Principles of Education

This Phase is an overview of Education – the definition, the social dimensions and the influences

of the oriental as well as the western philosophers and educationists who are path breakers and

whose theories remain as cornerstone for anyone who is in the field of teaching and learning.

 Introduction of Education

 Social agencies of Education:

 Family

 School

 Method of Education

 Kindergarten

 Play & Play way in Education

 Educators

 Rousseau

 John Dewey

 Rabindranath Tagore

 Mahatma Gandhi

 The Teacher

 History of Development of Primary Education

(Ancient, Medieval & Modern)

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Introduction of Education

When talking about education people often

confuse it with schooling. They have inadvertently
chosen ‘schooling’, which is trying to drill
learning into people according to some plan often
drawn up by others. Paulo Freire (1973) famously called this banking – making deposits
of knowledge. Such ‘schooling’ quickly descends into treating learners like objects,
things to be acted upon rather than people to be related to.
Education, as we understand it here, is a process of inviting truth and possibility, of
encouraging and giving time to discovery. It is, as John Dewey (1916) put it, a social
process – ‘a process of living and not a preparation for future living’. In this view,
educators look to act with people rather on them. Their task is to educe (related to the
Greek notion of educere), to bring out or develop potential. Etymologically, the meaning
of education is ‚to draw out‛.
Such education is:
 Deliberate and hopeful. It is learning we set out to make happen in the belief that
people can ‘be more';
 Informed, respectful and wise. A process of inviting truth and possibility.
 Grounded in a desire that at all may flourish and share in life. It is a cooperative and
inclusive activity that looks to help people to live their lives as well as they can.

In what follows, we will try to answer the question ‘what is education?’ by exploring
these dimensions and the processes involved.

A definition for starters: Education is the wise, hopeful and respectful cultivation of
learning undertaken in the belief that all should have the chance to share in life.

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Education – cultivating hopeful environments and relationships for learning

It is often said that we are learning all the time and that we may not be conscious of it
happening. Learning is both a process and an outcome. As a process it is part of living
in the world, part of the way our bodies work. As an outcome, it is a new
understanding or appreciation of something.

In recent years, developments in neuroscience have shown us how learning takes place
both in the body and as a social activity. We are social animals. As a result, educators
need to focus on creating environments and relationships for learning rather than trying
to drill knowledge into people. But in truth, learning is actually a
cognitive and emotional and social activity (Illeris 2002).

Intention

Education is deliberate. We act with a purpose – to develop understanding and

judgement, and enable action. We may do this for ourselves, for example, learning what
different road signs mean so that we can get a license to drive; or watching wildlife
programmes on television because we are interested in animal behaviour. This process
is sometimes called self-education or teaching yourself. Often, though, we seek to
encourage learning in others. Examples here include, parents and carers showing their
children how to use a knife and fork or ride a bike; schoolteachers introducing students
to a foreign language; and animators and pedagogues helping a group to work
together.

Sometimes as educators we have a clear idea of what we’d like to see achieved; at others
we do not and should not. In the case of the former we might be working towards a
curriculum, have a session or lesson plan with clear objectives, and have a high degree
of control over the learning environment. This is what we normally mean by ‘formal
education’. In the latter, for example, when working with a community group, the

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setting is theirs and, as educators, we are present as guests. This is an example
of informal education and here two things are happening.

First, the group may well be clear on what it wants to achieve e.g. putting on an event,
but unclear about what they need to learn to do it. They know learning is involved – it
is something necessary to achieve what they want – but it is not the main focus. Such
‘incidental learning’ is not accidental. People know they need to learn something but
cannot necessarily specify it in advance (Brookfield 1984).

Second, this learning activity works largely through conversation – and conversation
takes unpredictable turns. It is a dialogical rather than curricula form of education.

In both forms, educators set out to create environments and relationships where people
can explore their, and other’s experiences of situations, ideas and feelings. This
exploration lies, as John Dewey argued, at the heart of the ‘business of education’.
Educators set out to emancipate and enlarge experience (1933: 340). How closely the
subject matter is defined in advance and by whom, differs from situation to situation.
John Ellis (1990) has developed a useful continuum – arguing that most education
involves a mix of the informal and formal, of conversation and curriculum (i.e. between
points X and Y).

Those that describe themselves as informal educators, social pedagogues or as

animators of community learning and development tend to work towards the X; those

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working as subject teachers or lecturers tend to the Y. Educators when facilitating tutor
groups might, overall, work somewhere in the middle.

Synonyms of Education

A number of synonyms of the word ‘education’ may be discussed here. The word

‘Pedagogy’ is sometimes used for education. This word can be decomposed as ‘paides’–

‘boy’ – ‘again’ – ‘to lead’. The two Greek words thus connect ‘to lead the boy’. So

pedagogy is the science of instruction for purposes of leading the pupils. The most

common Indian word 'Shiksha’ is derived from the Sanskrit verbal root ‘shas’ which

means ‘to discipline’, ‘to control’, ‘to instruct’ or ‘to teach’.

Similarly, the word ‘Vidya’ is derived from the Sanskrit verbal root ‘vid’ which means

‘to know’. Vidya is thus the subject matter of knowledge. This shows that discipline the

mind and imparting knowledge were the foremost consideration of India. When we

review so many synonyms of the word ‘education’, we find that education is a complex

idea. The whole scope of education has not been expressed through one single term.

There have been, definitely, variations in the very concept on education. Eastern and

Western concepts have differed to some extent.

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Indian Concept of Education

Education being an important social activity, its meaning has been changing through

the ages, due to change in social and political conditions, some of the most popular

definitions, given by educational thinkers are given below: -

RIG VEDA: ‚Education is something which makes a man self-reliant, self-less‛.

UPANISHADA: ‚Education is that whose end-product is salvation‛.

YAJNAVALKYA: (The famous Indian Legislator): ‚Education is that which makes a

man of good character and useful of the society‛.

PANINI: (The famous Grammarian): ‚Human education means the training which one

gets from nature‛.

KAUTILYA: (The famous Politician): ‚Education means training for the country and

love for the nation‛.

KANNADA: (The famous Philosopher): ‚Education means development to self-

contentment‛.

SHANKARACHARYA: (The famous Vedantist): ‚Education is the realization of the

self‛.

GURU NANAK: ‚Education is self-realization and service of the people. Coming to the

modern age, we find a number of Indian thinkers and exponent of the ancient Indian

concept‛.

VIVEKANANDA: (A modern exponent of Vedanta Philosophy): ‚Education is the

manifestation of divine perfection already existing in man. According to him, the aim of

all education, of all training, should be man-making‛.

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He further explains, ‚It is man-making education all-round development that we want.

We want that education by which character is formed strength of mind is increased, the

intellect expounded and by which one can stand on one’s own feet. What we require is

‚Life building, man-making, character-making, assimilation of ideas‛. He emphasizes

upon the exposition of man’s complete individuality. As from the Vedantic point of

view, the essence of man is the spirituality. We need an education that quickens, that

vivifies, and that kindles the urge of spirituality, inherent in every mind.

Even other Indian philosophers of the day consider education as self-education.

According to them, the aim is spiritual rather than ethereal or material.

Tagore remarks, ‚Education mean enabling the mind to find out that ultimate truth

which emancipate us from the bondage of the dust and gives us the wealth, not of

things but of inner light, not of power, but of love, making this truth its own and giving

expression to it‛.

AUROBINDO GHOSH thinks of education as ‚helping the growing soul to draw out

that is in itself‛.

MAHATMA GANDHI says, ‚By education, I mean an all-round drawing out of the

best in child and man – body, mind and spirit‛.

ZAKIR HUSSAIN: ‚Education is the process of the individual mind getting to its full

possible development ... it is a long school which lasts a life time‛.

Dr. S. RADHAKRISHNAN: ‚Education is the training of the mind and spirit. It should

develop an enquiring mind, initial in minds the worth of human beings, should train us

to control ourselves and to exercise reasoning and judgment in our actions and have an

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open mind. The Indian concept of education is well summarized by its university

education commission‛.

Education according to Indian tradition is not merely a mean to earning a living; not it

is only a nursery of thought or a school for citizenship. It is initiation into the life of

spirit, a training of human souls in the pursuit of truth and the practice of virtue. It is a

second birth, ‚DiitiyamJanma‛.

Indian education commission (1964 – 1966) states that education ought to be related to

the life, needs and aspirations of the people so as to be powerful instruments of social,

economic and cultural transformation.

Western Concept of Education

Some of the famous Western educational thinkers interpret education as follows: -

PLATO: ‚Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at THE RIGHT MOMENT.

It develops in the body and in the soul of the pupil all the beauty and all the perfection

which he is capable of‛.

ARISTOTLE: ‚Education is the creation of mind in a sound body. It develops man’s

faculty especially his mind, so that he may be able to enjoy the contemplation of

supreme truth, goodness and beauty of which perfect happiness essentially consists‛.

COMENIUS: ‚All these who are born as human beings need education because they

are destined to be real men, not wild beasts, dull animals and stamps of wood‛.

PESTALOZZI: ‚Education is natural, harmonious and progressive development of

man’s innate powers‛.

FROEBEL: ‚Education is enfoldment of what is already enfolded in the germ. It is the

process which the child makes internal, external‛.

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SPENCER: ‚Education is complete living‛.

THOMPSON: ‚Education is the influence of the environment on the individual with a

view to producing a permanent change in his habits, behavior of thought and of

attitude‛.

T.P. NUNN: ‚Education is the complete development of the individuality of the child

so that he can make and original contribution to human life according to the best of his

capacity.‛

ADAMS: ‚Education is a conscious and deliberate process in which one personality

acts upon another in order to modify the development of that other by the

communication and manipulation of knowledge‛.

T. RAYMONT: ‚Education is a process of development from infancy to maturity, the

process by which he adopts himself gradually in various ways of his physical, social

and spiritual environment‛.

ROSS: ‚The aim of education is the development of valuable personality and spiritual

individuality‛.

JOHN DEWEY: ‚Education is the process by living through a continuous

reconstruction of experiences. It is the development of all those capacities in the

individual which will enable him to control his environment and fulfill his

possibilities‛.

Thus we find the term ‚Education‛ has been defined and interpreted in various,

according to the times and outlook on life, to different philosophies of life and

educational theories and practices.

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Meaning of Education

It is therefore very difficult to give one definite meaning to the term, ‚Education‛. For

education has been explained in different ways by thinkers, philosophers, educationists,

statesman, politicians, merchants, artisans and priests, according to their own outlook

on life and according to the circumstances they have been facing.

The reason is that education is an abstract entity and its concept is dynamic. It is a

continuous process. It has passed through many ages and stages in the process of

evolution and at every stage it has had a different meaning according to conditions then

prevailing. The concept of education is still in a process of evolution and this process

will never come to an end. It is therefore rightly observed that the word on education

will never be said.

According to John Dewey, education is the development of all those capacities in the

individual which will enable him to control his environment and fulfill his possibilities.

Gandhi speaks of education as an all-round process, drawing out of the best in child

and man – body, mind and spirit.

But, like most of the terms of our daily use, the term education has much deviated from

its derivative meaning. Education originally meant the act of leading forth or

developing and from this meaning subsequently evolved a more comprehensive

concept of education, namely the rearing or bringing up of the child. Education thus

came to mean the act of developing or growing of the child under adult care and

direction. There are three schools of philosophy which can help in framing a general

definition of education.

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FIRSTLY - According to the ‚Naturalist‛ education moulds one’s self to suit

environment. So the function of education is to guide the instincts of a child in order to

reach the desired goal of life. The naturalists believe that education helps the educated

to change his environments by developing his own faculties.

SECONDLY – The ‘Idealists’ link upon education as a process by which a man attains

his goodness. They think that education teaches a man to regard the deserving and to

about what is detectable. Swami Vivekananda describes education as the development

of mental and philosophical powers with a view to attaining self-realization.

THIRDLY – The ‚Pragmatists‛ hold a mere practical view. They view education as an

experience of life. In shorts the pragmatists look up education as a developing life itself

through the sum total of experience of life.

All the above concepts of education have been coordinated in the definition given by

Horne, which runs as follows:

‚Education is the eternal process of superior adjustment of the mentally developed

from conscious human being to God, as manifested in the intellectual, emotional and

volitional environment of man‛. Although this definition is saturated with the essence

of idealism, it has more or less been accepted by all, though Red den’s definition, of

education gives a fairly comprehensive description of the term education.

Redden’s definition of Education

It is perhaps, in the words of Redden that we can best describe the term ‘education’ and

his interpretation of education is considered to be most precise and most widely

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accepted interpretation, according to modern conception of the term – both Eastern and

Western.

He says, ‚Education is the deliberate and systematic influence, exerted by the nature

person upon the immature through instruction, discipline and harmonious

development of physical, intellectual, aesthetic, social and spiritual powers of the

human being, according to individual and social needs and directed towards the union

of the educand with the creator as the final end‛.

According to this definition, the human child who is quite immature and undeveloped

at birth, is subjected to systematic course of instructional and disciplinary influence by a

mature and experience person, called the ‘educator’. The child, after undergoing this

course of planned training, becomes fit for satisfying the needs of society as also of his

own life in such a manner that the higher goal of life i.e. union with the almighty father

after death is also achieved ultimately.

A little explanation of the above definition will elucidate the idea.

Deliberate and systematic influence means the exercise of a systematic control over the

actions of the educand. It involves utmost care and guidance; such planned influence

takes the form of:

 inculcating good habits,

 training senses and memory,

 proper development of imagination and powers of mind and

 strengthening of the will

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 Mature person should influence the immature, means that a child, who is immature,

should be influenced by the parents, the elders in the society and the teachers who are

more experienced.

 Harmonious development means that all the elements of the man’s nature, viz. The

physical, the intellectual, the aesthetic, the moral, the social and the spiritual must be

developed in a balanced manner.

 Power means all the capacities and interests in the child viz. the cognitive, the

reflective, the affective and the co-native.

 The ultimate aim is the union of the individual self with the absolute. Here, it

synchronizes with the Indian idealistic aim of education. The ultimate aim of education

is the same as the ultimate aim of life. And, according to our thinkers, the ultimate goal

of life is the merger of the individual self with the universal self which is designated by

a number of terms, viz. liberation, self-realization, attainment of supreme bliss. This is

the spiritual aim of education.

Education as a Process

The modern tendency is to regard education as a process – bi-polar in nature, which

involves the inter-play of the educator and the student. In this process, the personality

of the educator acts on that of the student in order to modify the latter’s development.

On the educator’s side, the process is a conscious and deliberate one. He knows and

fully realizes that his aim is to bring about the development of the educated along

definite lines through the modification of his behavior. The modification takes place

either by the direct application of the educator’s personality to that of the student or

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indirectly through the use of knowledge in its various forms – the knowledge that is

communicated by the educator.

Dewey too believes that education is a process. According to him, this process has a

psychological as well as sociological side. The psychological side of the process, which

includes the study of the child’s urges and powers, forms the basis of this process. It

furnishes the material and gives the starting point for all education. The knowledge of

child’s nature and activities will prevent the educative process from becoming

‘haphazard and arbitrary’. But Dewey lays more stress on the sociological side of this

purpose. ‚All education proceeds by the participation of the individual in this social

consciousness of the race‛. This consciousness consciously begins at birth and

continually shapes and affects the individual’s ability and personality. The child is to

live in the community to which he belongs, hence true education comes through ‚the

stimulation of the child’s powers by the demands of the social situation in which he

finds himself‛

The emphasis on the sociological aspect is indicative of the influence of educational

sociology on the meaning, content and methods of education. Considering this and the

bi-polar concept of education together we can safely assume that education as a process

is not a bi-polar but tri-polar miniature as it involves the interplay of the educator, the

learner and the social forces. The educator tries to modify the personality of the student

in the light of the needs and demands of society to which the latter belongs.

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Social agencies of Education

We have seen how education has three important functions in terms of society. It has to

perpetuate the social and cultural heritage which one generation has inherited from the

other. This social and cultural heritage comprises experiences, customs and values of

the people. Besides the conservation function, education has to develop new social

patterns and thus play a creative and constructive role. Society has developed number

of specialized institutions to carry out these functions of education. Some of these

agencies are ‘formal’, set up more or less deliberately by society. Such agencies have

been specially created with the specific objective of carrying out the various functions of

education. The school, the church, libraries organized recreation centers are some of the

‘formal’ agencies of these, the school is the most important. Informal agencies include

institutions which diffuse and transmit culture and knowledge from one generation to

another in an informal disorganized manner. The family, the playground and the

community are some of the informal agencies.

The Home or the Family

The family is an important informal but active agency of education. It was the original

social institution from which all other institutions developed, according to Ballard. He

says, ‚Originally the family was the all-inclusive social institute. All human activity

centered in the blood bound groups, hence all human relationship was comprehended

by it. It is only within comparatively recent times that the social order expanded beyond

the control of the familial group‛. By all human relations is implied economic activity,

play activity, education, religious activity and others.

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The family is important as an agency of education of socialization because it is the

institution to which every individual is born.

Family is the smallest unit of social groups in human race. Before the need for a society

was felt, the necessity of living in a family was perhaps the basic idea that pioneered all

other steps towards civilization. Although the smallest family may consist of one male,

one female and their children, there are so many countries where parents and near

relatives of the original couple also live with them along with their own children. Thus

we treat family as a social group where one or more males live together a marital life

with one or more females along with their children. The joint family is gradually

becoming out of date. The nucleus family consisting of the male, the female and their

children has now become almost universal pattern of family.

A closer study shows some distinctive features of a family.

FIRST: It is a biological unit, the unity of two human beings of opposite sex in a family

implies an established sex relationship. Under this condition the wife lead a normal life

and bring forth their progeny.

SECONDLY: the family has a great institutional value. The solidarity and unity of

purpose are more reflected in the ‘mother cell’ of the social body. It must be pointed out

here that the family in order to be an effective agency for education should be a well-

integrated happy family. This implies harmonious relation between parents and

relationships between parents and the child are healthy, impartial inter-relationship. It

is such a family that can develop the right type of activities for learning in school or in

the home.

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Functions of the Family

 Family perpetuates the human race by biological reproduction. It provides mankind

and opportunity to satisfy his needs in a rational manner in the right direction. The

family maintains a proper and useful sex relation culminating into the procreation of a

new generation.

 The function of the family does not cease with procreation. It rather starts with

procreation and continues in nurturing the child and thereby unfolding its personality.

 The family provides a basic training to the children in order to enable them to

become the future citizens of the society. With the birth of a child in the family it

occupies a central position and all the care and attention of the parents are focused on

the child.

 The education of the child begins in the family. The parents are the best observer of

their children. It is the family that provides the heredity and desirable environment to

the child for its all-round development. The family teaches a child to acquire human

qualities and virtues to observe sociability and other traits which are considered as

essential elements of education.

 Love and affection between the two partners of the family act as a cohesive force.

The peace, happiness and stability of a family depend much on the mutual

understanding, self-sacrificed and other finer sentiments of the partners. The family

ultimately secures a social integration.

 The economic function of the family is no less important. The principle member of

the family makes out a predetermined economic plan for his wife, children and other

17
members. For without a sound economic foundation the proper development of the

children cannot be achieved.

 The family has had varied educational functions in the past. These have changed

with the times, with changing technological advancements with changing economic

conditions and social crisis. The family in India has been a centre of social activities.

It was the centre of moral education. The family imparted a certain type of religious

teaching through religious ceremonies in which ceremonies in which every member

participated. The family determined the type of social relationships that its members

could have outside. It decided the role and status of every member. The younger

members were always to obey the elders in the family or outside. It was an important

agency for developing social behavior and attitudes. Again the family has been

responsible for vocational education as well. Professions were passed on from fathers to

sons. Once upon a time it used to be self-sufficient even in its economic functions.

 The family now has different roles. It is in the process of disintegration. Joint

families are disappearing. It is no longer a centre for social activities or recreation. Now,

people to outside to the pictures or theatres. Religion is an individual affair now. And

as vocational now-a-days are becoming highly specialized and varied, the family is

inadequate in the sphere of preparing its members for vocations that were followed by

the elders. Moreover, vocations need a long and specialized preparation which the

family cannot provide. In spite of all these, one cannot deny that the family is still one of

the most fundamental agencies for education in as much as it causes the development of

attitudes and habits. It continues to be a source of giving and receiving affections, a

source of giving security and ‘belongingness’ to children – a feeling whose importance

18
in learning and teaching cannot be overlooked. It is an important informal yet active

agency.

In fine, it may be said that family gives a man his social entity. The individual and social

progress is thus the outcome of the family life. Not only is the family responsible for the

education and development of the child, but also its functions do cease with the child

entering into the school. A great portion of the whole day of child is spent at home. So,

the family continues to exert its influence on the child.

How far can the Home (Family) be regarded as the first training ground of character?

It is said that the family is the first playground of a child and it is also the primary

Phase to acquire experiences which is the basic material of education. The child adjusts

itself to these experiences and moulds itself to attain the desired development. It this

process of molding, the contribution of the parents is magnificent.

School

Introduction

In primitive groups, the idea of school education was not prevalent. Education then

consisted in learning the social customs and vocation of the family through social

participation and imitation. But as civilization advanced, the idea of formal education

emerged as a felt need of the society. It modern time the demand for able and trained

men has been ever increasing. So, the school has become an indispensable unit of the

society.

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Function

 It covers the entire educational machinery from kindergarten to the post-graduate

university course. The utility and method of training in school is so indispensable that

people are no longer satisfied with the home education and they prefer to go in for

school education of their children as early as possible. The prevailing tendency of the

school is to impart intellectual training. It is a place where the knowledge of the three

R’s is imparted first and the other subjects are taught. Without book education, a

student cannot be expected to keep pace with the growing need of the society.

 The school is a place where, through experiments and observation of teachers, the

talent is found out. It provides conditions under which the talent power is developed. It

is an ideal environment where the personal qualities are developed in the desired way.

 It provides for individual attention to the student. At the same time, the individual

is meant for the society. It cannot exist as an individual alone. So, the school should aim

at coordinated and integrated development of an individual in order to raise him to the

desired social standard. Again, the moral development of a child is an important role of

the school. The school handles the children and guides their development. It also

controls, instructs, and impulses so that they may culminate into moral perfection.

 The school is a stepping stone of an individual in his march from family to the

society. So, one of the important functions of the school is to explore individual

capacities for the promotion of social good. The school should give a practical idea on

the preparation for a complete life, self-realization, good citizenship etc. which will

enable the child to be a fit member of the society. Although, it is not possible for the

school to materialize the ideals of the society completely it should at least aim at

securing a steady progress of the children towards that ideal. The school also acts as an

important social agency to conserve the society. The society is dynamic and living. So,

20
the school should incorporate essential changes in its program me of action so as to

enable its students to keep peace with the developing society. Again, in this modern age

of mechanized civilization the school has given importance on vocational and technical

education.

 It may be said that the function of the school does not materially differs that of the

family. The education at home also helps the child to develop its hereditary, so as to

serve the greater interest of the society. The school also aims at a coordinated and

integrated development of the child to the desired social standard. In this respect, the

school provides a much wider field than that of the family. Not only the task of the

school is more complex and difficult in attaining a unity in diversity, but also it acts as a

more suitable platform where the practical training of the children is possible according

to the individual and social requirement. Again the boundary of the four walls of home

is bound to limit the range of experience of the child, while the school provides a wider

visit of experience. The child being the single learner in the family or at best one of a

few, there is little scope of its evaluation, but in school this is always possible through

mutual comparison of activities and performance. Hence, the school is an indispensable

field of education particularly in the modern set up of the society. It cannot be denied

that the family supplies the vital energy to the ‘budding interests’ of the children

thereby enabling them to blossom. But in that case, the function of the school can well

be looked upon as a means to radiate the glamour and aroma of those flowers in the

atmosphere of the society. The school is regarded as a miniature society. Here the

children come in close contact with each other and with their teacher, and imbibe the

social manners and customs by exchange of ideas. The pupil is confronted with

problems in his worldly life and finds the school to help him in finding out solutions.

He thus makes a definite advancement towards the social life through his experiences

21
in school. So, school helps to endow the pupil with social heritage. It also forms a base

for the pupils to practice mutual co-operation. The school acts as a catalyst in unfolding

the talent powers in a child. In the family, a child gets no scope to compare its own

merits with others. In the wider environment of schools, its outlook is expanded and it

feels an urge for competition by constant exercise of its talent powers. This helps in

unfolding the talent powers in a child.

In conclusion, it may be said that the school is an office to furnish a social environment

in which the real vital and meaningful activities of the race are simplified and balanced

so as to strain children in co-operation and mutually helpful living. But we are also to

note that the school should not begin with the 3R’s but with the activities the child has

seen at home.

Educational Methodologies

The success in education depends largely on the methods used in its process. American

pragmatists leave much to the children’s own sweet will and do not interfere with their

work or play. But the Russian realists differ from them here. They said that it is not

desirable to leave such an important question to the children’s whim. They have no

experience are guided merely by momentary impulses, and to leave them to themselves

will be simply waste of valuable time. In ancient days, man’s life was simple and the

children could afford to lose time in only observing and making trials. John Dewey’s

methods of training might have been useful in those days. But man’s life in modern

times has become very complex, he has to depend on many others for his daily needs

and they too, get his help in one form or another. Children have got to know all the

22
details of modern life as soon as possible and hence proper methods have to be used in

educating them.

It does not follow from the above that heaps of facts are to be poured into the children’s

mind and that their own point of view is not to be considered. Far from it, the realist

teacher does use his own knowledge of child psychology, takes into account children’s

innate tendencies and presents such situation to them that they readily and intelligently

begin to co-operate with him - (i) He uses concrete aid for teachings, (ii) gives the right

stimulus to their minds, (iii) makes them observe things critically, (iv) encourages them

to do experiments and to turn out useful work and to lead them to arrive at correct

conclusions. The inductive process of reasoning is followed and the children are given

freedom to think for themselves. Right habits of questioning and answering, of

handling and arranging things of investigating and thinking, of judging and acting are

trained in the schools. Here ‘trial and error’ method is not good because by making

errors children learn to make more errors as they do not possess the critical insight of

introspection and correction. The teacher must lead them along the right path and

inspire them to work hard. The school and the society should use similar methods in

educating the young to develop able and intelligent workers.

In old fashioned schools, the method of teaching is teacher centered; the teacher collects

all materials, arranges it, makes experiments with it and works out conclusions. During

the whole process the pupils observe and sit passive and learn whatever is possible. The

naturalist and pragmatist teacher go to the other extreme and follow the child centered

method of teaching, the child gathers the necessary objects and aids, carries on

experiments, arrives at results in his own way, while the teacher stands by and looks

23
on. If any question or difficulty is referred to him, the teacher explains it, or if the child

is likely to come to harm, in the process, he interferes, otherwise the child’s activity goes

on with or without success.

24
Realists do not like both these extremes; they follow a middle course and formulated a

new method of teaching based on the co-operation of the teacher and the pupil. They

both have to talk freely about the subject at hand, discuss the pros and cons of the

problem and solve it in a co-operative spirit. Of course the teacher knows the whole

question before hand, as he comes to the class with the necessary previous preparation.

He assigns to the pupils whatever they can do or find out or collects, supervises their

work, so that no error can creep in it and supplies whatever is required to complete the

undertaking. In science, for instance he prepares the background

by eliciting information from the pupils on the previous portion

and links on to the new topic in a logical manner. They are left to

work for sake of an experiment. The teacher sees if it is the right

sort and gives instructions about the handling of the apparatus

very carefully, so that there is no wastage, breakage or accident.

He also supervises the experiments of the different groups and ensures full co-

operation among the members of each group. Then the results and conclusions are

recorded, compared and discussed, and their application to practical life is also elicited,

so that the pupils go to their home with the scientific outlook. Education has been

rightly called a bi-polar process- because the teacher and the pupil have to come

together to make in a common plane of understanding and to produce some good

results to their combined efforts. The teacher possesses of matured mind. While the

pupils mind are immature. When they come into close contact with each other, there is

a good deal of action and reaction, because some inner and invisible connections join

them unconsciously just as one flame is required to light up another flame, so also one

educated person is essential to educate another person. Hence the method based on co-

operation in the realistic schools seems to be ideal.

25
The Kindergarten

‘Kindergarten’ is a German word, meaning the ‘The Children’s Garden’. It was

originally the name of an Institution founded in 1837 by Fredric Froebel, the great

German philosopher educator, who regarded the school as a garden and the teacher as

gardener, the carefully tends the little human plants under his care, and helps to grow

to beauty and perfection. His method is based on philosophical ideas.

One of the principals of Froebel’s philosophy was the principle of development and one

of the aims of education was to effect the spontaneous development of the child. In his

study of childhood, he discovered that the earlier years of a child are very important.

He discovered much similarity between a child and a plant, because the child grows

spontaneously just as the plant grows naturally. The similarity between a growing child

and a growing plant led Froebel to present the idea of the kindergarten system.

The underlying principle of the K.G. system is to help the child to develop himself by

giving expression to the impulses which are hidden within him. It is necessary that the

teacher should know the native interest and tendencies of children. The development of

the child is to be through play. He says that play is the most beautiful and most

spiritual activity of man at this stage. It exhibits freedom and creative activity. It

satisfies the child for it gives expression to so many of his instincts. So the work of

teaching in the kindergarten system is to be done in the play spirit. So the child will be

taught everything through play.

The play instinct in children has to be directed through proper channels and the

teachers’ duty in respect to it is three fold:

26
 To help the children to realize their own impulses by encouraging them to play.

 She /he may encourage those elements in children’s play which are good and useful.

 One is to discourage those elements in play which are injurious or improper, and to

see that the play activity should develop moral qualities such as justice wisdom, self-

control, truth, loyalty, freedom, consideration for others, perseverance and co-

operation.

The atmosphere of the kindergarten is to be that of freedom play and joy an atmosphere

which fosters self-expression. There are to no books or fixed intellectual tasks for

children, but training in expression is to be given in three ways – through song,

movement and construction. These three are to go together. Though the means are

separate, yet the process is connected as a whole. The work of the teacher consists in the

selection of songs, games and pictures. It is through the singing of songs, playing of

games, seeing and drawing the pictures

constructing of objects and figures that the child

begins to use language.

The Songs: The mother play and nursery songs

were intended to exercise the child’s senses,

limbs and muscles and to make him familiar with

the common objects around him. The fifty play

songs are each connected with some nursery

games such as ‘Hide and seek’ or some trade and

are intended to fulfill some physical, mental or

moral need of the child. The teachers determine the selection and order in accordance

with the development of the child. There are three parts in each song: -

27
 A motto for the guidance of mother or teacher.

 A verse with accompanying music.

 A picture illustrating the songs.

FROEBEL’s Gift: - For the complete education and training of children, Froebel devised

a series of gifts. The gifts comprise carefully graduated series of materials which possess

all the novelty of playthings, based on educational method. They are to train the senses

of sight and touch, to give the child an idea of size and surface, and to present him a

correct idea of number. The activities suggested for these gifts are called ‘occupations’,

the gifts are to be given to the child in a certain order. The graduation and order of gifts

is determined by the principles of development. The gifts are altogether twenty in

numbers although only the first seven are now usually called by this name.

Gift-I consists of six colored woolen balls – three in primary colors, red, yellow and

blue and three secondary colors - Orange, green and purple. The occupation consists of

rolling them about in play. Thus they develop in children the idea of color and material,

form, motion, direction and muscular activity.

Gift-II is composed of a sphere, cube and cylinder made of hard wood. In playing with

these the child notices the difference between the stability of the cube and the mobility

of sphere, both these qualities are harmonized in the cylinder.

Gift-III is a large cube divided into eight smaller equal cubes; from these the child can

build up a number of useful artistic forms such as: benches, steps, doors, bridges etc.,

and for this reason the third gift is often called the first building box. The child can also

gain elementary ideas of addition and subtraction through these.

Gift- IV consists of the large cube divided into eight oblong prisms in each of which the

length is twice the breadth and the breadth is twice the thickness. These help the child

28
to construct different kinds of buildings and patterns when combined with the third

gift.

Gift- V is very much like the third gift. It consists of a large cube divided into twenty-

seven small cubes three of which are again divided diagonally into halves and three

into halve and three into quarter. Form and number can very well be taught by the use

of these gifts.

Gift- VI is again similar to gift IV. In it is a large cube divided into eighteen whole and

nine small oblong blocks. Still further with the designs it forms it will also be useful in

teaching numbers.

Gift- VII is a set of square and triangular tablets made of very fine wood into two

colors. It provides material for

many exercises in geometrical

forms and mosaic work.

Other gifts consist of materials for

many occupations such as stick-

laying, perforating, paper-cutting,

threading of breads, mat-making,

embroidery, basket-making, wire work, drawing and modeling. The duty of the teacher,

while the gifts are being presented to the children, is not to remain passive. She has to

give an idea of the occupation to them by demonstrating the different activities.

Froebel does not ignore the second stage of development. At this stage, play is not the

most important thing. Characteristic activity of childhood, the most striking

characteristic of boy-hood is work. The most important place is given to manual work

and hand work. Manual work helps in the development of skill, creative power and

29
exercise of the muscles. He attaches spiritual importance to hand work. Gardening,

carpentry, woodwork and other subjects are included in his curriculum.

Froebel attached great importance to nature study. Nature study would result in moral

improvement, religious uplift and spiritual insight.

 Froebel was first educator to give us the idea of the kindergarten and to name the

children’s school the ‘child Garden’.

 He gave a new meaning to the concept of the school, and thus realized its

importance as an essential social institution.

According to him, the school was a place where the child should learn the important

things of life – the essentials of responsibility of truth and justice. It was to be a place

where the child should discover his own individuality and develop the power of doing

things in a social atmosphere through co-operation and mutual helpfulness.

 Froebel’s idea has influenced the modern educational practice so much that in every

country in the world today we find kindergartens -in cities, towns and villages.

 Froebel has drawn our attention to the instincts and impulses that motivates the

behavior of the child. He emphasized the necessity of studying the nature of the child

and teaching according to it. From this he drew out the great principles of teaching

through play, because play is the main instinct that directs the activities of the child.

This idea holds an important place in modern education and we find today that the

education of children is to a very great extent based on play way methods. The old

methods of dogmatism have given way to the new method: children are taught through

songs, movements, gestures, dramatization, handwork and other activities.

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 Froebel introduced a system of sense training for children because he realized that

much of the knowledge that children gain of the external world is through the sense of

sight and that of touch.

 Perhaps the most important contribution of Froebel to modern educational methods

is the many different occupations that he introduced in his kindergarten. Previously,

children were taught exactly along the same lines as adults, and for them, the school

was a very dull place where they were forced to learn things which they did not like.

But due to him many interesting occupations have been introduced for children,

because he believed that children must be taught through practical and manual

activities, that they must exercise their hands and fingers in the process of learning,

learning by doing was the motto of his school, and as a practical example of it he

introduced activities like paper-cutting, paper-folding, stick-laying, bead threading, mat

making, clay modeling and color work.

 The other subjects to which Froebel attached great importance was nature-study and

gardening. Previously these subjects were not considered essential, and no attention

was paid to them. But Froebel believed that nature-study would be of great benefit to

the child because it would bring him nearer God and enable him to understand the

world in which he lived. The child would also develop habits of observation, of careful

thought and reasoning through nature study.

Play & Play-way in Education

The modern school of thought repudiates the old idea of treating play as a matter of

levity and waste of time. Play is now regarded as an effective medium of child centered

education. It is associated with freedom and delight, which act spontaneously in the

development of a child. The term ‘play way’ was introduced by Caldwell Cook, was

31
advocated the teaching of English language through a spirit of play in the form of

discourse, debate, dramatization etc. The idea of the play way is to place everything

before the child in the form of interesting activities and objects. In fact the spirit of play

way permeates the whole structure of modern education and symbolized the essence of

all educational reforms of to-day.

The spirit of play can be utilized actual teaching in many ways like dramatization, mock

assembly and mock trial can be conveniently used in the field of teaching history and

literature. Debates and discussions cover a wide field of knowledge. Creative activities

like arts and crafts, small scale geographical exploration, collection of biological

specimens are also instances of play way. In this way the play spirit can be successfully

directed to attain knowledge in the fields like history, geography, arithmetic, literature

and so on.

The fundamental idea of play way is to remove the sharp distinction between study (or

reading) and play. Indeed both work and play exhibit some characteristics which are

definitely contradictory in nature.

 Work carries with it a sense of compulsion which is not present in play. A child

plays when and as he likes.

 Work is motivated by some unnatural or extraneous feeling. In play the child is

prompted by his natural and spontaneous urge for growth.

 Material gain like payment by money or some other valuable object plays an

important role in inducing the individual to work. But play is never influenced by and

such sense of material gain.

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 Being purely prompted by outward factors, work is apt to become mechanical and

artificial in nature. But play being the outcome of a spontaneous and inner urge of child

is always a natural process.

 Being a mechanical process and outcome of external force work produces both

physical and mental fatigue. But in play though sometimes physical fatigue appears the

individual never suffers from mental fatigue.

 The greatest difference between work and play lies in the fact that in work

satisfaction lies outside the work while in play satisfaction lies within the play. In work

the satisfaction comes only after the work is finished and some external goal is reached.

This is perhaps the most outstanding difference between work and play.

Therefore, it is seen from the above that a clear and fixed line of demarcation cannot be

drawn between work and play. The same activity can either be used as work or play

depending on the motive behind the act.

The spirit of play can be utilized in actual teaching in many ways eg. Dramatization,

mock assembly and mock trial can be conveniently used in the field of teaching history

and literature. Debates and discussions cover a wider field of knowledge.

Creative activities like arts and crafts, small scale geographical exploration, collection of

biological specimens are also instances of play way. In this way, the play-spirit can be

successfully directed to attain knowledge in the field like history, geography,

arithmetic, literature and so on. Moreover, play also has certain functions and

characteristics in the development of a child’s personality.

 Play satisfies the basic urge for activity which is inherent in every living being.

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 Play satisfies the creative urge of the individual – his basic need of expressing

himself.

 The child’s basic need for novelty and change is also satisfied.

 It is an important medium for acquiring initial experiences of life.

 It is a vital instrument for bringing about emotional integration of the child.

 It is an important instrument for satisfying many repressed and rejected wishes of

the child.

 It is a vital medium of socialization.

 It is an important medium of physical and motor development.

 It has high creative value.

These functions will confirm the immense significance of play in the life of the child, as

it is a form of vital behavior deeply embedded in the personality structure of the

individual that exert influence on almost all the Phases of life.

We can therefore enumerate the following special characteristics of play.

 Spontaneity – no pressure or curriculum is needed.

 Activity – an active expression of some inner urge or capacity of the human being.

 Creativity– the innate creative urge of the human beings finds expression through

play.

 Novelty – all play is new.

 Satisfaction – play brings some form of satisfaction to the individual.

 Self Discipline– play represents disciplined behavior but it is not forced or imposed.

The individual happily submits himself to the rules of discipline imposed on him

spontaneously.

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 Freedom -it is meaningful organization and satisfying form of behavior.

 Essential -play is always rich with new knowledge and experience.

 Growth – a child grows physically, emotionally, socially through play.

 Catharsis – directly or indirectly it acts as a vital instrument of emotional

satisfaction for the individual.

So, if we can transform education from the category or work to the category of play, the

whole face of education would be changed. This transformation of education from the

category of unpleasant and imposed work activity to the category of self-satisfaction

and spontaneous play activity is signified by the term play way, in education.

Since human beings are active by nature, it is not very difficult to employ the child in

various activities. The problem is to engage him in activities according to his taste and

learning. The underlying principles of play way are freedom, interest and

responsibility. The utility and effect of play way method in education can be

summarized as follows:-

(i) Being a free and spontaneous method, it renders teaching easy and delightful.

(ii) Since it eliminates the elements of coercion and constraint it increases the interest of

the pupil in learning.

(iii) Owing to direct experience, the effect of learning is more stabilized.

(iv) It helps the spontaneous development of the child’s personality according to his

personal taste and inclination.

The play way characterizes all progressive educational systems. Froebel’s kindergarten

method is entirely based on the play tendency in children – play activity and the

35
principles of learning by doing, play, song and movements are its chief characteristics.

Children are provided with many types of apparatus, they gain ideas of weight, size,

number, color and shape by playing with these. Of all the movements based on play

way the Montessori system has been greatly acclaimed. It is a method of self-education.

The children learn movements, sensory discrimination and judgment and also reading,

writing and arithmetic. Thus he is learning and acquiring some of the most

fundamental skills. An atmosphere of complete and unrestricted freedom surrounds

him; he is free to move about and can choose his own occupation at any particular time.

John Dewey’s experimental schools which adopted a complete activity curriculum is an

excellent example of play way approach to education. The system of basic education

evolved by Mahatma Gandhi has tried to play the entire teaching programme around

the creative activity of the learner.

Rabindranath Tagore’s dream school in the green environment of nature

(Shantiniketan) was where child’s need of freedom and urge for self expression could

attain their unhindered manifestation. All these educational systems rightly deserve the

name of play way through their success in this respect is of varying degree. The play

way in education has been depreciated by a section of educationists. They argue that

this method does not take into account the fact that the students will meet, after their

school life, things which are not interesting. In tends to take the students misfits to meet

the grim realities of the outer world. The criticism however does not hold good. Play

way not only lays stress upon light play, but it teaches to master hard things in a spirit

of play. Not only is the method pleasant but it also evokes interest of the pupil.

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To conclude, it may be said that in spite of the desirability of the play way in school

education its application in higher education is much limited. The play way is the most

effective medium of child education, having a positive effect on the school atmosphere

where the elements of coercion and restraint are eliminated. Thus helping in the

development of child’s personality.

Project Method

The project method owes its inspiration to John Dewey. Dewey’s original name for the

method was problem method. It was Dr. Kilpatrick who invented the name – Project

Method. Dr. Kilpatrick defined the project as whole hearted purposeful activity,

proceeding in a social environment. Stevenson defined project as a ‚Problematic act

carried to completion in its natural setting‛.

Implications of Project Method

The first implication of the Project method is, carrying on the activity in the natural

background of real and ordinary life. The activity of the school and the context of

education should be essentially connected with the child’s daily life.

The second implication of the project method is that the project is an act as opposed to

mere theory. The child’s instincts of manipulation, construction, collection and self

assertion are brought into play in the project method. ‚It brings the hands and the mind

in fruitful co-operation‛. Through the project method the present bookish schools can

be transformed into ‚Work schools‛ or activity schools and they can become genuine

centre of education for the whole personality of the child.

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The third implication of the project method is that it is not an ordinary act but a

problematic act, which calls forth all the faculties of the performer, both mental and

physical. The faculties of reasoning, assessing, calculating and judging are brought into

play for completing the project. The project is not the result of the thinking of others but

the particulars own thinking.

The fourth implication of the project method is that the activity involved in the project

must be purposeful and must be undertaken and affected whole heartedly. The

psychological satisfaction occurring from the child’s involvement with the project gives

it all the dynamism which keeps it going to its completion.

The fifth implication of the project method is that the back ground or the setting in

which the activity is to be carried on is a natural setting or environment. An unread or

an imaginary environment makes the activity performed against its unreal and

imaginary. Any life situation is real but an imaginary situation cannot provide inspiring

and evoking stimuli to the educand.

Lastly, the project method must be carried to completion. A work in actual life to be

worth-while must be a complete job bringing about a concrete result which is useful

and satisfying.

On the basis of the implication discussed above we may arrive at the essential principles

which are the distinctive features of this plan of activity. These are spontaneity,

purposiveness, worthwhileness, interest, completeness and social significance to the

individual participant as well as the group. All the above characteristics of the project

are the characteristics of real life activity.

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Hence the project is of great educational value to the participants.

Stages Involved in a Project.

There are distinct stages in the execution of a project. These stages are four in number

viz.:-

a) Purposing, b) Planning, c) Executing, & d) Judging.

In each of the four stages the students and the teachers contribute severally and in

varying proportions.

PURPOSING: Before a group undertakes a project it must discuss and decide the

purpose of the activity. The interest and whole hearted co-operation of each member of

the group will depend upon the nature of the activity. The teacher at this stage should

guide the group and the aim should neither be pitched too high not too childish but just

within the capabilities of the young participants.

PLANNING: Next comes planning. Planning consists in analyzing the components of

the activity and the sequence of the steps through which the activity has to be carried

on. The planning also is not a unilateral job. The teacher has to guide the participants

intelligently to help them in avoiding unnecessary or wrong steps and thus avoid

unnecessary wastage of time and energy of the worker. So the plan will be a guide plan.

EXECUTION: The third stage is execution of the project. The execution of the project is

the exclusive responsibility of the group. The teacher is the sympathetic on-looker. The

teacher is an on-looker must see that each participant contributes his share of work to

the development and execution of the project; when there is stalemate or slowing down

39
of the tempo of the activity, the teacher’s inspiration will once again put now real and

dynamism in the young workers.

JUDGING: The utility of any activity whatsoever is judged by the outcome or the net

result. It is quite likely that result achieved is below the expected result. There might

have been mistakes and imperfections. The appraised or evaluation of the ultimate

result of the project demands critical outlook and a reasoning attitude on the part of the

participants. It would be a self-evaluation primarily but here again the role of the

teacher is not insignificant. The teacher is a better appraiser of the net result of the

project and points out sympathetically the defects and the lapses. His suggestions will

help the participants to perform better in future conclusion.

Though the entire curriculum may not or should not be organized on the project plan,

the spirit of this method can be brought to bear upon the teaching of different subjects.

Moreover, the educationally rich potentialities of the method cannot be realized by

inexperienced teachers who have not been initiated into the technique of this activity

method.

Unambitious class-room projects may however be attempted by every subject teachers

with a definite objective and a not-too-much-analytic procedure which will satisfy the

principles of activity education and play way in the otherwise hum drum tradition

bound bookish instruction in the class-room which indeed is the order of the day.

40
ROUSSEAU

Rousseau was a great educator of the 18th Century. His

philosophy goes by the term ‚Naturalism‛ – meaning a

natural state or a natural man. He believed that a child is

born good but is spoiled by the hand of society and

environment. For this he said that he must be left in a

state of nature rather than his artificial surroundings

that stunt his growth and natural development. He

wanted to educate child for manhood, and not for

citizenship. The growth must be in a natural

surrounding according to his nature.

Meaning of Nature

Nature according to Rousseau was of 2 kinds – the Inner Man and the Outer World. The

natural man of Rousseau’s conception was a fully developed man enjoying social life,

without the prejudices of the society; reason being the only guiding factor. The catch

words of Rousseau’s ‚Naturalism‛ were freedom, growth, in interest and activity. He

gave a 3 fold meaning of ‚Nature‛:

 Isolation from Society: Children must be saved from the evil influences of society.

Education to prevent the child from artificiality.

 Instinctive make-up of the Child: This means the native instincts, tendencies and

capacities of the child. Growth must be in keeping with his natural impulses. Education

is a development from within.

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 Contact with Natural Phenomena: Education to be conducted in an atmosphere of

natural surroundings. One taught in a natural environment becomes a natural man. He

follows nature and obeys the voice of his own conscience.

Rousseau said man is educated from 3 sources:-

1. Nature 2. Man and 3. Things.

He said that harmonious development of these 3 factors together help in the making of

a child.

Aims of Education:

Rousseau believed that education was a lifelong process, a development from within

and not any imposition from outside. He professed:-

 Balanced Harmonious Development: The child must live his life. The aim of

education was the attainment of fullest natural growth, using all our organs in a natural

way.

 Physical Development: From birth to age of give the aim of education is to develop a

well regulated physique, for which he recommends physical education in an

atmosphere of freedom.

 Training of Organs and Senses: Physical training and training of the sense organs to

be developed in an atmosphere of freedom.

 Intellectual Development: From twelve to fifteen years the period of intellectual

development will centre round instruction, labor and study. The subject of study

recommended is physical science, language, mathematics, history and geography.

 Social, Moral and Spiritual Development: From 15 – 20 years child must be trained

to love and to develop social relationships. During this period religious, moral and

social education is needed.

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Method of Teaching:

Rousseau was against the harsh unsympathetic methods which represses the natural

inclinations of a child.

 Direct Experiences: He advocated simple and direct methods -‚Objects before

words‛, ‚Experiences before expression‛ are to be followed. The child to be taught by

experience alone.

 Learning by doing: Bookish knowledge should be as little as possible. All

knowledge to be given through the experiences he encounters.

 Play-way Method: Rousseau advocated the play-way method. His game would be

his work. The world will be his book, and facts to be his instructions. Senses to be our

guides.

 Teaching through Concrete objects : Method of teaching depended upon 2 factors -

a) Subjects to be taught and b) the age of the pupils.

Subjects should be developed in suitable way, requiring suitable lines of development.

Every subject and every age demanded new methods of teaching. A child is to be

shown concrete objects rather than abstract ideas.

Role of a Teacher

Rousseau’s teacher assumes a very minor place in the educational process. He is not an

instructor but a guide. His main responsibility is to motivate the child to learn. This is to

be done by exploring the nature of the child. Teacher must know the child well and be

able to control his emotional behaviors. He must not impose any roles on the child. He

must guarantee him total freedom.

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Women’s Education

Rousseau does not advocate the same type of education for women. They are basically

different, the duty of women is to bring her up, counsel him and make his life pleasant.

They do not need literary training but house-keeping, sewing, embroidery and religious

faith. Women must be trained to be a suitable companion of man. These are the duties

of women for life, for which she must be given training from young age.

Rousseau’s Negative Education

Rousseau believes that child degenerates in the hand of man. For this he spoke of

negative education which means that even if we cannot teach the child to be virtuous

must guard him against vice and error.

Chief Features of Negative Education:

 No time to be wasted: No time is to be wasted in his childhood. This is the time

which he should active himself and thereby reconstruct his experiences which in turn

becomes his knowledge.

 No bookish learning: He felt that readymade materials in books are of little

advantage. They are to gain knowledge through their own efforts and experiences.

 No habit formation: Children not to be made slaves of rigid habits. Natural habits to

be formed in his childhood.

 No social education: In his time society was corrupt to the core. For this, they must

be kept away till they developed a power of reasoning and judgment so that they are in

a position to save them from the society.

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 No direct moral education: Child must never be taught morals. Child must be left to

know and learn the right and wrong by the consequences of his own actions. No

punishment to be given to the child and no pardon to be expected. As he is not exposed

to vices, he will never do wrong.

 No formal discipline: Children must suffer natural consequences of their actions

without the intervention of human beings to protect or punish, and in this way they will

set themselves right.

 No traditional procedure of education: The stereotype procedure to be abandoned

that of making the child learn by heart he must know to use his knowledge.

Rousseau’s Emile:

Emile is the name of an

imaginary boy who receives

education according to nature

under Rousseau’s care. The

purpose of writing this book

is to show that if education is

given in the right manner

then one can be brought

closer to nature. ‚Emile‛ is

divided into four parts, each

part dealing with that specific education. The first four parts are discussed in the aims

of education. The fifty part deals with an imaginary girl called ‚Sophie‛ who later

married Emile, whose education has already been discussed.

45
Its Importance: Emile is a book of great richness, power and wisdom. In this book

Rousseau advocated freedom for the child, respect for his individuality, and faith in his

goodness, proper regard for his natural interests and inclinations, motivations play way

and recreational activities. In ‚Emile‛ we observe all that we are doing, the manner in

which we train the child, and the secret way in which the blossoming of the personality

takes place.

ROSSEAU’S Educational Contributions:

 He discovered and recognized the childhood traits :

It was he who stressed that need of education should start with the child as the base. It

should cater to the child’s needs, interests, inclinations, tendencies, impulses, instincts

and his nature.

 The arbiter of educational psychology:

Previous psychologists thought the mind to be a bundle of faculties, which led to the

emphasis of a fixed curriculum. The child was considered to be miniature adult.

Rousseau spoke of individual differences and laid importance on native interests and

tendencies. Thus education become child centered.

 New methods of teaching:

In place of traditional subjects, he recommended play way and activity methods. He

showed a value of motivation, of creating problems and of utilizing the sense and

activities of the child.

 He emphasized concrete objects:

Rousseau was against note learning or memorizing without understanding. Education

must be based on judgment and reasoning which only comes from first hand

experiences. Thus he said that children to be taught through concrete objects.

46
 System of free discipline:

Rousseau was against forced punishment which destroys the originality and intellectual

development. Through actual life experience he will receive rewards and punishments.

There must be non-interference in their activity.

 Sociological emphasis:

Introduction of manual arts, vocational training, and emphasis on moral, emotional

training shows he reoriented the traditional system for a sociological basis.

Thus is conclusion, we may say that Rousseau’s contribution in the field of education is

beyond words. His philosophy, his theories, his principles all speak of naturalistic

tendency in educating a child. He is thus rightly called the father of modern education.

JOHN DEWEY (1859 - 1952)

John Dewey was a pragmatist. To him education is the

development of all those capacities in the individual which

will enable him to control his environment and fulfill his

faculties. Dewey laid a greater emphasis on experiences

which are socialized. To him, the school should be life and

not a preparation for life. Education should be imparted in

such a way as to enable them to face the problem of real

life.

The process of education has two aspects: Psychological and Sociological. Of the two,

psychological element is the basis of education. It is concerned with the innate powers

and instincts of the child. The study of education should be framed in accordance with

the interest and natural tendencies of the pupil.

47
The sociological aspect is also very important. For the aim of sociology, education

should be to create an atmosphere by active participation in which the child may take

part in the social consciousness of the race. The knowledge of social consciousness is for

the proper modification of the powers and personalities of the children. The child

develops his conduct, habits, character only by living within the society.

According to Dewey, education should aim at the stipulation of the child’s powers

through the social medium. Its function is to help growing of helpless young animal

into a happy, moral and efficient human being. Education is needed for living a social

and happy life. The school should be planned in such a way as to help the pupils to

realize some educative purpose. The primary function of the school will be to co-

ordinate the diverse influences of the various social environments – family, workshop,

religious organization into which the child enters. Education also controls and guides

the inborn propensities of the child. But all these should be directed in socially desirable

ways. Dewey considered experience as the basis of education for it brings about the

developments of human personality of mind.

Dewey’s conception of education was manifested in the form of an ideal school known

as laboratory school at Chicago in 1896. Here no school subjects in the conventional

sense were taught. The originality of this school was in the form of play and manual

occupations related to life such as shop work with wood and tools, cooking, sewing,

weaving etc.

48
Dewey considered the school as a psychological and social necessity for it secures

continuity in the growth of a child. The purpose of the school should be to train

children in co-operation and mutually useful living.

Dewey’s ideal school will not cut the child off from the home. It will gradually grow out

of the home life. It will preserve continue and rebuild the activities with which the child

is familiar in the home. In fact, school should be an enlarged family in which the

discipline the child receives more or less accidentally at home is contained in a more

perfect from with better equipment and more scientific guidance. Dewey would like his

school to be a genuine community like the home where the pupils are engaged in

common pursuits and educative experiences.

According to Dewey, curriculum should reflect the social life to of the child and his

social activities. It should not be rigid. The curriculum must be framed on the basis of

the interest and tendencies of the child. Again the curriculum should follow the

progressive organization of knowledge consisting of educative experiences and

problems. Further, Dewey viewed that subjects in the curriculum should be constructed

according to their importance in practical life. The difficult subjects should not be

presented as distinct by studies but as types of the processes by which the society keeps

itself going.

Dewey was of the opinion that child is the centre of education. His views on method are

in line with his pragmatic philosophy. So the method of teaching should be based on

learning by doing activity, purpose and connection with the life of the child.

49
Dewey found the prevailing conceptions of discipline defective. Therefore he laid

greater emphasis on the social discipline for it leads to character training. Dewey was of

the opinion that the innate tendencies of the child can be flourished only in the society.

Hence the discipline and conduct of the child should be developed according to the

needs of the society. The primary responsibility of the school is to create a social

atmosphere to maintain discipline. According to Dewey, the main purpose of discipline

is the cultivation in the pupils of social attitudes and social habits through the joint

activities in the school which has to be organized like a society.

Dewey believed that education is the mirror of the democratic way of life. He believed

in democracy both for the teacher and the pupil. He also believed that a democratic

system of education will develop the personality and capability of the child which are

moral and self direction. He rejected the idea that child’s mind should act according to

dictates from outside. Several criticisms have been leveled against Dewey’s conception

of education:-

 The philosophy of education laid down by Dewey is not true.

 Education has a purpose of its own, but Dewey did not believe it.

 Dewey’s views on education are not useful for women.

 His philosophy of education is materialistic.

However, we must not forget that Dewey has exerted a great influence in the field of

education. His educational contributions are-

 Pragmatism in education.

 Social efficiency as a basis aim of education.

 Sociology in education.

 Importance on the experiences of the child.

 Close contact between society and school.

50
 The doctrine of evolution applied to child study.

In short, Dewey has brought education more in accordance with the actualities of

present day life and placing the general principle that both philosophy and education

should reflect main currents of contemporary thought.

RABINDRANATH TAGORE

Rabindranath Tagore was born on the 6th of May

1861. He was the youngest son of Maharshi

Devendranath Tagore. He belonged to the Brahmo

Samaj. He was a philosopher and a poet. He was

an educationist, a dramatist, and a novelist too. He

loved humanity and humanism. He was a

versatile genius whose multi-faceted personality

reached to the masses across the globe. Tagore’s

general philosophy: Tagore was a naturalist and

an individualist. He believed that every man must be given the freedom to develop

according to his natural endowments, in his own way. He stood for universal

brotherhood. He was convinced that humanism embraces different cultures. He

stressed the need of spiritual powers and divine potentialities.

Educational Philosophy: Tagore ignored the traditional bookish way of educating a

child. He considered these educational institutions as ‚lifeless educational factories

which does not have any connection with the outer nature‛. According to him, man’s

inner nature must come into contact with his outer nature for his best development.

There are four main principles of his educational philosophy:-

51
 Freedom: Freedom to be given to every child to help them to express their outbursts,

feelings, impulse and instincts. He must learn spontaneously. For Tagore, freedom

meant free activity of the body and mind, through which he will gather his own

experiences. Children with freedom will gather their own knowledge from their own

environment.

 Creative Self-expression: Intellectual development is not only prime development,

as man cannot express everything through language. His emotions and senses must

develop simultaneously. Sounds and movements are essential for the satisfaction of his

aesthetic urge and creative self-expression. For this he introduced art, craft, music,

drawing in his curriculum. These help a child in his spontaneous unfolding of his

potentialities, the body and the mind develops skillfully.

 Active Communication with Nature.

He said education must take place in the open air which will help him to develop

intimacy with nature. Education must enable a person to realize his immediate

relationship with nature. Nature, in its entire splendor helps man in the manifestation

of his innate powers.

 Internationalism.

Tagore was true cosmopolitan being. He believed in the unity amongst diversity of

races. He found co-operation and international understanding very important for one’s

harmonious development. This found expression in the creation of Shantiniketan.

ALL AIM

Education must see to the harmonious development of personality with a morally

tuned character. It must aim at making the pupil familiar with the conditions of real life

and habitual environment; physically strong body to be obtained through free

52
environment in joyous surroundings. Education must aim at the perfect synthesis of all

endowments and all races.

METHOD

He stressed the movement of the whole body in various learning activity. He followed

the activity principle, learning to take place through constructive and creative work.

They must express immediately what they have learnt. All work to be done in joy. He

emphasized the importance of curiosity, interest and a spirit of play. To him education

to be conducted on realistic lines reflecting the actual surroundings. Knowledge is to be

acquired through independent effort and thinking.

CURRICULUM

Tagore opposed purely academic

curriculum. He gave a new

orientation of education through

music, art etc. All these will help him

in self-expression. He set a high

value on creativity. He said science

to be taught for the material

contribution for the country’s

progress. He said history as a study

of cultural legacy. World’s history encourages accommodating heritage of all children.

Teaching must be through the mother tongue. English is taught at a higher stage for

53
European literature. Manual training must be given. Curriculum must satisfy his

creative, aesthetic urge.

MAHATMA GANDHI

Gandhi was born on the 2nd October at Porbander. Amongst the contemporary

philosophers he stands supreme. His philosophy is both deep and wide. He has entered

the depths of human heart and traversed extensively through the field of life, from

virtue to vice from life to death. He was a versatile philosopher cum statesman. Some of

his prominent philosophical doctrines are: Belief in God, truth, love, ahimsa and

brotherhood of man.

Main Aspects of his Philosophy:-

Gandhi believed in the ultimate reality and supreme ruler who holds, creates, dissolves

and recreates the world.

 Realization of God: Gandhi firmly believed that the goal of life was to realize God.

He said there is an intimate connection between matter and spirit.

 Truth: Truth is the highest goal. Truth manifests itself both externally and internally.

It expresses itself through conscience. He applied truth in daily behavior. Truthfulness

in world and also in thought is important. For the sake of self realization one has to

combat evil and seek truth. Truth is the same as reality.

 Love: He possessed insatiable love for mankind. It is through love that we can attain

truth. He said truth, love and God are all same. In fact the whole political and social

revolution that he started was because of his love for humanity.

54
 Ahimsa: Ahimsa is a positive attitude of tolerance, patience, self-sacrifice and

suffering. Non-violence is more effective that violence. It is a triumph of the moral

principle over force. Non-violence shakes the opponents will and destroys his will.

Non-violence purifies the spirit. He can lead an austere life.

 Satyagraha: The application of Ahimsa is Satyagraha. It is a method of securing a

right by personal suffering and not by inflicting injury on others.

 Gandhi’s Social Philosophy :

Gandhi realized the various maladies of the society. He discovered class distinction

between capitalists and laborers, urban and rural, high and low castes, educated and

un-educated, have and have-nots. He found exploitation was rampant. He educated

administrative officers exploited in the masses. Our Indian culture, our moral code, our

idealism, our tradition, social system was receding in the background under the fast

growing glamour of western culture. English culture dominated the lives of the

educated. An Indian was foreigner in his land. The pupils were deprived of the social

heritage of the nation. The dream of Macaulay was being fulfilled slowly but steadily.

 Brotherhood: He stood for brotherhood of mankind. He despised all the artificial

barriers of caste, creed, birth religion, wealth and power, raised an alarm against

untouchability and preached a common religion. He believed, in the equal opportunity

for all.

 Citizenship: He wanted to recreate a society in which the government must

guarantee freedom, justice and fraternity for all. One must be trained to be a useful

citizen, shouldering the responsibility and fulfilling his social duties.

55
 Economic Equality: Gandhi despised industrialization which created an economic

disparity. He advocated decentralization of capital promotion of village industries,

distributing wealth among the masses, encouraging small scale industry, absence of

competition, co-operation and encouragement of the native skill of the craftsmen.

AIMS OF EDUCATION:

 All round development: The aim of education is to be an all round drawing out of

the best in child-body, mind and spirit. All round development: physical, mental,

intellectual aesthetic, moral and spiritual is the true goal of national education. Aim of

education is to train in citizenship one must know the working of the Panchayat.

 Character Building: He introduced craft to encourage the dignity of labor, self-

sufficiency and to break down the existing barriers of prejudices between the

intellectuals and manual workers. Character building is not from out-side, but inner

restraints from within. Self-restraint is a virtue that separates us from the brute.

 Self-sufficient: He signalized economic self-sufficiency as one of the most important

fruit of good education. He wanted the pupils to learn native professions – agriculture

and cottage industry. Craft based education would bring economic prosperity and

enable them to choose their own livelihood and enable them to be useful members of

the society.

 Cultural Development: Education must impart culture and native heritage. Culture

must be reflected through speech and other behavior partners. Education must transmit

the age old spiritual traditions of one’s own land.

 Social uplift and welfare: Education must be based on social good, welfare for all.

Manual work and craft work will ensure dignity of labor. Community activities will

56
foster co-operation and good-will. There will be no class distinction and education will

be related to life.

CURRICULUM:

Education is to be related to the child’s environment. Emphasis is to be given to all

those subjects which concern our own country, our people. He emphasized mother-

tongue to English. English hindered understanding, obstructed clarity of thought and

checked self-expression. Crafts are to be an essential part of the curriculum. It was to be

the medium of instruction. Craft based education will eradicate social class distinctions

check the decay of villages, and earn their own living. Craft based education will see to

the principle of co-operative activity, individual responsibility, initiative, accuracy and

emotional catharsis.

Method of Teaching:

 Co-relation: He wanted knowledge to be co-related with craft. This promotes self

activity and self experiences. All knowledge to be co-related with one another.

 Teaching through craft: Education must be self supporting. Manual training must

produce articles which are saleable. Craft must be productive so as to help one to

survive on his own.

 Learning by living : Learning should emerge not only by doing, but also be living

and self-experience for this be recommended manual work, play productive activities

and social services as essential parts of teaching.

 Free and compulsory education: Gandhi wanted free and compulsory primary

education with the ages 7 – 14 for the Indian masses, this conception of elementary

57
education was up to matriculation minus English. He advocated that the state should

shoulder the responsibility of school education and should finance it.

Religious and Moral education

The effective means of development of personality and character is the study of one’s

religion. He emphasized self-sacrifice, social service and Ahimsa. He recommended

instructions in the universal essentials of religion and training in the fundamental

values. Gandhi wanted that all children must respect all religions and show a spirit of

religious tolerance.

 Women’s education: He believed that education is more effectively handled by

women then by men. For this he said mothers are to be educated. Education of women

must be on equal grounds with men. Along with 3R’s women must receive education in

domestic affairs, upbringing of children, nursing, cleanliness and hygiene.

Wardah Scheme of Basic education

Gandhi’s fight for freedom reached great heights when he advocated his scheme of

basic education. He used this as a weapon against the British to free India against them.

This was a part of his non-violence movement. The outstanding features are given

below:-

 Free compulsory education for all from age 7 – 14.

 Craft as the centre of education.

 Self supporting education.

 Mother tongue as the medium.

 Non-violence cult.

 Ideal of citizenship.

58
 Co-operative living.

The syllabus includes the basic craft, mother tongue, mathematics, social studies and

general sciences. In the fourth and fifth grade girls must learn domestic science.

Drawing and music is compulsory for both. The main procedure for teaching is co-

relation. The subject matter must be co-related with craft work, life problems as well as

the social and physical environment of the child. Gandhi implicated this scheme as a

silent rebuke to the British, but this system did not work out to be very fruitful as it was

not implemented properly. The scheme was not given a very fair deal.

Gandhi acted as a spearhead of educational renaissance in India. His philosophy was

deep-rooted in Indian idealism and spiritualism. He criticized English system of

education and endeavored to build a national system suited to the natives. He respected

manual work and stood for learning by doing. He started the Wardha scheme as a set

up independent educational Institution. He took education beyond books. Gandhi was

a politician educationist. He was a religious philosopher. India called him, ‚THE

FATHER OF THE NATION‛ for his tremendous contribution towards his countrymen.

THE TEACHER

Teacher and her qualifications-

In the traditional system of education, the teacher was a hard task master, a strict

disciplinarian. Unquestioned obedience was demanded from the students by the

teacher. The relationship between the teacher and the taught was that of a tyrannical

master and timid servant, the ruler and the ruled.

59
Diametrically opposite to this traditional idea is the view that the child is the only

significant factor in education and the teacher has very little power to influence his

educational growth, as it is a natural process by all means. Education is development

from within; it is a process of spontaneous, self-expression of the unfolding of latent

powers towards perfection. To quote Pestalozzi, ‚In the new born child are hidden

those faculties which are to unfold during life... He only takes care that no untoward

influence shall disturb nature’s march of development‛. Just as a gardener is merely a

creator of conditions to ensure the natural growth of the plant, so also the teacher is

only a superintendent, a setter of stage, never interfering directly with the spontaneous

self activity and natural development of the child.

The teacher imparts knowledge, disciplines the mental tendencies and abilities of the

child, foster her spontaneous growth guides her to educational goals and influences the

formation of a child’s personality and character. The modern idea is that the relation

between the two should be one of mutual love, sympathy and understanding. The

teacher is the active agent to develop the child’s thinking, reasoning, imagination,

practical efficiency, emotional integration and social adjustment. It is she who, by the

beneficial influence of her personality and by proper guidance, forms the wholesome

character of the child. Under her affectionate, care the child develops into a worthy

individual. She must have some specific qualifications:

 The teacher must be a person of perfect mental health and that she should be free

from feelings of the sense of frustration, jealously, worries and extreme introversion,

free from phobias etc.

 Cheerful, affectionate, calm and peaceful appearance.

 Not be physically deformed.

60
 Should be alert - quickness of perception through eyes and ears.

 Should have a sweet tone, low but clearly audible voice, perfect articulation and

intonation.

 Free from any mannerisms.

 Decent and be simple in her dress.

Intellectual Factors:

 Intellectually the teacher must exhibit characteristic tastes and refinement, the broad

outlook.

 Must be a person of sound academic background, should have knowledge ranging

far and wide.

 Should have the power of free and critical thinking, reasoning and judgment,

creative imagination, originality and adaptability.

Personality Factors:

 Emotionally she should be a person of perfect self-control, never be un-balanced.

 As a parent substitute, she should possess patience, tolerance, a sense of proportion

and an equable temper.

 Should be loving, affectionate and co-operative.

 Should be true in her own duties and sincere in her dealings.

 Out and out an optimist.

 Impartial and fair in the treatment of children.

 Should have objective and realistic outlook.

 Should be sincere and of good nature.

61
 Have a strong common sense and presence of mind, adaptability and genuine

interest and faith in the young learners.

 Noble principles and aims, values and morals, a satisfying philosophy of life should

be the chief characteristics of the teacher’s personality. She must possess a morally

sound character.

 As an embodiment of all virtues, she must not be isolated from other members of the

society. Sociability is the principal trait of personality. Thus a teacher must be a person

of the highest type of citizenship, broad in social mindedness and sound in her

philosophy of life. Socially she must not shut herself off from the real currents of wider

social life. Above all, she must be out an out a nationalist with international

understanding and sympathy.

 A teacher should be conversant with the principles of educational psychology and

sociology, finding of modern experimental pedagogy history and development of

educational theory and practice modern trends and current problems, elements of

educational organization and administration, scientific and psychological methods of

teaching and supervision, health education and with the principles and techniques of

teaching and guiding students in the class.

A teacher is born as well as made, and born teacher, if there be any, are made better by

professional training. In a word, being a friend, philosopher and guide of her students,

a teacher must have balanced personality, impartial attitude with sound knowledge.

HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY EDUCATION

We can study the history of development of primary education in India in TWO parts: -

 Primary education before the commencement of the system of the compulsory

education and

62
 Compulsory Primary education.

 Primary education before the commencement of the system of compulsory Primary

education :

From 1757 to 1813 : After the battle of Plassey (1757) the East India Company started its

campaign of expanding its empire and from that time a new Phase started in the history

of Indian education. Although by that time, condition of Indian education has become

miserable because of the widespread discontent and anarchy, yet there was a net-work

of educational institutions in the whole of India, which had become a part of social and

cultural life of the people. There were about one lakh education institutions in Bengal

only. But the British crushed and completely shattered the Indian education in order to

establish their trade monopoly and political ownership.

From 1813 to 1854: The modern educational system was started in India by the

Christian Missionaries. They built up Primary, Secondary and higher educational

institutions. Indian education was disregarded and ignored under the rule of East India

Company. The Charter of 1813 provided that at least one lakh rupees was to be spent

every year on the revival of Indian literature and expansion of scientific studies, but

even this amount, which was not at all sufficient for so vast population could not be

properly used for a period of 10 years. From 1824, some amount was sanctioned for

education but it could not fulfill the needs of the education of the education of the

Indians.

From 1854 to 1857: It was accepted in Wood’s dispatch of 1854 that the education of the

common people had been completely ignored and disregarded. Wood’s dispatch

63
therefore, suggested that provision should be made to impart practical and useful

education to the common people. The number of primary schools should be increased.

Native schools should be encouraged through grant-in-aid system. But the officials of

East India Company ignored the primary education and spent more money on

secondary and higher education. Consequently, the primary education could not make

any progress.

From 1857 to 1882: Stanley’s Dispatch of 1850 recommended that the government of

India should take up the responsibility of primary education and advised that the

government should improve local taxes to bear the expenditure of education.

Consequently, primary education made some progress during this period.

From 1882 to 1905: According to recommendations of Indian education Commission of

1882, the management of primary education was transferred to the local institutions.

This new system undoubtedly led to some progress but it cannot be called satisfactory.

The real position was this that by transferring the responsibility of primary education to

the local institutions, the government wanted to get rid of this responsibility. Lord

Curzon, the Governor General of India, admitted that primary education was so far

ignored and disregarded by the government. He wrote, ‚I am one of those who think

that government has not fulfilled its duty in this respect‛.

Lord Curzon did praiseworthy works in the field of increasing the number of primary

schools and in raising their teaching standards. But the partition of Bengal led to wide-

spread discontentment and dissatisfaction among the people and his services in the

field of education could not be taken into consideration decided to launch the National

64
movement. This movement created consciousness among a turn from this period and

advances towards the stage of compulsory primary education.

Compulsory Primary education:

Early efforts: Although no solid efforts were made till the beginning of 20th century in

regard to compulsory primary education, yet some of the British, who were the lovers

of education, were inspired to work in the field of intellectual and social development.

Some important suggestions were made in regard to compulsory primary education.

Baptist Missionary, William Adam was the first of such liberal persons. Revenue Survey

Commission of Bombay, Capt. Wingale and Educational Inspector of Gujarat and T.C

Hope were the other prominent British who suggested the provision of compulsory

primary education, but unfortunately, the British rulers did not pay any need to their

suggestions were completely ignored.

Efforts of Indian Leaders: The National movement, which was gaining momentum

slowly and gradually, was bringing about the consciousness among the Indians. The

field of education was also influenced by this movement. Educated Indians, prominent

among them being Sir Chimma La. Sitalvad and Sir Ibrahim Rahimuttullah started the

movement to take the provision of compulsory education. Since then movement was

limited to Bombay province only it influenced only the government of Bombay and in

order to investigate the utility of compulsory education in Bombay city a committee

was appointed in 1906 but unfortunately, this committee arrived at a conclusion that the

provision of the compulsory primary education would not be proper because of the

people were not prepared for it.

65
First successful experiment of Compulsory education in Baroda:

The King of Baroda, Maharaj Sayaji Rao Gaekawad had the credit of making the first

successful experiment of compulsory education in India. Liberal minded and

educational lover, king of Baroda declared in 1892 that there would be compulsory

primary education in a Taluk of Amarili city, consisting of 9 villages in his state. All the

boys from 7 to 12 years of age and all the girls from 7 to 10 years age were to receive

education in primary schools.

The provision was started from November 18, 1893 and met with such an astonishing

success that it was extended to 52 villages of the said Taluk . Thereafter, primary

education was made compulsory for all the children of the state by the Act of 1906.

Efforts of Gokhale: Being inspired with the feeling of nationalism, Gopal Krishna

Gokhale, presented as resolution in the imperial legislative assembly in regard to

primary education. The resolution suggested the start of the efforts for making primary

education free and compulsory throughout India. On being assured by the government

to consider over the said resolution Gokhale withdrew of giving practical form to its

assurance. After seeing the attitude of the government towards the primary education,

Gopal Krishna Gokhale submitted a bill in 191, in the imperial legislative assembly in

regard to primary education. The bill aimed to implement the principle of compulsory

primary education could be started by seeking prior consent of the local councils of

their areas where a definite number of children from 6 to 10 years of age were receiving

education. But the efforts of Gokhale could not succeed. His bill was strongly opposed

in the imperial legislative assembly, and was defeated by 38 to 13 votes on March 9,

1892.

66
Compulsory Education Act: Being inspired by the efforts of Gokhale, another great

leader Vitthal Bhai Patel presented a bill in the provincial legislative assembly of

Bombay. The aim of this bill was to introduce compulsory education in the municipal

areas of the province. The said bill became an act on 1918 and was called Bombay

Primary Education Act. This was the first pioneer of the revolution in the field of

education. Consequently by the year 1930 almost all the provinces passed the acts in

regard to compulsory primary education. According to these acts responsibility of

primary education was entrusted to the local institutions. It was the responsibility of

these institutions to implement the provinces of these acts. These institutions were also

empowered to impose education in order to meet the expenditure to be incurred on

education. The provincial government also promised financial help to meet the

expenditure of the education. Only those boys and girls who were ordinarily between

the ages 6 to 7 years could take benefit of the provision of compulsory education.

Expansion of Compulsory Education: As a result of compulsory education acts and the

feeling of nationalism, the expansion of compulsory education received an impetus.

Under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi women also demanded their rights. They

organized All India Women Educational Conference in 1927 and demanded the right of

receiving education equal to those of men. The efforts of Mahatma Gandhi and Dr.

Ambedkar not only brought about consciousness among the Harijans but they also

went a long way to expand the education. Because of the efforts of these great leaders,

the people started taking interest in primary education. Fortunately for India, the

organization of the provincial education came into the hands of Indian ministers in 1912

and government contributed much for the expansion of primary education.

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This progress of compulsory education continued till 1930 but thereafter from 1931 –

1937 development of compulsory education received a set-back.

There were two main reasons for this. The first cause of this setback was the worldwide

economic depression, which also influenced India. Hence, it was quiet natural that the

expensive schemes of compulsory education were postponed. Secondly, the Hartog

Committee which was appointed in 1927 emphasized that instead of aiming the

quantitative increase primary education should be given to the qualitative progress of

primary education and the policy of consolidation of education should be followed. In

spite of great opposition of the people, the government implemented the suggestion of

the Committee, which brought about a setback in the expansion of compulsory

education.

At the time of provincial autonomy in 1937, congress ministers were formed in 6 out of

11 provinces. The congress made vigorous efforts to expand compulsory primary

schools in those provinces. They established primary schools in those villages, where

there were no primary schools. Local institutions were given additional grants so that

they could meet the expenditure in making the primary education compulsory. Girl’s

schools were also opened at the places where people demanded it. These efforts of the

congress ministers led to a great expansion of compulsory education. By the time of

independence was achieved provision had been made for compulsory education of

boys in 229 cities and 10,017 villages and for girls in 10 cities and 1404 villages.

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Compulsory Education in independent India: The independent India felt the great need

for expanding education at all stages and especially at the stage of primary education.

Therefore the National Government took active and sincere steps to make the primary

education free universal and compulsory. The principle of compulsory education was

declared through Article 45 of the Constitution of India. It was also made clear that this

education would be basic type. On this basis, Board of National Education was

established. Our government has been making vigorous efforts to expand compulsory

primary education in all corners of the country.

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