average age of the
members of the control group. The main disadvantage of this methods is that
it is only possible to control one variable at a time.

31 Qualitative research
Qualitative studies attempt to study human activities from the perspective of the human
actors. In the previous two chapters two important research designs used in the quantitative
approach were discussed. In this chapter three research designs (ethnographic studies,
case studies and life history studies) used in the qualitative approach are discussed.

31.1 Naturalism
Qualitative research is done in the natural environment of the social actors. It is therefore
also called naturalistic investigation or field research. The natural course of events is

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therefore investigated within context.

31.2 Process
Qualitative research studies the development of social processes over time. The outcome is
regarded as less important than the processes. The focus is therefore on how the process
itself occurs.

31.2.1 Insider perspective (to see through the eyes ...)

Qualitative research emphasises the actor’s point of view. It seeks to describe the matter
studied the way the actors themselves experience it. The test for qualitative research is
therefore in the extent to which it reflects the insider perspective of the actors. Only when
this has been done in valid ways the researcher can give his/her own interpretation and
conclusions concerning it.

31.2.2 Description and understanding

Qualitative research describes actors’ actions in depth and attempts to understand the
actions in the light of the actors’ own views concerning it.

31.2.3 Contextual interest

Qualitative research studies actions within the context in which they occur. The background
of the actions is as important as the actions themselves.

31.2.4 Idiographic research strategy

The previous points may be summarised under the description of idiographic research
strategy. Qualitative research is idiographic by nature because it describes a few events or
cases in depth. The nature of the studied subject itself is researched.

31.2.5 Inductive approach

An inductive process is followed in qualitative research. This means that more general
theoretical conclusions are made on the basis of observations of the single case. In contrast,
quantitative research tests theoretical statements which were formulated beforehand. In
quantitative research the theory is therefore first developed and then tested. In qualitative
research the theory is developed from the observations. Observations therefore precede the
theory.

31.2.6 Inter-subjectivity
In the experimental design validity is achieved by checking for outside factors. This is
different with qualitative research. In qualitative research validity is achieved by the extent to
which the researcher gains the actors’ confidence. The researcher’s research abilities and
interpersonal skills are therefore central in the research. Validity is therefore in the degree to
which the subjects provide the relevant information or demonstrate actions to the researcher.

31.3 Qualitative research designs

Three research designs are especially used in qualitative research - ethnographic studies,

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case studies and life history studies.

31.3.1 Ethnographic studies

Ethnographic studies are the direct observation of activities of a target group. These
observations of the group are recorded, evaluated and reported. Traditionally
ethnographic studies were used to study alien cultures - initially prejudiced, but later
less so. However, it has increasingly been used to study selected target groups.

31.3.2 Case studies

A case study is an investigation of a specific case. In case studies the research
problem must be conceptualised clearly, the context is described thoroughly, various
methods of gathering information are used and a suitable analysis strategy be
followed (especially with regard to generalisation). For a full discussion of the single-
subject designs see Rubin and Babbie, 1997, 309-339.

31.3.3 Life history studies

A life history study obtains a full account of a person’s life, mainly in the person’s own
words. In a life history study the subjective living environment of the individual is
exposed, the confusion, ambiguity and contradictions of life are maintained, the total
living environment is handled and historical interpretations are made possible. The
validity of life history studies depends upon the authenticity of communications, the
honesty of communications and the availability of communications. Validity is lost
when respondents lie, the researcher is prejudiced and the relationship between
researcher and respondent is characterised by suspicion. Post-modern critique of life
history studies questions the meaning of that which people present as their life
history. This way of presenting an own story is often manipulative and one-sided. Life
histories should therefore be handled with care.

31.3.4 Sampling in the qualitative approach

Sampling in the qualitative approach is done with a definite purpose. Cases are studied
which meet certain theoretically reasoned criteria. These criteria are mainly determined by
the problem statement and the range of the intended study.

31.3.5 Methods of data collection

Respondents selected for information are usually those who are involved with the theme
studied and who have time available for the research.

31.3.5.1 Basic individual interviewing

In qualitative research simple individual interviews are often used. This is an
interview without a questionnaire, but it is done according to a list of subjects on
which the researcher has decided beforehand.

31.3.5.2 Depth individual interviews

Depth individual interviews are aimed at gathering more than information only; aiming
to determine the motives of the respondents as well. Advanced training is required

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for this type of depth interviewing.

31.3.5.3 Focus group interviews

Focus group interviews are the interviewing of a group concerning selected themes.
The focus may be on the information given by members of the group concerning the
themes, or the focus may be on the nature of the interaction between the members of
the group concerning the themes.

31.3.5.4 Observation and participant observation

Observation may be done from outside the group or it may be done with participation.
If participant observation is done, the following steps should be followed:
1. Decide about the aim of the study.
2. Decide on the group in which subjects will be observed.
3. Obtain access to the group.
4. Gain the confidence of the group.
5. Do the research by observing and by taking notes over a period of
weeks, months or even years.
6. Handle crises that may occur.
7. Leave the group that has been observed.
8. Analyse the information that has been collected.
9. Write a report to make known the findings of the observation.

Among certain groups access for observation is easy, while more difficult among
others. The researcher must make him/herself acceptable when entering a group.
Fear among the subjects regarding the researcher’s analysis of their actions and
attitudes may lead to tension. The researcher is often suspected of being a spy of
another institution. It is therefore necessary for the researcher to put all the cards on
the table regarding the research. Groups where access is difficult must be
approached with the correct strategy. The following are examples of methods for
gaining access:
1. Cultivate friendship.
2. Start with one organisation before going to others.
3. Start investigation on small scale and expand later.
4. Handle administrator of undertaking positively. He/she does not
benefit from the investigation.
5. Maintain ethical standards.
Gaining confidence usually happens over a long period and implies socialisation in
the culture of the group being studied.

When participant observation is done, notes must be written in an inconspicuous

way. When notes are taken, the following are important:
1. Write notes as soon as possible after observation.
2. Write notes quickly, because it takes time.
3. Write rather than dictate.

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4. Type rather than write.

5. Make more than one copy.

The following are examples of what may be recorded in notes:

1. Events.
2. Explanation of past events in the light of fresh insight.
3. Explanatory ideas.
4. Own feelings regarding events.
5. Notes about what must still be done or what must still be observed
and what to be on the look-out for.
Analysis of the information implies summarising it, systematising it and relating its
different elements to one another.

31.4 Participatory action research

Participatory action research was developed in the Third World countries and is used there
to promote development at grassroots level. It is therefore a research approach which
combines the research process with development.

31.4.1 The role of the researcher as change agent

Participatory action research is especially appropriate for disadvantaged and culturally
marginalised groups. In participatory action research the researcher is called the change
agent and the respondents are called the participants in the research process. Thus, the
researcher and the respondents are in interaction with each other in the research process.
This interaction is aimed at positive change.

31.4.2 The idea of participation

At the heart of participatory action research is the continuous participation of the persons
researched in the research process. This comprises the following:

i. Participation through all phases of the research

The participants (the persons being researched) in the research process are involved
in the problem formulation for the research, the planning, implementing and
monitoring of the research, the analysis of the information, communication of the
results, reviewing the research, application of the research results, evaluation of the
results and the application of the findings.
ii. The nature and the degree of participation
Participation by the participants must be genuine. It must be compatible with the
cultural perceptions and customs of the participants. This participation may vary from
consultation to partnership and control. Participation in participant action research
may thus range from only allowing the participants in the research process to make
an input to placing them in full control of the research process.

iii. The role of the change agent in participation

The change agent is responsible for gaining the confidence of the participants,

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supporting them, being open for new ideas from their side, not regarding his/her own
knowledge as being superior, and not ranking his/her own values as inferior to those
of the participants. The change agent must therefore maintain an active relationship
with the participants in which they can continuously influence each other. However,
the change agent has the responsibility that the whole research process will be
based on sound evidence.

iv. Reasons for the importance of participation

The reasons for participation are as follows: (1) It empowers the participants, (2) it
offers a basis for a common field of knowledge, (3) it decreases the distance
between the participants and the change agent, (4) it creates more meaningful
research results, (5) it motivates people for the implementation of the results, and (6)
it democratises science.

31.4.3 Democratising the research relationship

Democratising the research relationship between the change agent and the participants
removes the classical power relationship from the research process. The change agent and
the participants are equals in participatory action research, and this ensures that the
research is viewed as “our” and not “your” research.

31.4.4 The incorporation of local knowledge

In participatory action research local knowledge is appreciated and supported. Local
knowledge is needed to ensure that the scientific processes and outcomes will be
meaningful.

31.4.5 Knowledge in action

Participatory action research assumes that change is necessary. It envisages the planning
and implementing of change to follow. The change upon which it is focussed is change
which can contribute directly to the improvement of the quality of life of the participants. This
change also seeks to transform detrimental social structures. This change occurs through
the research process helping the participants to mobilise themselves and in this way to
initiate the necessary change.

31.4.6 The goal of empowerment

Participatory action research primarily seeks to empower people. Empowerment is the
obtaining of power to initiate own actions and to limit the power of others over actions.
Participatory action research achieves this in the following way:
i. Conscientisation

Participatory action research develops consciousness of own circumstances by

promoting self-examining and reflection.

ii. Liberation
Participatory action research liberates people by guiding them to self-criticism.

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iii. Learning
Participatory action research teaches participants how to learn, how to discover new
knowledge, how to be critical of themselves, how to verbalise and to systematise
knowledge, and how to be self-assertive in respect of their own knowledge. In order
to guide participants in this, it is necessary for change agents themselves to learn to
understand the true nature of local problems.

iv. Strengthening participants’ research capacities

The research process teaches participants to do research, and this may even be
more important than the results of the research. The advantage is that the
participants assume ownership of the research process. They direct it to their own
interests, analyse the results in terms of their own views, accept results as their own,
develop self-consciousness and reap the benefits of scientific investigations.

v. Generating autonomy
The participants develop the ability towards self-determination. They develop the
ability to control their own living conditions and thereby to determine their own
destiny.

31.5 Methodological issues in participatory action research

Participatory action research mainly utilises local information. Change agents can use other
sources (such as official statistics) to ensure that the research is directed correctly. However,
the primary material which is used in the research is the local information. Methodologically
the following matters are important in participatory action research.

i. A preference for qualitative methods

Qualitative research methods are mainly used in participatory action research. It
helps the change agent to develop proper knowledge of the participants’ living
environment. It also elucidates the perspective and local knowledge of the
participants. It also fits in with traditional participants’ practice of mainly transmitting
information orally. The methods used for gathering information are interviews
(personal or in group context) and direct systematic observation (mainly participatory
observation).

ii. The use of quantitative methods

In participatory action research surveys may be used, on condition that the
participants share in the design, implementation and analysis of the survey.

iii. The use of more unconventional techniques for data collection

Information is also gathered by means of open discussion groups where the
emphasis is on free dialogue about the matters researched, the collection of
memories of the past that are relevant to that which is being researched, and the
utilisation of participants’ evidence concerning their own progress in life.

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iv. The social verification and validation of data

As the research findings become available, they are progressively submitted to the
participants for confirmation of their validity. The validation of the collected data is
done socially - the participants do it jointly. They do it by consensus.

v. Diffusion of results to participants

The results must be disseminated to participants on the level of their understanding.
This means that care is taken to ensure that the communication level is intelligible for
participants. Apparently the description of case studies is particularly suitable in this
regard.

iv. Research as a cyclical and emergent process

Participatory action research starts small and builds on small successes. Small
changes are used to lay the foundation for bigger changes.

h. Concluding remarks: The emphasis of participatory action research on the political

aspects of knowledge production

The most important difference between participatory action research and other approaches
is that it does not consider knowledge as being the property of the scientific profession, but
wishes to change this power relationship by ensuring that knowledge will be the property of
the participants.

32 DATA ANALYSIS IN RESEARCH

32.1 Quantifying data
Norman Blaikie (2000, 236) identifies the following data reduction techniques:

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 Quantitative
1) Coding: pre-coding and post-coding
2) Index construction
3) Scaling: e.g. Likert and Guttman
4) Factor analysis
5) Cluster analysis
$
Qualitative
1) Coding: Open and axial coding
2) Developing themes
3) Typology construction

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Computers are the main instrument for the quantifying and analysis of information in the
social sciences. Computer analyses programmes have entering functions so that information
of various formats are accepted by them. The responses to a question concerning a variable
must however be coded for analysis by the computer. This means that a number value must
be awarded to a specific response. For example, instead of “man” and “woman” “1" and “2"
are typed or scanned into the computer. The “1" then represents “man” and “2" “woman”.
This information is typed into the columns of a spread sheet or transfer sheets which consist
of rows and columns. The rows are used for cases (for example, a row is awarded to a
respondent) and the columns are used to indicate the responses of the respondents
regarding the different variables.

With open-ended questions coding is however a more complicated process. In this instance
responses are not as easily classifiable. With open-ended questions it is generally better to
start with many response categories. With the computer programmes the categories can
later be combined in groups.

There are two approaches to the coding process. (1) Firstly coding can be done according to
predetermined coding categories. Responses are then classified according to these
categories. (2) Secondly, coding can be done without predetermining what the categories will
be. In this instance, a large number of responses must first be checked in order to find out
which possible categories can be used. Then one can start coding all the categories. It is,
however, essential to make sure that the categories are complete and that they are mutually
exclusive.

The codebook indicates which codes have been used for which categories. It is typical of
codebooks that an abbreviation is used for the name of each variable (not more than 8
letters), that the full names of the variables are given, that each category of each variable is
named and that the code number for each category is provided with it. For example:
“Question 6" may be the abbreviation for the name of the variable, “Marital status” the full
name of the variable and the code number with the categories may be: “1" for “Never
married”, “2" for “Married”, “3" for “Divorced” and “4" for “Widower/widow”.

After data has been typed or scanned on a spread sheet or transfer sheet it must be cleaned
of errors. Data cleaning refers to the tracing and correcting of errors which occurred in the
coding and entering of data. Typing errors are especially responsible for this. Two errors
must be corrected: (1) The data must be cleaned from incorrect codes. Codes not
appropriate for a specific variable must be corrected. (2) Contingency cleaning is also
needed. Data must be cleansed of inappropriate codes, where codes apparently cannot exist
after comparing them with the categories of certain variables.

32.2 Elementary analysis

The domain of statistics has traditionally been divided according to two main functions,
namely descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics is concerned with
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organising and summarising the data at hand (for instance the sample data), to render it
more comprehensible (Mouton, 2002, 163). Descriptive statistics can focus on a single
variable (univariate analysis), two variables (bivariate analysis) or more than two variables
(multivariate analysis). Inferential statistics deals with the kinds of inferences that can be
made when generalising from data, as from sample data to the entire (target) population
(Mouton, 2002, 163).

Norman Blaikie (2000, 237) summarises the different data analysis techniques as follows:

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 Quantitative
1) Description
Distribution: numerical and graphical
Central tendency and dispersion
2) Association
Correlation: simple, partial and multiple
Analysis of variance and covariance
Regression: simple, partial and multiple
3) Causation
Factor analysis
Path analysis
Regression: simple, partial and multiple
4) Inference
Sample statistic to population parameter
Sample differences to population differences
Qualitative
a) Description
b) Theory generation
c) Analytic induction
d) Grounded theory: open and axial coding
e) Categorizing and connecting
f) From everyday typifications to typologies

Author: W. Lunga
 g) Univariate analysis

Univariate analysis is the examination of the distribution of cases on only one

variable at a time.

i. Distributions

The data of a single variable can be analysed according to the number of

responses recorded for each category in the variable, for example 30% male
and 70% female.

ii. Central tendency

Central tendency can be indicated in different ways: (1) The modus refers to
the category of a variable that has drawn most responses. (2) The average
refers to a sum of the response categories (number of responses of a
category, multiplied by the value of that category, divided by the total number
of responses). (3) The median refers to the value of the middle response
when the responses are divided in half according to their values. (4)
Indicators refer to comparable figures calculated to give expression to the
incidence of a phenomenon in a specified number of a relevant population or
value.

iii. Dispersion
The dispersion of responses around, for example, the average can also be
indicated. The range of all the responses or of a portion of the responses can
be indicated.

iv. Continuous and discrete variables

It makes sense to describe central tendency in continuous variables (ratio
measured variables). It can, however, not be applied to variables with limited
categories.

v. Detail versus manageability

In reporting the researcher must make choices in respect of how much detail
should be indicated. Too much information makes reports difficult to handle. It
must therefore be limited to what is specifically relevant for the problem
statement.

32.3 Subgroup comparisons

Subgroup analysis compares subgroups for descriptive purposes. The subgroups of
different variables can be compared.

i. Combining of response categories

To simplify reporting, response categories may be combined. For example,
on the scale “Very good”, “Good”, “Uncertain”, “Poor” and “Very poor” the
counts of “Very good” and “Good” may be added together, and so also the
counts of “Poor” and “Very poor”.

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 ii. Handling “don’t knows”
The inclusion or exclusion of the category “I don’t know” in reports depends
on argument. It can therefore be included or excluded, depending on what will
be meaningful in the report.

32.4 Bivariate analysis

Bivariate analysis describes the relationship between two variables. Bivariate

analysis is aimed at indicating the relationship between two variables. If this is done
with a bivariate table format the table should have a heading, the original description
of the variable should be clearly presented, the attributes of each variable should be
clearly indicated, and the basis on which the percentages were calculated should be
indicated, and the number of “no responses” should be mentioned.
1) The following is important with regard to the tables:
2) Place the independent variable on the horizontal axis and the dependent
variable on the vertical axis.
3) Use scales on both axes that will fill the graph.
4) Label the axes comprehensively and indicate the units of measurement. Use
mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories.
5) Indicate how missing values were handled.
6) Use tables to summarise or provide an overview of numerical data in
columns.
7) Make the meaning of a table so clear that it is not necessary to refer to the
text.
8) Distinguish clearly in column headings which are percentage columns and
which are numerical data columns, and indicate the units of measurement.

First divide the cases in subgroups according to selected attributes relating to the
independent variable. Then indicate what the responses were of the cases in the
subgroups of the independent variable according to the attributes of the dependent
variable. Then compare the independent variable subgroups in terms of the attributes
of the dependent variable. See table below.

Percentages of responses according to selected attributes of groups in two variables

can be compared. For example, in the next table the policies of newspapers
regarding the use of dagga (dependent variable) is related to the size of the
community served by the newspaper (independent variable).

Editorial policy toward Community size

legalising dagga Under 30 000 30 000 or more
Favourable 10% 29%
Neutral 27% 37%
Unfavourable 58% 25%
No response 5% 9%
Total 100%(n=127) 100%(n=438)
Table 11 Newspaper policies regarding dagga and the size of communities

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32.5 Multivariate analysis
Multivariate analysis describes the relationship between more than two variables.
Multivariate analysis can be done like bivariate analysis. Only, the attributes of more
variables are taken into account in a specific table. The following table is an example
of the way the data of 3 variables (gender, origin and monthly income) can be
presented in a single table.

Origin Gender

Male Female

Urban area $ 2 538 $1 876

Rural area $ 1 380 $ 897

Table 12 Gender, origin and monthly income

33 Social statistics
In quantitative research statistics is used as an important descriptive medium.
Information is presented in the form of statistics and by means thereof the attributes
of concepts are described.

33.1 Descriptive statistics

Descriptive statistics is a method of presenting quantitative descriptions in a
manageable form.

i. Measures of association
Statistics may be applied very usefully to describe the association between
two variables. Such statistics indicate to what extent the change in one
variable is related to change in another variable. Examples of such statistics
are the Lambda and Gamma and Pearson’s correlation.

1. Lambda measures the association between two nominal variables.

2. Gamma measures the association between two ordinal variables.
3. Pearson’s correlation measures the association between interval or
ratio variables.

ii. Regression analysis

With regression analysis it is attempted to fit a line on the relation between
two interval or ratio variables. The extent to which the line fits is indicated by
r2. Other regression techniques for multivariate analysis are multiple
regression, partial regression and curvilinear regression.
Regression analysis can also be applied in other ways:

1. Path analysis
The relationships between different variables can be presented by
indicating the impact path between variables by means of regression
analysis.

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 2. Time-series analysis
The influence of time can be analysed by means of regression
analysis linked to the passage of time.

3. Factor analysis
With factor analysis, regression analysis is used to discover common
patterns among the variations in values of different groups of
variables.

33.2 Inferential statistics

Inferential statistics is used to make deductions regarding the generalisability of data
collected by means of random sampling.

i. Univariate inferences
The standard error is used to indicate to what extent inferences can be made
with confidence from univariate to the larger population.

ii. Tests of statistical significance

Statistical significance is determined by parametric tests of significance. In
these tests the probability that the parameter will differ from the statistics is
described.

iii. The logic of statistical significance

Statistical significance is based on levels of meaningfulness which represent
the probability that the observed relationship can be ascribed to defective
sampling.

iv. Type I and type II errors

Type I error occurs if the null hypothesis we have rejected as implausible is
really true. "You gullibly conclude that the statistically significant relationship
in your data is genuine, when it was really due to chance." (Rubin and
Babbie, 1997, 537) Type II error occurs if we fail to reject a false null
hypothesis. "You sceptically conclude that there is no genuine relationship,
when there really is one." (Rubin and Babbie, 1997, 537)

v. Chi square
Chi square (χ2) is a test of significance. It is based on the assumption that
there is no relationship between variables and is calculated according to the
difference between the expected and real frequencies in the table. The
degrees of freedom must also be considered when determining chi square.

It is important to remember that good scientific work does not require statistical proof
of relationships. Statistics is an important instrument in scientific practice, but
scientific practice is not totally dependent on it. Scientific information can also be
presented without statistics. However, statistics remains a powerful descriptive and
analytical instrument.

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34 REPORT, DISSERTATION AND ARTICLE WRITING
34.1 Research report and dissertation

i. Front matter
Front cover and spine (Title, full name of author, security information if applicable)

Title page (Title, full name of author, declaration stating that the dissertation comply
with the requirements of the institution to which the thesis is submitted, date of
submission) "The elements most commonly considered for inclusion in the title are
the dependent and independent variables, the performance component represented
by the criterion task or tasks, the treatment or treatments to be administered, the
model underlying the study, the purpose of the study (predicting, establishing
relationships, or determining differences), and any unusual contribution of the study."
(Locke et al, 1993, 127) Factors like population, research design and instrumentation
should not be included.

"Redundancies such as "Aspects of", "Comments on", "Study of", "Investigation of,"
"Inquiry into," and "An Analysis of" are expandable." (Locke et al, 1993, 129)
Examples: "Anthropometrics and Shoulder-Girdle Strength of Fast and Slow
Swimmers", "Longitudinal Analysis of Human Short-Term Memory from Age 20 to
80", "Hand Preference in Telephone Use as a Measure of Limb Dominance and
Laterality", "Intelligence of Children Whose Parents Purchase Encyclopaedias",
"Perceptual Judgement in a Weightless Environment: Report from the Space
Shuttle", "Generalizability of Contingency Management and Reinforcement in
Second-Grade Special Education Classes", "Imbedded Figures Acuity in World-Class
Chess Masters", "Phenomenological Analysis of Precompetitive Stress". "Running
Speed, Leg Strength, and Long Jump Performance of High School Boys"
a) Acknowledgments (List of acknowledgments)
b) Abstract (One page long)
c) Table of contents
d) List of figures and list of tables
e) Glossary of abbreviations, symbols, or terms
ii. Body
1. Main text
a. Introduction (objectives of research, nature and subject of research,
statement of the problem, sub problems of hypothesis, reason for
undertaking the research, overview of research problem, brief overview
of recent relevant research on the problem and an evaluation of the
findings, short indication of the approach and treatment of the research
problem, extent or scope of the project, limitations and delimitations,
short discussion of possible benefits of the research and broad plan and
order of the dissertation.)

b. Core
a) Theory (Outlines and discusses briefly relevant existing laws, theories,

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 or fundamental concepts and gives a clear statement of the author's
postulations and assumptions)
b) Method selected for researching the problem (materials or equipment
used and how constructed, procedures and techniques selected for
collecting the data, information or evidence, criteria used to determine
validity and reliability of the methods selected and of the data collected)
c) Findings (Analysis and interpretation of findings) Prescribed: Rudestam
and Newton, 1992, 88-120 for presentation of findings in tables and
figures and 187-195 for presentation of numbers in dissertation.
Students may become enthusiastic about their ability to produce bar and pie
charts with existing computer programs; however, the tendency to fill a
dissertation with such charts should be avoided (Rudestam and Newton, 1992,
85).

a) Place the independent variable on the horizontal axis and the dependent
variable on the vertical axis.
b) Use scales on both axes that will fill the graph.
c) Label the axes comprehensively and indicate the units of measurement.
d) Every table must be numbered and must have a title.
e) Use tables to summarise or provide an overview of numerical data in
columns.
f) Make the meaning of a table so clear that it is not necessary to refer to the
text.
g) Distinguish clearly in column headings which are percentage columns and
which are numerical data columns, and indicate the units of measurement.

h) Discussion (Significance of findings, validity and reliability of findings,

comparison with and evaluation of data from relevant research as reported in
literature, and a broad discussion on the literature, theoretical explanations of
unusual findings, explanation of any contradictions, identification of the
limitations of the research and evaluation of the effectiveness of the methods
selected to do the research.)
i) Conclusions and recommendations (Based on substantiated evidence, an
overview of the significant findings of the study, implications of the study for
current theory, recommendations for further research, implications of the
study for professional practice or applied settings)
j) List of sources consulted
k) Annexes
l) Section of supplementary information
m) End matter
Johann Mouton (2002, 174-178) set the following guidelines for research reports:

a) The research project should be integrated into the wider framework of

relevant theory and research reflected in a review of the literature.
b) All central or important concepts or constructs of the study should be defined
explicitly.
c) The scientist should spell out clearly the meta-theoretical assumptions,

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 commitments, (pre)suppositions and beliefs that are applicable to her
research.
d) The research hypothesis or central theoretical thesis must be clearly
formulated and operationalise.
e) The research report should specify the aim or objective(s) being pursued.
f) Information should be provided on the nature, credibility, relevance and
representativeness of data and information sources.
g) The research report should include information on the ways in which the
reliability or validity and objectivity of the data or information have been
controlled.
h) The research report should contain detailed information on the methods and
context of the data collection.
i) The procedures used for analysis should be described in full.
j) The interpretation and conclusions should be provided within the framework
of the original research problem and design and should include all the
relevant information or data.
k) The research report should comply with the technical guidelines in terms of
format, length, number of copies, reference style and summary as laid down
by the organisation or journal concerned.

35 Publishing of an article
If you consider your study to be a period of professional training, then learning to
write an article for an academic journal is an important component.

The difference between a postgraduate dissertation, a doctoral thesis and a journal

article is as follows:
a) A postgraduate thesis: to prove that one has mastered a certain topic.
b) A doctoral dissertation: to make a contribution to the body of knowledge.
c) A journal article: to contribute to a topical and well-defined research
issue (Mouton, 2002, 172)

Type of report

Diploma and Postgraduate Doctoral Journal article

(70-100 pp) dissertation (20 pp)
(200-300 pp)
Problem (including literature 30% 20-30% 10-15%
review)
Evidence (design and execution) 30% + 20% + 10-15%
Conclusions 40% 50-60% 70-80%
Table 13.Difference between reports (Mouton, 2002, 173)

36 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
36.1 Ethical review of proposals
Institutional review boards were started to be used in the 1970's in the USA as a
result of federal legislation and increased public concern about the ethics of

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biomedical and behavioural research. Today all research organisations receiving
federal money in the USA are required to review the ethics of proposed studies
involving human subjects by a committee. Certain kinds of research are however
exempted from a thorough review and receive an expedited review:
"Exempt studies are those that:
1. Are conducted as part of normal educational practices, including
research on the effectiveness of alternative educational approaches.
2. Use educational tests with adequate protection of confidentiality.
3. Use survey or interview procedures or observe public behaviour while
protecting confidentiality.
4. Use existing data without violating confidentiality.
5. Research federal demonstration projects.
6. Survey or interview elected or appointed public officials or candidates for
public office, without violating confidentiality." (Rubin and Babbie, 1997,
75)
Researchers are accountable to society for their research. Research funds are, after
all, provided by society. Accountability implies that research will not be done in
secret, which research results will openly be submitted to the scientific community,
and that researchers will be honest towards funders about their qualifications,
abilities and objectives. Several research institutions have appointed ethical
committees with the purpose of supervising the accountability of research. Most
professional societies have also accepted ethical codes which provide guidelines on
what is regarded as acceptable and unacceptable professional conduct. There are
different views on what is right and what is wrong when doing social research. The
general assumption is that what is ethically correct is determined by agreement
among social scientists.

One cannot cavalierly assume that experimental manipulations, interviews,

questionnaires, or even feedback of results, will not be upsetting to some participants
(Rundestam and Newton, 1992, 197). The following are general issues about which
there is a large degree of agreement in respect of social research.

36.2 Ethical issues in social research

36.2.1 Voluntary participation/Informed consent
Social research intrudes upon people’s private lives. It demands time and personal
information from people. In this process, people may not be forced to provide it to
researchers. Participation in social research must be voluntary. It may result in bias
regarding sampling. Creative methods should therefore be used to ensure
participation without people being forced. Providing the respondents with good
motivation and accurate and complete information for the research (goal of the
investigation, the procedures that will be followed during the investigation, the
possible advantages, disadvantages and dangers to which respondents may be
exposed, as well as the credibility of the researcher) and a professional approach to
them may greatly assist in ensuring their participation. Participants must be legally
and psychologically competent to give consent and they must be aware that they
would be at liberty to withdraw from the investigation at any time (Strydom, 2002, 65).
Informed consent means that with regard to the participants the following must be
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borne in mind (Rundestam and Newton, 1992, 200-202):

a) Tell the participant who is conducting the study.

b) Why was the particular person singled out for participation?
c) What is the time commitment desired from the participant?
d) Are there any benefits to be expected?
e) Are there any potential risks, and how have these been managed.
f) Explain the study to the participant and offer to answer questions.
g) Participation is always voluntary.
h) Provide the participants with a copy of the informed consent form.
i) Let the subject know of payment involved.
j) Let the subject know the limits of confidentiality.
k) Inform the subject how the debriefing will be conducted

36.2.2 No harm to the participants

Participants in research may not be harmed by the research. They may not be
embarrassed, or their relationships may not be damaged. Research may not have
unpleasant consequences for participants. If it cannot be avoided, informed consent
must be obtained. Reporting must also be done in such a way that it does not harm
participants. Informed consent implies the following according to Locke et al, 1993,
31: "1. Participants should be informed of the general nature of the investigation and,
within reasonable limits, of their role in terms of time and effort. ... 2. Participants
should be informed of procedures used to protect their anonymity. ... 3. Participants
should, after reasonable consideration (including the right to ask questions), sign a
document affirming that they have been informed of the nature of the investigation
and have consented to give their cooperation. (A copy of this should be included in
the proposal.) ... 4. In experimental studies, participants should receive an
explanation of all treatment procedures to be used and any discomforts or risks
involved. ... 5. Participants should be told what benefits they will receive by
participating in the study and what alternative benefits are being made available to
other subjects in the study. 6. Participants should be explicitly instructed that they are
free to withdraw their consent and to discontinue participation in the study at any
time. In some circumstances it is essential that they also be assured that no reprisal
will attend such a decision. (Complicated issues, such as setting a time limit on this
right or establishing the right to withdraw data already provided if cooperation is
withdrawn, require careful attention in the proposal.) 7. Participants should be
provided with the name of the person responsible for the study, to which they can
direct questions related to their role or any consequence of their participation. ... 8.
Participants should be offered the opportunity to receive feedback about the results
of the study."

36.3 Privacy, anonymity and confidentiality

Individuals have the right to decide when, where, to whom, and to what extent his or
her attitudes, beliefs and behaviour will be revealed. Anonymity may help to protect
participants’ interests. This makes it impossible to follow up non-responses in the
case of posted questionnaires. This problem may be overcome by guaranteeing
confidentiality. Confidentiality may be maintained by safely storing the personal
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information of participants for as long as it may be necessary, and to link it to security
measures. This information is then destroyed after completion of the research.

36.4 Deceiving subjects

Researchers sometimes believe it to be necessary to deceive subjects in order to
obtain reliable information. This may, however, harm subjects. Where it is used with
good reason, debriefing of subjects is recommended to handle the negative effects.
Ideally the research project must be a learning experience for both participant and
researcher. Debriefing sessions is very helpful to ensure this.

36.5 Gender and cultural bias and insensitivity

Studies conducted in a culturally insensitive ways, can yield implications for action
that ignore the needs and realities of the observed cultural group, "may incorrectly
(and perhaps stereotypically) portray minorities, or may inappropriately generalize in
an unhelpful way." (Rubin and Babbie, 1997, 76-77) "By the same token, studies with
gender bias and insensitivity may be seen as perpetuating a male-dominated world
or failing to consider the potentially different implications for men and women in one’s
research." (Rubin and Babbie, 1997, 77) Bias-free writing (Avoid language and
materials that are oppressive or discriminatory to any group of people.

36.6 Analysis and reporting

Researchers must also act ethically towards the broad scientific community. For
example, researchers must report negative findings and they must indicate where
they found random relationships among variables. In general the highest possible
technical research standards must be maintained. The researcher must therefore be
competent and adequately skilled to undertake the proposed investigation. The
limitations of a study must always be indicated in the conclusions. Data may not be
falsified. Researchers must be prepared to reveal their research methods and
techniques. Research publications must acknowledge participants in the research
process, as well as the sources consulted and which contributed to the study.
Plagiarism must be avoided. All facts must also be provided and facts may not be
manufactured. Research publications must also not be submitted to different
publishers at the same time.

37 The politics of social research

The government is the most important funder of research. Therefore the nature of the
relationship between research and the government is a debatable question. The
question is how independent science must be from the government. How great is the
social responsibility of science?

37.1 A typology of intellectual positions (Babbie and Mouton, 2001,

536-543)
Scientists may regard their science as a purely theoretical practice and not interfere
in practical matters. On the other hand scientists may resolve that it is indeed their
responsibility to be involved in social issues. This involvement may vary from strong
to weak. When researchers become socially involved it may be for or against the
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present state of the social order. For example, in the course of social science history
in South Africa, scientists adopted different positions during the apartheid
dispensation. Some supported the apartheid dispensation and others opposed it in
their research results. In all political dispensations there are researchers who are
more positive towards the political dispensation than others. Critical viewpoints
therefore occur to varying degrees among researchers.

37.2 Science as social practice and the spectre of ideology (Babbie

and Mouton, 2001, 543-546)
That science and politics are in a mutual relationship is not a problem. The crucial
question, however, is what the nature of this relationship is. When does the
relationship between science and politics become bad? When does science lose its
social responsibility and become only an instrument in the hands of a political
ideology? It happens when the production of knowledge is controlled by the ruling
group and when it is manipulated by them to their own political advantage. Science
can be actively controlled by politics, but science can also unknowingly be absorbed
by the ideology of the era and in this way support a political dispensation. These
negative outcomes of scientific practice can be summarised as follows: (1) Deliberate
misrepresentation of knowledge is fraud. (2) Unintentional misrepresentation of
knowledge is error. (3) Deliberate manipulation and domination of knowledge is
ideology. (4) Unintentional domination of knowledge is a false social consciousness.

In summary we can say that development of knowledge should occur honestly,

reliably and with integrity. The application of knowledge should be liberating and
should promote critical self-examination.

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38 REFERENCES

Alford, R.R. (1998) The Craft of Inquiry. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Anastas, J.W. and MacDonald, M.L. (1994) Research Design for Social Work and the
Human Services NewYork: Lexington Books.

Bailey, K.D. (1994) Methods of Social Research. New York: The Free Press.

Babbie, E. (2001) The Practice of Social Research. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson

Learning. Ninth edition.

Babbie, E. and Mouton, J. (2001) The Practice of Social Research. Cape Town: Oxford
University Press. South African edition.

De Vos, A.S. (editor) (2002) Research at Grass Roots. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers.
Second edition.

Fouché, C.B. and Delport, C.S.L. (2002) ‛In-depth review of literature' in De Vos, A.S. (editor)
Research at Grass Roots. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. Second edition.

Haag, D.E. (1996) Guidelines for writing a dissertation or thesis. Vanderbiljpark: Vaal Triangle
Technikon.

Hart, C. (1998) Doing a Literature Review. Releasing the Social Science Research
Imagination. London: Sage Publications.

Krathwohl, D. (1998) How to Prepare a Research Proposal. Guidelines for Funding and
Dissertations in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. New York: Syracuse University
Press (third edition).

Locke, L.F., Spirduso, W.W. and Silverman, S.J. (1993) Proposals that Work: A Guide for
Planning Dissertations and Grant Proposals. California: Sage Publications, Inc.

Mouton, J. (2002) Understanding Social Research. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers.

Rubin, A. and Babbie, E. (1997) Research Methods for Social Work Pacific Grove, CA:
Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Third Edition.

Rudestam, K.E. and Newton, R.R. (1992) Surviving your Dissertation. A Comprehensive
Guide to Content and Process. London: Sage Publicatons.

Strydom, H. (2002) ‛Ethical aspect of research in the social sciences and human service
professions' in De Vos, A.S. Research at Grass Roots. Pretoria: Van Schaik
Publisers. Second edition.

Vithal, R. and Jansen, J. (2001) Designing Your First Research Proposal. A Manual for
Researchers in Education and the Social Sciences. Landsdown: Juta & Co. Ltd.

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