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Chapter 1
General Considerations

Chapter I : General considerations

This document is issued, ready to be used by Process engineers.

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Chapter 1
General Considerations

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................................................................4
1.1 SCOPE ....................................................................................................................................................................................4
1.2 DOCUMENT ORGANISATION .................................................................................................................................................4
2. TERMINOLOGY........................................................................................................................................................................5
2.1 SEPARATION ..........................................................................................................................................................................5
2.1.1.1 Primary Separation .................................................................................................................................................... 5
2.1.1.2 Secondary Separation................................................................................................................................................. 5
2.1.1.3 Coalescence............................................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 TYPE OF SEPARATORS ..........................................................................................................................................................6
2.2.1 Separator..........................................................................................................................................................................6
2.2.2 Liquid/Liquid Separators................................................................................................................................................6
2.2.3 Three Phase Separator....................................................................................................................................................6
2.2.4 Scrubber or Knockout Drum...........................................................................................................................................6
2.2.5 Centrifugal Separators....................................................................................................................................................6
2.2.6 Coalescers........................................................................................................................................................................6
2.2.7 Filter Coalescers:............................................................................................................................................................7
2.2.8 Slug Catcher.....................................................................................................................................................................7
2.3 INTERNALS ............................................................................................................................................................................7
2.3.1 Mist Eliminators ..............................................................................................................................................................7
2.3.1.1 Mesh pads ................................................................................................................................................................. 7
2.3.1.2 Vane type separators.................................................................................................................................................. 7
2.3.2 Feed Distributors.............................................................................................................................................................8
3. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON PHASE SEPARATION ..........................................................................................9
3.1 GRAVITY SEPARATION .........................................................................................................................................................9
3.2 PARTICLE CHARACTERISTICS ...............................................................................................................................................9
3.3 SEPARATION EFFICIENCY ...................................................................................................................................................10
3.4 PHASE SEPARATION THEORY .............................................................................................................................................11
3.4.1 Free-Settling Velocity....................................................................................................................................................11
3.4.2 Drag Coefficient............................................................................................................................................................12
3.4.2.1 Stokes’ Law..............................................................................................................................................................13
3.4.2.2 Newton’s Law ..........................................................................................................................................................13
3.4.2.3 Intermediate Law......................................................................................................................................................13
3.4.2.4 Simplified Correlation of the drag coefficient ............................................................................................................14
3.4.2.5 Maximum Particle Size .............................................................................................................................................14
3.5 STANDARD SIZING METHODS ............................................................................................................................................16
3.5.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................16
3.5.2 Critical Velocity – Souders-Brown Equation ..............................................................................................................16
3.5.3 Definition of K factors..................................................................................................................................................16
3.5.3.1 Technip Standard Critical Velocity Formula ..............................................................................................................17
3.5.3.2 GPSA Engineering Data Book ..................................................................................................................................18
3.6 SIZING CRITERIA FOR STANDARD SERVICES .....................................................................................................................18
4. CFD MODELLING OF SEPARATORS ..............................................................................................................................19
4.1 GENERAL .............................................................................................................................................................................19
4.2 SUMMARY OF CFD STUDIES ON VERTICAL V ESSELS ........................................................................................................22
4.2.1 Main Conclusions..........................................................................................................................................................22
4.2.2 Detailed results..............................................................................................................................................................22
4.2.2.1 Results at nominal (220%Vc) velocities.....................................................................................................................22
4.2.2.2 Results at reduced (170%Vc) velocities .....................................................................................................................23
4.2.2.3 Results at nominal (220%Vc) velocity, with vane-type feed device.............................................................................23

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4.3 SIZING CRITERIA FOR SEVERE SERVICES ...........................................................................................................................24

5. ANNEX I: CURVES .................................................................................................................................................................25
5.1 DRAG COEFFICIENT CORRELATION ...................................................................................................................................25
5.2 DETERMINATION OF DRAG COEFFICIENT ( ALTERNATE METHODS) .................................................................................26
6. ANNEX II: SAMPLE DIAMETER CALCULATION .......................................................................................................28
6.1 VERTICAL SEPARATOR, TURBO-EXPANDER INLET ...........................................................................................................28
7. ANNEX III .................................................................................................................................................................................30
7.1 NOTE ON DROPLETS STABILITY..........................................................................................................................................30
7.2 NOTE ON LIQUID RE-ENTRAINMENT ..................................................................................................................................30
8. ANNEX IV ..................................................................................................................................................................................31
8.1 SYSTEM OF UNITS ...............................................................................................................................................................31
8.2 NOMENCLATURE .................................................................................................................................................................31

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Scope
The present Design Manual is intended to provide guidelines to Process Engineers to:
§ understand the principles of phase separation,
§ be aware of potential limitations of a given type of equipment,
§ quickly determine separators dimensions,
§ define clearly the internals to be implemented.
The sketches included in Chapter 8 are to be used to the largest possible extent.

1.2 Document Organisation

Chapter I of this Design Guidelines includes:
- the theoretical background of Phase separation,
- standard design methods applied in the industry,
- an introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) contribution to Separators sizing,
- a glossary of terms commonly used.
Chapter II develops sizing methods for Vapour/Liquid Separators.
Chapter III treats the specific case of Liquid/Liquid and three phase Separators.
Chapter IV gives information on the internals commonly used.
Chapter VI develop recommendations for sizing Separators appurtenances.

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2. TERMINOLOGY

2.1 Separation
Regardless of their shape (vertical, horizontal, ..) the separation in a vessel is performed in three
main sections.

Gas Phase Outlet

Coalescing
Section

Two Phase Inlet Secondary Separation

Section

Primary Separation Liquid Level

Section

Liquid Phase Outlet

2.1.1.1 Primary Separation

Primary separation is the separation of the main portion of free liquid in the inlet stream. This
separation is influenced by the flow pattern in the inlet pipe, and the inlet feed device (if any),
which can be an inlet diverter baffle, a half open pipe, a vane type distributor, ….

2.1.1.2 Secondary Separation

Secondary separation is achieved by gravity settling in the portion of the vessel which as be
designed to achieve relatively low gas velocity and little turbulence.
It should be kept in mind that the geometry of the inlet device has a direct impact on the velocity
profile in the secondary separation zone.

2.1.1.3 Coalescence
Very small droplets cannot be practically separated by gravity, as this will impose too low
velocities, and too large diameter vessels. These droplets should coalesce to form larger droplets.
Coalescence is achieved in special devices, which force the gas and liquid droplets to follow a
tortuous path. Due to the difference in density (different inertia), gas and liquid flow patterns are
different, and droplets collide with other droplets and with the coalescing device. These larger
droplets then settle by gravity.

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Wire mesh screens (demister pads), coalescing cartridges and vane elements are examples of
coalescing devices.
Cyclone devices are specific and not treated in this document

2.2 Type of Separators

2.2.1 Separator
Generic name for a vessel used to separate a mixed-phase stream into gas and liquid phases that are
"relatively" free of each other. Other terms used are scrubber, knockout drum,…
Gravitational forces control separation. The larger the vessel size (e.g. the lower the velocity), the
higher the separation efficiency.

2.2.2 Liquid/Liquid Separators

Two immiscible liquid phases can be separated using the same principles as for gas and liquid
separators. Liquid-liquid separators operates fundamentally in the same manner than gas-liquid
separators except that they are designed for much lower velocities. Separation is usually more
difficult because of a lower difference in relative density between the two liquids compared to
gas/liquid density difference.

2.2.3 Three Phase Separator

A vessel used to separate gas and two immiscible liquids of different densities (e.g. gas, water, and
oil).

2.2.4 Scrubber or Knockout Drum

A vessel designed to handle streams with high gas-to-liquid ratios. The liquid is generally entrained
as mist in the gas or is free-flowing along the pipe wall. These vessels usually have a small liquid
collection section.
Knockout drums may be pure gravity separators, or can be fitted with mist eliminator in the form of
mist demister pads (mesh) or vane packs. Gravity Separators are rarely designed to remove
droplets smaller than 300µ. Mist eliminators improves separation efficiency (see § 2.3.1).
Flare ko drums should be treated separately (specific design rules standards).

2.2.5 Centrifugal Separators

Centrifugal or Cyclone separators improve separation efficiency by superimposing centrifugal
forces to gravity forces, thus helping separation.
Cyclones are used in situations where the nature of the fluid does not allow the use of mist
eliminators (waxy or coking material).

2.2.6 Coalescers
In liquid/gas coalescers, the gas flows through cartridges of porous media which helps
coalescence/removal of liquid droplets down to very low levels (0.1µ). Coalescers shall not be used
for bulk liquid separation, but can be placed downstream of a KO drum to improve overall
separation efficiency.

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2.2.7 Filter Coalescers:

Filter Coalescers are often applied in Gas Treatment Units downstream of the first coarse liquid
separation. The objective is to protect the downstream Units (Acid Gas Treatment, Dehydration, ..).
A Filter Coalescer usually has two compartments.
The first compartment contains filter-coalescing elements. As the gas flows through the elements,
the liquid particles coalesce into larger droplets and when the droplets reach sufficient size, the gas
flow causes them to flow out of the filter elements into the center core. The mixed stream is then
carried into the second compartment of the vessel (containing a vane-type or knitted wire mesh
mist extractor) where the larger droplets are removed. A lower barrel or boot may be used for surge
or storage of the removed liquid.
Feedback from OGD 545 Project indicates that the dual function of the Filter-Coalescer may be
difficult to achieve when solids particles are present. A recommended alternate is the combination
of a filter followed by a high efficiency Separator.

2.2.8 Slug Catcher

Slug Catchers are specific separator designed to absorb significant large liquid volumes at irregular
intervals. They are usually implemented on gas gathering systems or other two-phase pipeline
systems.
A slug catcher may be a single large vessel (e.g. OGD 545 and 1219 projects) or a manifolded
system of pipes (referred to as “Finger-Type”, e.g. South Pars 2& 3 FEED Package). Finger-type
slug-catcher designs criteria are outside the scope of this Design Manual.
In case of “small slug” separator can be fitted with surge capacity to handle slug

2.3 Internals
Separators are often fitted with internals, which purpose is to improve the quality of separation.

2.3.1 Mist Eliminators

2.3.1.1 Mesh pads

This mist eliminator consists of fiber or metal knitted mesh. The mechanism of separation is
inertial impaction. The liquid droplets collide, coalesce, and are further separated by gravity.
Typical mesh pad thickness range from 100 to 300 mm, depending of the required efficiency.
Droplets typically of 10µ can be removed with a very good efficiency. In these circumstances, pads
thickness range from 100 to 150mm, and pressure drop is below 250 mbar.
High efficiency mesh pads allow removal of 99.9% droplets of 1µ.
The velocity through the mesh cross-sectional area should be kept low enough to avoid liquid re-
entrainment.

2.3.1.2 Vane type separators

Vane separators are a series of plate or baffles inside the vessel (vane pack). Due to their inertia,
droplets will collide on the baffles, coalesce and then settle by gravity difference.
Vane packs are sensitive to mass velocity for removal efficiency, but it is considered that they can
accommodate higher velocities than Mesh pads. Due to the relatively larger path between baffles,
removal of droplets down to 10µ is considered achievable.

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2.3.2 Feed Distributors

Feed distributors are often one of the most neglected aspect of separator design and a potential
cause of poor performances when high efficiency is required.
Mist eliminator high efficiency assumes a quasi-uniform velocity distribution on the cross-sectional
area, which is largely influence by the design of the distributor.
In addition, turbulence created by the distributor above the free liquid area may be a cause for
liquid re-entrainment.
In critical services, where high separation efficiency is required, CFD modelling including the inlet
device is advisable.
The main types of inlet feed devices, in increasing order of efficiency are:
§ baffle plates
§ half or slotted pipes
§ vane-type distributors

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3. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON PHASE SEPARATION

3.1 Gravity Separation

Gas, Liquid and Solid phases will separate from each other mainly by difference of density of each
phase.
In a separator, this gravity separation will takes place between a continuous phase and discrete
particles of the other phase.
The continuous phase may be for instance the gas phase flowing upward in a vertical vessel, and
the discrete phase, the liquid droplets to be separated.
For water/hydrocarbon separation in a horizontal liquid/liquid separator, the continuous phase is
the hydrocarbon phase and the discrete phase the water droplets that do have limited solubility in
the hydrocarbon phase.
As mentioned, the main driving force for gravity separation is the density difference between the
two phases. Nevertheless, other physical properties of the fluid involved play a part in the
separation.
As an example, liquid droplets in an upcoming flow of gas (vertical separator) will settle and be
collected at the bottom only if the gravitational force acting on the droplet is greater than the drag
force of the gas flowing around the droplet, tending to carry it in the direction of the gas flow.
The separation performance is then a function of particle diameter, particle density relative to the
continuous phase and of the viscosity of the surrounding medium.
Operating conditions of the separator will therefore have an impact on separation as they affect the
physical properties of the fluids. High operating pressures hinders phase separation, as they have a
direct impact on gas density, without markedly affecting liquid density.

3.2 Particle Characteristics

The theory of gravity separation developed in § 3.4 assumes that the discrete phase is equivalent to
a rigid sphere.
The following table provides the range of particle diameters:

Particle Diameter range (microns)

Molecule up to 0.004
Smoke 0.0045 to 1
Condensation Process with fogging 0.1 to 30
Clouds & fog 4 to 50
Gas atomisation spray nozzle 1 to 100
Mist 50 to 100
Drizzle 100 to 400
Gas bubbling through boiling liquid 20 to 1,000
Annular two phase flow in pipe 10 to 2,000
Raindrops 400 to 4,000
Liquid pressure spray nozzle 100 to 5,000
Table 1.2.1 : Particles dimension range (Source, Hydrocarbon Gas Processing, June 1990)

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3.3 Separation Efficiency

Separation efficiency may be characterised by the absolute amount of particles removed.
To be complete, the size of droplets to be separated should also be specified: e.g. 99.9% of droplets
greater than 1 micron.
This notion of separation efficiency is not to be applied systematically (rather exceptionally), never
to be guaranteed.

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3.4 Phase Separation Theory

The following development is a simplified theory of fluid separation, which in most instances is
sufficient for the situations encountered.
One of the objectives is to outline the influence of the main geometrical parameters and fluid
physical properties on Separators efficiency.
Warning: special and specific care to be given when the separator operates under retrograde
condensation.

3.4.1 Free-Settling Velocity

When a liquid droplet in a continuous gas phase is subjected to a gravitational force equal to the
drag force of the gas flowing around, the particle acceleration is zero. The droplet will flow with
the gas stream.
The drag, or resistance to motion of a body in a fluid can be expressed as:
Vc2
Fd = C '* Ap * ρ g * (Equation 1.1)
2g
where C’: drag coefficient
Ap: particle cross-sectional area
ρg: gas density
Vc: critical or terminal velocity necessary for particles of size Dp to settle out
g: acceleration due to gravity
the gravity force on a sphere, which results from the difference between gravity and the
Archimedes buoyancy principle is expressed as :
D 3p
Fb = ( ρ l − ρ g ) *π * (Equation 1.2)
6
where Dp: particle diameter
ρl: liquid density

Equalling the two equations leads to the following value of the critical velocity:

4g * D p (ρ l − ρ g )
Vc = * (Equation 1.3)
3*C ' ρg
In a gas flowing at Vc, a liquid rigid sphere will be entrained with the gas flow.
Gravity Separation will be possible only if the gas velocity is lower than Vc. It should be noted that
gas and liquid densities, but also particle diameter influence the calculated critical (or terminal)
velocity.

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3.4.2 Drag Coefficient

The drag coefficient has been experimentally determined to be a function of the Reynolds Number
Re, as shown in fig. 2.2.1.
D p * vc * ρ g
Re = (Equation 1.4)
µg
where Re: Reynolds Number
Dp: particle diameter
Vc: Critical velocity
ρg: gas density
µ g: viscosity of the continuous (gas) phase

1000000

100000

10000

1000

100

10

0.1
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000

Fig. 1.2.1 : Drag Coefficient C’ as a function of Reynolds Number (data from Perry & al., 5th
edition)

- At low Reynolds number (below 2), the relationship between drag coefficient and Reynolds
number is fairly linear. Stokes’ law is applicable in that region.

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- For Reynolds number ranging approximately from 500 to 200,000 the drag coefficient reaches a
limit and is fairly constant. Newton’s law will be applied.
- An intermediate law will be applied in the medium range of Reynolds number.
- Above 200,000 Reynolds number, turbulence in the separator becomes excessive.
A reasonable correlation of the drag coefficient versus Reynolds number is given below.
C ' = 24 Re+ 3 Re 0.5 + 0.34 (Equation 1.5)
This correlation provides a good fit up to Reynolds number of 8000 to 10000.

3.4.2.1 Stokes’ Law

Stokes’ law is defined by the relationship, which is derived from Equation 1.5, at low Reynolds
number.

C ' = 24 (Equation 1.6)

Re
Once substituted in Equation 1.3, this leads to a value of critical velocity expressed as:

g * D p2
Vc = * (ρl − ρ g ) (Equation 1.7)
18 * µ g
Stokes’ law is considered to be applicable for Re < 2, and to particles diameters from 3 to 100µ.

3.4.2.2 Newton’s Law

Newton’s law is defined by the relationship
C ' = 0.44 (Equation 1.8)
Once substituted in Equation 1.3, this leads to a value of critical velocity expressed as:

(ρ l − ρ g )
V c = 1.74 * g * D p * (Equation 1.9)
ρg
Newton’s law is considered to be applicable to Re > 500, and to relatively larger particles
(approximately 1,000µ and larger).

3.4.2.3 Intermediate Law

Several correlation for the intermediate region have been proposed. The following proves to be
easy to use and provides a good approximate up to 500-1000 Reynolds number.
C ' = 18. 5 * Re −0.6 (Equation 1.10)
Substitution Equation 1.10 in Equation 1.3 will lead to:

g 0.71 * D 1p.14 * ( ρ l − ρ g ) 0.71

V c = 0.153 * (Equation 1.11)
µ 0g.43 * ρ 0g.29
Other equations may be used such as:
V Stokes
Vc = (Equation 1.12)
1+ 0.14 * Re 0.7

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where Vstokes is calculated according to Equation 1.7

3.4.2.4 Simplified Correlation of the drag coefficient

Combining Equations 1.3 and 1.4 enables to eliminate either the particle diameter, or the terminal
velocity to determine the drag coefficient:

4 g*Dp * ρg
3

C '* Re = *
2
* (ρ l − ρ g ) (Equation 1.13)
3 µ g2

C ' 4 g * µ g * (ρ l − ρ g )
= * (Equation 1.14)
Re 3 ρ g2 * v c3
The use of the above equations allows the determination of the drag coefficient C’ without
reference to the Critical velocity, or to the particle diameter. This method avoids trial-and –error
determination of C'. Nevertheless the use of a spreadsheet simplifies the determination of C'
through equations 1.6 to 1.11 and is generally more accurate.
The corresponding curves are given in Annex I.
A possible correlation of C’ vs (C’*Re2) is given by
Ln(C ' ) = 0.0364 ( LnX ) 2 − 1.0048 * LnX + 6.1484 (Equation 1.15)
where X = C’*Re2
A possible correlation of C’ vs (C’*Re2) is given by
Ln(C ' ) = 0.0098( LnX ) 2 + 0.412 * LnX + 1.7721 (Equation 1.16)
where X = C’/Re

3.4.2.5 Maximum Particle Size

Maximum particle size for a given law can be determined by combining Reynolds number limits
and Vc equation.
Combining Equation 1.9 with Re > 500 leads to:

µ g2
D p ≥ 43.54 * 3 (Equation 1.17)
g * ρ g * (ρ l − ρ g )
which gives the minimum size of a particle that will follow Newton’s law.
Similarly, combining Equation 1.7 and Re < 2 leads to:

µ g2
D p ≤ 3.30 * 3 (Equation 1.18)
g * ρ g * (ρ l − ρ g )
which gives the maximum particle size that will follows Stoke’s law.

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The following table shows that Gas/Liquid separator seldom follows Newton’s law of settling.

Gas Gas Liquid Minimum Particle diameter

Density Viscosity Density for Newton’s Law (micron)
(kg/m 3) (cP) (kg/m 3)
58.5 0.013 593 356
35.6 0.011 617 366
23.74 0.018 783.9 532
0.6 0.012 958 1281

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3.5 Standard Sizing Methods

3.5.1 Introduction
Pure Gravity Separators could be size using the formulas developed previously. Nevertheless, as
particles size and distribution is rarely known with precision, empirical correlation, based on
practical field experience have been developed.
A pure gravity separator can be, as a first approach, sized using the above formulas, and a typical
average particle size of 150 to 250µ.

3.5.2 Critical Velocity – Souders-Brown Equation

Equation 1.3, can be simplified, assuming a constant drag coefficient C’, and a given particle size
to:

(ρ l − ρ g )
Vc = K * (Equation 1.19)
ρg

3.5.3 Definition of K factors

Mesh pads removal efficiency is usually defined with reference to Equation 1.19, giving a
relationship between removal efficiency and K factor.
A typical Efficiency vs K-factor curve is given below.

100
99
98
97
96
Efficiency

95
94
93
92
91
90
89
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
K factor

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The removal efficiency reaches a maximum for K factors ranging from 0.05 to 0.13. A K factor of
0.11 is often used for allowable velocity under mesh pads.
Sizing methods for standard separators usually refer to the K-factor determined to obtain optimum
efficiency from a mesh pad.

3.5.3.1 Technip Standard Critical Velocity Formula

For a constant drag coefficient of 0.44 (Newton’s regime), and particle size of about 80µ, the
expression of the critical velocity becomes:

(ρl − ρ g )
V c = 0.048 * (Equation 1.20) 1
ρg
Correction factors are applied to the critical velocity to determine the maximum acceptable gas
velocity. Typical corrections used by Technip are as follows, for standard separations:

Service Correction Factor K factor

(%)
Reflux drum without mesh: 170% 0.0816
with mesh: 220% 0.1056
Standard separator without mesh: 170% 0.0816
with mesh: 220% 0.1056
Potentially foaming without mesh: 80% 0.0384
system inlet KO drum (e.g. with mesh: 170% 0.0816
Glycol absorber)
Compressor Suction without mesh: 80% 0.0384
with mesh: 220% 0.1056
Fuel Gas Drum without mesh: 80% 0.0384
with mesh: 170% 0.0816
Steam drum with specific 0.0624
internals: 130%
Flare KO drum 300% (first estimate) 0.144

Table 1.2.X: Technip Standard Coefficients

1
It should be noted that Equation 1.20, as expressed, assumes that the Newton's Law is applicable. This is not the case for most
of the industrial applications.
Nevertheless, this form of equation is widely accepted.
In most industrial application, the velocity for gas/liquid separators implies the use of the intermediate law. The corresponding
droplet diameter should be recalculated using the applicable law, and not simply derived from Newton's law only. Refer to
Chapter II, § XYZ for details.

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3.5.3.2 GPSA Engineering Data Book

A similar approach is developed by the GPSA (Gas Processors Suppliers Association), with the
following recommendations:

Separator Type K factor

Horizontal 0.12 to 0.15
Vertical 0.05 to 0.11
Spherical 0.05 to 0.11
Wet Steam 0.076
Most vapours under 0.061
vacuum
Salt and Caustic 0.046
Evaporators
Table 1.2.X: Typical K factors for Sizing Woven Wire Demisters (ref. GPSA Eng. Data Book,
11the Edition, page 7-7).

It addition, the following is recommended:

- Compressor and Expander suction: multiply K by 0.7-0.8
- Glycol and Amine solutions: multiply K by 0.6-0.8
- Vertical Separators without wire demisters: multiply K by about 0.5
The impact of operating pressure is quantified as follows

Operating Pressure K factor

multiplier
Atmospheric 1.0
1000 kPa (10 bar) 0.9
2000 kPa (20 bar) 0.85
4000 kPa (40 bar) 0.80
8000 kPa (80 bar) 0.75
Table 1.2.X: Influence on operating pressure on recommended K-factor (ref. GPSA Eng. Data
Book, 11the Edition, page 7-7).

3.6 Sizing Criteria for Standard Services

Sizing Criteria for Standard services are detailed in Chapter 2, § XYZ for Vertical Separators, and
§ XYZ for Horizontal Separators.

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General Considerations

4. CFD MODELLING OF SEPARATORS

The CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) is used in order to check the performance of Process
Equipment and to better understand their hydraulic behavior. The CFD analysis is especially
performed for critical items in order to validate the design and also in trouble shooting cases when
some problem appears on site. The CFD allows to analyze the installed equipment and to propose
new solutions.

Due to the complexity of the simulation and on the time consumption, the CFD tools have to be
used for specific problems and could not allow checking all equipment on a project.
In a simulation, all internals that have an influence on flow behavior shall be represented (Vane
Distributor, Mesh Pad, Vane Pack, Plate etc…)
Our 10 years experience allowed us to simulate many process equipment as for example cartridge
filter, cyclone, pipelines, slug catcher, kettle, heat exchanger …etc
This technology is of course used for separator vessels analysis. It was the first equipment that we
have simulated. The CFD analysis allows checking the velocity profile, the pressure profile and to
calculate the pressure drop. It is also used to analyze the internals efficiency (mixing of gases with
different compositions for instance) or malfunctioning, to check the separation efficiency (particles
and droplets injection) and the liquid re-entrainment by the high gas velocity at the interface. CFD
software are today the most efficient tools that we can used to validate a design, especially in case
of higher diameter vessels or high operating pressure.
It is important to understand that the CFD studies have to be well prepared because each
modification involves a new run. The CFD has to be used after careful considerations.
Multiphase flow simulation is also possible, but requires weeks to obtain a result with the
computers available.

4.1 General
Field experience has demonstrated that the application Technip Standard criteria (Equation 1.20,
with corrective factors) was, in certain specific instances, not satisfactory, and that the separation
efficiency was lower than expected (liquid carry-over to downstream equipment).
With the help of Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) tools that are now available, a systematic
analysis of this design method has been undertaken.
CFD allows to accurately modelling the velocity and pressure profiles in the Separator taking into
account the influence of the mist eliminator and feed inlet device.
The two schemes enclosed illustrate the results that can be obtained.

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Fluent color view of the velocity profile in a drum

Fluent color view of the pressure profile in a drum

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Fluent vertical velocity at mesh pad

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4.2 Summary of CFD studies on Vertical Vessels

The Standard Sizing method (§3.5) has been applied to a range of fluids and Separators
dimensions.
- fluid characterisation: air/water mixture, Steam Cracker cracked gas, Natural Gas
- range of pressure: 1 to 100.7 bar abs
- range of fluid density: 1.2 to 153 kg/m 3
- vessels dimensions: 1 to 4 m
Feed inlet uses a baffle plate, and inlet line diameters are determined using GE-P312-1.1.2.XIII
(Process Data Book) criteria.
Diameter is initially determined based on 220% of critical velocity, as defined by Equation 1.19,
and vessels are equipped with a 100 to 150mm mesh pad. Impact of velocity has then been studied
for the given diameter.

4.2.1 Main Conclusions

The main conclusions are:
- designing at 170% to 220% of critical velocity with standard inlet device creates local velocities
under the mesh pad cross-sectional area that are outside its range of the range optimum mesh pad
efficiency,
- reduction in average velocity does not significantly reduce the velocity ratio (maximum to
average),
- maximum to average velocity ratio is strongly influenced by vessel diameter and inlet distribution
device,
- vessel internals geometry has to be modified to flatten out the velocity profile,
- use of vane-type inlet devices significantly improves the velocity profile,
- use of half open pipes as feed device does not lead to a significant improvement.

Note: It is not required to go systematically for inlet devices.

4.2.2 Detailed results

4.2.2.1 Results at nominal (220%Vc) velocities

The ratio of maximum to average velocity is as follows:

Vessel diameter (m) Maximum to average

velocity ratio
1 1.25 to 1.54
2 1.49 to 2.09
4 1.59 to 2.35

The maximum velocity under the mesh is equivalent to the following K factors, which are outside
of the range of maximum mesh efficiency (see § 3.5.3).

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Vessel diameter (m) 1 2 4

Air/Water 0.133 0.158 0.168
Compressor Suction 0.149 0.165 0.188
Cracked Gas (ErdölChemie) 0.139 0.194 0.188
Nat. Gas (Habshan) 0.162 0.203 0.231
Nat. Gas (Sleipner) 0.159 0.221 0.249

4.2.2.2 Results at reduced (170%Vc) velocities

The ratio of maximum to average velocity is as follows:

Vessel diameter (m) Maximum to average

velocity ratio
1 1.31 to 1.54
2 1.70 to 2.08
4 1.67 to 2.36

The maximum velocity under the mesh is equivalent to the following K factors, which are
generally still outside of the range of maximum mesh efficiency (see § 3.5.3).

Vessel diameter (m) 1 2 4

Air/Water 0.115 0.188 0.136
Compressor Suction 0.114 0.142 0.147
Cracked Gas (ErdölChemie) 0.107 0.15 0.147
Nat. Gas (Habshan) 0.122 0.162 0.18
Nat. Gas (Sleipner) 0.122 0.169 0.193

4.2.2.3 Results at nominal (220%Vc) velocity, with vane-type feed device

The ratio of maximum to average velocity is as follows:

Vessel diameter (m) Maximum to average

velocity ratio
2 1.11 to 1.18
4 1.11 to 1.18

The maximum velocity under the mesh is equivalent to the following K factors, which are close to
the range of maximum mesh efficiency (see § 3.5.3).

Vessel diameter (m) 2 4

Cracked Gas (ErdölChemie) 0.119 0.117
Nat. Gas (Habshan) 0.122 0.118
Nat. Gas (Sleipner) 0.124 0.117
Maximum to average velocity at liquid/gas interface is also homogeneous (0.91 to 1.18).

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4.3 Sizing Criteria for Severe Services

From the above study, it is then possible to develop sizing criteria for severe services.
A severe service is defined as a service where a high degree of separation is required to protect the
downstream equipment, or to achieve a stringent specification.
Examples: scrubber upstream amine unit, glycol unit etc…..
Severe services may also be services where the operating conditions are such (high pressure, ..) that
the separation is considered to be more difficult (lower density difference between gas and liquid).
For example, when operating at high pressure (ex above 30 barg), CFD simulation may be
considered in specific severe services. This however has not to be done systematically (refer to
Engineer sound judgment)
In the light of the above paragraphs, it is the responsibility of the Process Engineer in charge of the
design to decide on the methodology to be followed and, in particular, to refer or not to the guide
especially when the service is critical.

Sizing Criteria for Severe Services are detailed in Chapter 2, § XYZ for Vertical Separators.

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5. ANNEX I: CURVES

5.1 Drag Coefficient Correlation

Fig. 1.6.1: Drag Coefficient correlations

1000000

100000

10000

1000

100

10

0.1
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000

Experimental Equation 1.6 Equation 1.10 Equation 1.5

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5.2 Determination of Drag Coefficient (alternate Methods)

Fig 1.6.2: C’ vs C’(Re2)

1000000

100000

10000
drag coefficient C'

1000

100

10

0.1
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
2
C'(Re)

Experimental Equation 1.15

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Fig. 1.6.3: C’ vs C/Re

10000

1000
drag coefficient C'

100

10

0.1
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000

C'/Re

C/Re Equation 1.16

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6. ANNEX II: SAMPLE DIAMETER CALCULATION

6.1 Vertical Separator, Turbo-Expander inlet

Process data:
§ Gas Flowrate: 471194 kg/h
§ Liquid Flowrate: 13075 kg/h
§ Gas Density: 58.5 kg/m3
§ Liquid Density: 593 kg/m3
§ Gas viscosity: 0.013 cP

a) Standard Technip correlation

593 − 58.5
Critical Velocity calculation using Equation 1.20: 0.048 * = 0.145 m/s
58.5
K factor applied: 170% Vc, selected velocity: 0.247 m/s
Vapour flowrate: 2.237 m3/s
Calculated Vessel diameter: 3.4 m

b) Calculation based on a droplet diameter of 250 micron

Intermediate law assumed, initial estimate of drag coefficient 0.8

Iteration 1 Iteration 2 Iteration 3 Iteration 4 Iteration 5

C' 0.8 0.653891 0.633295 0.630169 0.629689
Vc (Equation 1.3) 0.193218 0.213717 0.217165 0.217703 0.217786
Re (Equation 1.4) 217.3701 240.432 244.3102 244.9155 245.0089
C' (Equation 1.5) 0.653891 0.633295 0.630169 0.629689 0.629615
Law Interm. Interm. Interm. Interm. Interm.

Other calculation:

Iteration 1 Iteration 2 Iteration 3 Iteration 4 Iteration 5

C' 0.8 0.710994 0.710994 0.710994 0.710994
Vc (Equation 1.11) 0.203091 0.203091 0.203091 0.203091 0.203091
Re (Equation 1.4) 228.477 228.477 228.477 228.477 228.477
C' (Equation 1.10) 0.710994 0.710994 0.710994 0.710994 0.710994
Law Interm. Interm. Interm. Interm. Interm.

Calculated diameter based on 0.21m/s Actual Velocity: 3.7 m

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c) Estimate of droplet size, with actual velocity as calculated under a)

Selected Velocity: 0.247 m/s
Calculate C’/Re with Equation 1.14: 0.001762
Calculate C’ using Equation 1.16: 0.6399
Deduct Re: 363 (Intermediate Law)
Calculate Dp from Equation 1.4 0.000327m (327µ)

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7. ANNEX III

7.1 Note on Droplets stability

The surface tension forces of a droplet in a moving fluid (gas phase) maintain the stability of the
droplet against the frictional forces applied by the flowing fluid.
Various expressions have been developed to determine the maximum velocity above which there is
a potential for droplet rupture and formation of smaller particles which will be carried by the gas
phase.

ρl − ρ g
V max = K * (Equation 1.21)
ρg

32 0.25 g *σ l 0.25
with K = ( ) * ( )
3 *C' 2 ρl − ρ g
HTRI uses a similar expression :

ρl − ρ g
V HTRI = K HTRI *
ρg

g *σ l 0.25
with K HTRI = k * E 1 / 3 * ( )
ρl − ρg
E being the liquid entrainment in vapour phase

7.2 Note on Liquid Re-entrainment

The Kelvin-Helmholtz relationship can be used to determine the potential for droplets re-
entrainment over a liquid surface.

2
V gas = * ( ρ l *σ l * g ) 0.25 (Equation 1.22)
ρg

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8. ANNEX IV

8.1 System of Units

SI System has been used for the correlation and equations developed.

8.2 Nomenclature
Ap: particle cross-sectional area (m2)
Dp: particle diameter (m)
C’: drag coefficient (dimensionless)
g: acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
Re: Reynolds Number (dimensionless)
Vc: critical or terminal velocity necessary for particles of size Dp to settle out (m/s)
µ g: viscosity of the continuous (gas) phase (Pa.s) [1 Pa.s = 1000 cP]
ρg: 3
gas density (kg/m )
ρl: liquid density (kg/m 3)
σl : surface tension of the liquid phase (N/m)

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