Homework 5 Solutions.

§4.2 #1 d. Use the division algorithm to find the quotient and remainder when f (x) = 2x4 + x3 − 6x2 −
x + 2 is divided by g(x) = 2x2 − 5 over Q.
Solution: Long division gives:
 
2 1 1 3 1
f (x) = g(x) x + x − + x− .
2 2 2 2

§4.2 #2 b. Use the division algorithm to find the quotient and remainder when f (x) = x5 + 4x4 + 2x3 +
3x2 is divided by g(x) = x2 + 3 over Z5 .
Solution: Long division gives:

f (x) = g(x)(x3 + 4x2 + 4x + 1) + 3x + 2.

§4.2 #2 d. Use the division algorithm to find the quotient and remainder when f (x) = 2x4 + x3 + x2 +
6x + 2 is dividedby g(x) = 2x2 + 2 over Z7 .
Solution: Long division gives:

f (x) = g(x)(x2 + 4x + 3) + 5x + 3.

§4.4, #4 Use Eisenstein’s Criterion to show that each of the following polynomials is irreducible in
Q[x].

(a) The polynomial f (x) = x4 − 12x2 + 18x − 24 is 3-Eisenstein, hence irreducible.

(b) The polynomial f (x) = 4x3 − 15x2 + 60x + 180 is 5-Eisenstein, hence irreducible.
(c) The polynomial f (x) = 2x10 − 25x3 + 10x2 − 30 is 5-Eisenstein, hence irreducible.
(d) The polynomial f (x) = x2 + 2x − 5 is irreducible in Q[x] since it has no roots in
Q. Alternatively, note that f (x + 1) = (x + 1)2 + 2(x + 1) − 5 == x2 + 4x − 2 is
2-Eisenstein, implying that f (x) is irreducible.

§4.4, #5 Use Eisenstein’s Criterion to show that each of the following polynomials is irreducible in
Q[x].

(a) Let f (x) = x4 + 1. Observe that f (x + 1) = (x + 1)4 + 1 = x4 + 4x3 + 6x2 + 4x + 2

is 2-Eisenstein. Hence, f (x) is irreducible.
(b) Let f (x) = x6 + x3 + 1. Observe that

f (x + 1) = (x + 1)6 + (x + 1)3 + 1
= (x6 + 6x5 + 15x4 + 20x3 + 15x2 + 6x + 1) + (x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1) + 1
= x6 + 6x5 + 15x4 + 21x3 + 18x2 + 9x + 3

is 3-Eisenstein. Hence, f (x) is irreducible.

 (c) Let f (x) = x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 5. One can use the Rational Root Theorem to verify that
f (x) has no roots in Q, and hence, is irreducible. Alternatively, observe that

f (x + 1) = (x + 1)3 + 3(x + 1)2 + 5(x + 1) + 5

= (x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1) + (3x2 + 6x + 3) + (5x + 5) + 5
= x3 + 6x2 + 14x + 14

is 2-Eisenstein. Hence, f (x) is irreducible.

(d) Let f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 9x − 10. One can use the Rational Root Theorem to verify that
f (x) has no roots in Q, and hence, is irreducible. Alternatively, observe that

f (x + 1) = (x + 1)3 − 3(x + 1)2 + 9(x + 1) − 10

= (x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1) − (3x2 + 6x + 3) + (9x + 9) − 10
= x3 + 6x − 3

is 3-Eisenstein. Hence, f (x) is irreducible.

§4.4, #7 Let f (x) = x2 + 100x + n.
(a) Give an infinite set of integers n such that f (x) is reducible in Q[x].
Solution: Let t ∈ Z. Then

f (x) = x2 +100x+(502 −t2 ) = (x2 +100x+502 )−t2 = (x+50)2 −t2 = (x+50−t)(x+50+t).

Alternatively, compute

f (x) = x2 + 100x + t(100 − t) = (x − t)(x − 100 + t).

(b) Give and infinite set of integers n such that f (x) is irreducible in Q[x].
Solution: Let n be of the form n = 2(2j + 1) = 4j + 2. Then for all j ∈ Z, f (x)
is 2-Eisenstein, hence irreducible. Alternatively, let n = 5(5t + r) = 25t + 5r with
1 ≤ r ≤ 4. Then for all t ∈ Z, f (x) is 5-Eisenstein, hence irreducible.
§4.4, #15 Find the irreducible factors of x8 − 1 in Q[x].
Solution:

x8 − 1 = (x4 − 1)(x4 + 1) = (x2 − 1)(x2 + 1)(x4 + 1) = (x − 1)(x + 1)(x2 + 1)(x4 + 1).

This is a factorization of x8 − 1 into irreducibles in Q[x]. The first two factors are linear;
therefore they are irreducible. The third factor has roots ±i 6∈ Q; hence, it is irreducible.
The last factor was shown to be irreducible in problem 5 a.
§4.4, #16
x9 − 1 = (x3 − 1)(x6 + x3 + 1) = (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1)(x6 + x3 + 1).
This is a factorization into irreducibles. The first factor is linear and therefore irreducible in
Q[x]. The second factor has no roots in Q; it must be irreducible since it has degree 2. The
third factor was shown to be irreducible in problem 5 b.

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§5.3, #24 Let I be the smallest ideal of Z[x] that contains both 2 and x. Show that I is not a principal
ideal.

Proof. We note that (2) 6⊆ (x) and that (x) 6⊆ (2). Suppose that there exists α ∈ Z[x] for
which (2, x) = (α). Then we have 2 ∈ (α) and x ∈ (α) from which we deduce that α | 2
and α | x. But if α | 2, then α ∈ {±1, ±2}. However, we observe that ±1 6∈ (2, x) and
±2 - x, a contradiction.

§4.2, #13 Find all monic irreducible polynomials of degree ≤ 3 over Z3 .

Solution:

• Degree one: x, x + 1, x + 2.
• Degree two: x2 + 1, x2 + x + 2, x2 + 2x + 2.
• Degree three: x3 + 2x2 + 1, x3 + x2 + 2x + 1, x3 + 2x2 + x + 1, x3 + 2x + 1,
x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 2, x3 + x2 + 2, x3 + x2 + x + 2, x3 + 2x + 2.

Write each of the following polynomials as a product of irreducibles in Z3 [x].

(a) f (x) = x2 − 2x + 1 ≡ (x + 2)2 (mod 3).

(b) f (x) = x4 + 2x2 + 2x + 2 ≡ (x + 1)2 (x2 + x + 2) (mod 3).
(c) f (x) = 2x3 − 2x + 1 ≡ −(x3 + 2x + 2) (mod 3).
(d) f (x) = x4 + 1 = (x2 + x + 2)(x2 + 2x + 2) (mod 3).
(e) f (x) = x9 − x ≡ x(x + 1)(x + 2)(x2 + 1)(x2 + x + 2)(x2 + 2x + 2) (mod 3).

Note: Observe that x9 − x factors as a product of all irreducibles in Z3 [x] of degree ≤ 2.

n
This phenomenon persists: for all positive integers n, the polynomial x3 − x factors as a
product of all irreducibles in Z3 [x] with degree d | n.

§4.2, #14 Let p ∈ Z be prime. Show that there are exactly (p2 −p)/2 irreducible polynomials of degree
2 in Zp [x].

Proof. Let f (x) = x2 + bx + c. We fix b ∈ Zp ; there are p choices for b. Now, we will show
that there are p−1
2
non-zero values of c ∈ Zp for which f (x) ≡ 0 (mod p) has a solution
in Zp . From this we deduce that there must be p−12
values of c ∈ Zp for which f (x) ≡ 0
(mod p) has no solution, and is therefore irreducible.

We develop a criterion for determining whether not f (x) ≡ 0 (mod p) has a solution as
follows:

f (x) ≡ 0 (mod p) ⇐⇒ 4x2 + 4bx + 4c ≡ 0 (mod p)

⇐⇒ (4x2 + 4bx + b2 ) + 4c − b2 ≡ 0 (mod p)
⇐⇒ (2x + b)2 ≡ b2 − 4c (mod p).

3
Therefore, f (x) ≡ 0 (mod p) has a solution mod p if and only if d = b2 − 4c is a square
mod p.

Observe that

(2x + b)2 ≡ (2y + b)2 (mod p) ⇐⇒ 2x + b ≡ 2y + b or 2x + b ≡ −2y − b (mod p).

In the first case, 2x + b ≡ 2y + b (mod p) implies that x ≡ y (mod p). In the second case,
2x + b ≡ −2y − b implies that y ≡ −x − b (mod p). Hence, as x ranges from 0 to p − 1 in
Zp , (2x + b)2 (mod p) assumes p+1 2
= 1 + p−1
2
values, including the value b2 when x ≡ 0
(mod p). Furthermore, for each such value d, the congruence d ≡ b2 − 4ac (mod p) has a
unique solution, c ≡ 4−1 (b2 − d) (mod p). Noting that c ≡ 0 (mod p) gives the square b2
(mod p), we find that there are p−1
2
non-zero values of c ∈ Zp for which b2 − 4ac is a square
mod p.
We conclude, for fixed b ∈ Zp , that there are p−1
2
values of c ∈ Zp for which f (x) =
2
x + bx + c is irreducible mod p; we must have p(p − 1)/2 = p 2−p monic irreducible
2

quadratics in Zp [x].

An alternative (and simpler) proof is as follows. A reducible quadratic
mod p can arise in
the form (x − a)2 or (x − a)(x − b). There are p of the first type and p2 of the second type.
Therefore, the total number for reducible quadratics mod p is p + p2 = p(p+1)


2
. Hence, the
p(p+1) p 2 −p
total number of irreducible quadratics mod p is p2 − 2 = 2 .